Wave Optics

WAVE OPTICS
WAVE FRONT:
A wave front is defined as continuous locus of all particles of a medium , which are vibrating in the same
phase.
(In other words) It is defined as the locus of points having a zero or constant phase difference.

Source of light sends out disturbance in all directions. In homogenous medium , velocity of
light of light wave in all direction is same. Therefore disturbance reaches in same time, at all
such particles, which are same distance from the source. These particles will naturally
vibrate in phase with one another. The locus of all such particles is being called the wave
front.
Depending on the shape of source of light ,wave front can be of three types:
(i) Spherical Wave Front :When the source of light is a point source , the wave front is a sphere with
centre at the source.
(ii) Cylindrical Wave Front: When the source of light is linear (e.g: a slit) all the points equidistant from
the source lie on a cylinder .Therefore , the wave front is cylindrical.
(iii) Plane Wave Front: When the point source or linear source of light is at every large distance small
portion of spherical or cylindrical wave form appears to be plane. Such wave front is called plane
wave front.

Spherical Wave Front Cylindrical Wave Front Plane Wave Front

In a given medium, we can draw a set of straight lines which are perpendicular to wave front .According to
Huygens, these straight lines are the ray of light. Thus rays are normal to the wave front. According to Huygens ,
light energy flows along rays.
Fig. represent wave front and rays of light corresponding to (a)Plane wave front, (b)Converging Spherical wave
front & (c) Diverging Spherical wave front.

(a) (b) (c)

HUYGEN’S PRINCIPLE:
1. Every point on the given wave front (called primary wave front)acts as a source of new disturbance ,
called secondary wavelets ,which travel in all direction with velocity of light in the medium.

2. A surface touching these secondary wavelets tangentially in the forward direction at any instant gives
the new wave front at that instant. This is called secondary wave front.

1
 Wave Optics

Using Huygens constructions draw a figure showing the propagation of a plane wave reflecting at the interface of the
two media. Show that the angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection.REFLECTION ON THE BASIS OF WAVE
THEORY:

AB is a plane wave front incident on the plane mirror M1M2 at <BAA’=<i

1,2,3 are the are corresponding incident rays perpendicular to AB.

According to Huygens principle , every point on AB is the source of secondary wavelets .

Let the secondary wavelets from B strike M1M2 at A’ in t seconds,

Therefore, BA’ =ct Where ‘c’ is the velocity of light

The secondary wavelets from A will travel the same distance ‘ct’ in the same time.
Therefore, with A as centre and ct as the radius , draw an arc B’ .

so that, AB’ = ct
From A’ , draw a tangent plane A’B’ touching the spherical arc tangentially at B’ . Therefore , A’B’ is the secondary
wave front after t seconds.
This would advance in the direction of rays 1’,2’,3’, which are corresponding to reflected rays perpendicular to
A’B’.
We can show that secondary wavelets starting from any other point D on the incident wavefront AB, must reach
the point D’ on A’B’, after reflection P, and that too, in the same time as the secondary wavelets take to go from
B to A’. Hence A’B’ is true reflected wave front.
2
 Wave Optics

In the fig,
Angle of incidence, i = <BAA’
Angle of reflection, r=<B’A’A
In ΔAA’B and ΔAA’B’ , AA’ is common, BA’ = AB’ =ct & <A’BA =<AB’A’ =90°

Therefore , ΔAA’B & ΔAA’B’ are congruent

<BAA’ =<B’A’A

i. e, <i =<r Which is the law of reflection.

Using Huygens construction of wave front, explain the refraction of a plane wave front at a plane surface and hence
verify Snell’s law.
If v1 ,v2 are the velocities of rarer medium and denser medium respectively, XY is the separation between the two

medium.
𝒗
By definition , Refractive Index, n21= 𝟏
𝒗𝟐
AB is the plane wave front incident on XY at <BAA’ =<i.
1, 2, 3 are the corresponding incident rays normal to AB.According to Huygens’s principle, every point on AB is a
source of secondary wavelets.Let the secondary wavelets from B strike XY at A’ in time t seconds,

Therefore, BA’ =V1t

The secondary wavelets from A travels in the denser medium with a velocity v 2 and would cover a distance ,v2t in
t seconds. Therefore, with A as centre and radius equal to v2t, draw an arc B’. From A’ , draw a tangent plane
touching the spherical are tangentially at B’ .

Therefore, B’A =V2t

And A’B’ is the secondary wave front after t second .This would advance in the direction of rays 1’,2’,3’, which are
the corresponding refracted rays, perpendicular to A’B’.
3
 Wave Optics

We can show that the secondary wavelets starting from any other point D on the incident wave front AB ,after
refraction at P ,must reach the point D’ on A’B’ in the same time in which the secondary wavelets from B reach
A’. Therefore, A’B’ is the true .
Refracted wave front. Let ‘r’ be the angle of refraction is equal to the angle which the refracted plane wave front
A’B’ makes with the refracting surface AA’,

Therefore <AA’B’=r.(angle of refraction).

Hence, 𝒏𝟐𝟏= 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 Which proves Snell’s law of refraction.

𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓

Refraction of a plane wave by:

a) Thin Prism

Consider a plane wave front incident on a thin prism. The speed of light decreases as it enters into glass
from air. The lower portion of the incoming waver front has to travel a higher thickness at the base and thus
it would be delayed as compared to the upper portion. Hence a tilt in the out coming wave front can be
observed.

b) Convex lens
A lens adds curvature to a wavefront. The wave hits the lens at
the centre first and so this part of the wave gets slowed down
first. When the wave leaves the lens, the outer portions come
out earlier as compared to the central one, thus adding a
resultant curvature to the out coming wave front.
4
 Wave Optics

93080803
INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT- Superposition of waves.
Interference is a phenomenon in which two waves superpose to form a resultant wave of greater, lower, or the
same amplitude.
The superposition of waves refers to the state where if two (or more) waves travelling through the same medium
at the same time meet at a point, the net displacement of the medium at any time becomes equal to the sum of
the individual displacements.
The points where a crest falls on a crest and a trough falls on a trough results in maximum displacement
(constructive interference) whereas a point where a crest falls on a trough or vice versa represents minimum
displacement (destructive interference).

As two waves carrying energy superimpose, a redistribution of energy takes place. The points with maximum
displacement represent the points with maximum energy whereas the points with minimum displacement
represent the points with minimum energy. Thus we can say that the superposition principle obeys the energy
conservation law.
What are coherent sources? Give an example of interference of light in everyday life.
The sources of light, which emit continuous light waves of same wavelength, same frequency and in same
phase or having a constant phase difference are called coherent sources. E g. Oil floating on water looks
colored, bubbles of soap solution appears colored in sunlight.
State the reason why two independent sources of light cannot be considered as coherent sources.
The light waves emitted from an ordinary source undergo abrupt phase changes.
Thus the light waves coming out from two independent sources of light will not have any fixed phase
relationship and is incoherent.
Why are coherent sources required to create interference of light?
In order to obtain interference pattern, the phase difference between the light waves must remain
constant with time.
This is possible only when the two sources are coherent sources.
State the necessary conditions for sustained interference.
The two sources
i) should be coherent
ii) Must lie very close to each other.
iii) Should be narrow.
iv) Should be mono chromatic.

0
 Wave Optics

93080803
COHERENCE
In order to obtain the phenomenon of interference by superposition of waves it is necessary that the two sources
producing waves must be coherent. Two sources are said to be coherent if they obey the following properties:
(a) Two sources must be emitting waves of same wavelength or frequency.
(b) The amplitude of the waves produced by the two sources must be either equal or approximately equal.
(c) The waves produced by the two sources must have either the same phase or a constant phase difference.

State the condition for constructive and destructive interference.

For constructive interference, path difference should be integral multiple of wavelength.

For destructive interference, path difference should be odd multiple of half the wavelength.

The interference refers to the redistribution of energy obtained by the superposition of two or more waves that
are coherent with each other. Interference effects can be observed with all types of waves, for example, light,
radio, acoustic and surface water waves.
Explain YDSE for interference and obtain an expression for fringe width Light from a source is allowed
to pass through two slits S1 and S2 separated by a small distance d. Let D be the distance between the
screen and the slits.

Expression for path difference-

Position of nth bright fringe- For a bright fringe,

------------- Position of nth bright

When n=1,

When n=2
0
 Wave Optics

93080803

Position of nth dark fringe- For a dark fringe,

x= (2n-1) λ D/2d --- position of nth dark

When n=1,

When n=2

Fringe width- distance between two consecutive bright or dark fringe is called fringe width β.

In case of interference all fringes are of equal width.

Write the expression for angular width of a fringe in interference pattern.

Interference and Conservation of Energy

Recall that the maximum intensity due to interference is given by,
Imax = 4Io , and Imin = 0.
Therefore the average intensity of light in the interference pattern is,
Iav = (Imax+ Imin) /2
= 2 Io.
In the absence of interference, the intensity of light from two sources at every point on the screen would be
obtained by just adding the two intensities i.e. I o + Io = 2Io , which is the same as Iav in the interference pattern.
This confirms the fact that in interference there is a redistribution of light energy and that energy is neither
created nor destroyed.

Thus the principle of energy conservation is being obeyed during

interference of light. The energy is being transferred from the regions
of destructive interference to those of the constructive interference.
The intensity distribution in the Young’s double slit experiment as a
function of phase difference between the waves on the screen is
shown below.
How does the fringe width of interference fringes change, when the whole apparatus of young’s experiment is kept in a
liquid of refractive index n?
The fringe width decreases as the wavelength of light decreases in a medium.
0
 Wave Optics

93080803

What is the effect on the interference fringes in YDSE

a) The source slit is moved closer to the double slit plane

As S decreases, the interference pattern becomes less and less sharp and when the souce is too close the
fringes disappear.
b) The width of the source slit is increased

As s increases,fringe pattern become less and less sharp.

c) The mono chromatic source is replaced by a source of white light.
The interference pattern due to different components colors of white light overlap. The central bright fringe
for different colors are at same position. So central fringe is white.The fringes closest on either side of the
central white fringe is red and the farthest will appear blue.

Light waves from two coherent sources of intensity ratio 81:1 produce interference. Calculate the
ratio of maxima and minima in the interference pattern.

Light waves from two coherent sources having intensities I and 2I cross each other at a point with a
phase difference of 600. What is the resultant intensity at the point?

Amplitude of resultant wave Resultant intensity

State the condition under which the phenomenon of diffraction of light takes place. The size of
the obstacle should be comparable with the wavelength of light.

0
 Wave Optics

93080803
How is Huygens principle used to obtain the diffraction pattern due to a single slit?

According to Huygens principle, when light falls on the slit, it becomes source of secondary wavelets. These
wavelets are initially in phase and spread out in all direction.

In a single slit diffraction experiment, when a tiny circular obstacle is placed in the path of light from a distant source,
a bright spot is seen at the centre of the shadow of the obstacle. Explain why?
This is because waves diffracted from the edges of a circular obstacle interfere constructively at the centre of
the shadow resulting in the formation of a bright spot.
Explain diffraction of light due to a single slit and formation of pattern of fringes.

A parallel beam of light is allowed to fall on a single slit of width ‘a’. The diffraction pattern is
obtained on a screen. At ‘O’ a central bright fringe is seen. This is because all the wavelets reach
the point O after covering equal distances. The figure shows secondary wavelets, diffracted at an
angle θ, reaching a point P. The wavelets start from different parts of the slit in the same phase.
But they cover unequal distances in reaching P. Draw a perpendicular LQ from L to extreme ray at
the end of the slit. Beyond L and Q, the secondary wavelets travel equal distance. So the only effect
will be due to the path difference NQ between the extreme wavelets.
NQ=a sin θ

Position and width of secondary minima: If the path difference is λ, then P will be a point of minimum
intensity (first secondary minima). This is because the whole wave front can be considered to be
divided into two equal parts LM and MN each of width a/2. For every point in the upper half LM, there
is a corresponding point in the lower half MN for which the path difference is λ/2. So they are out of
phase and cancel each other’s effect at P. In general, for nth secondary minima,
path difference=a sin θ=n λ
Linear Width =β=D λ/a
Position and width of secondary maxima:

If the path difference is3 λ/2, then Q will be a point of first secondary maxima .This is because the
whole wave front can be considered to be divided into three equal parts LM, MO and MN. The
wavelets from first two parts will the reach point Q in opposite phase, cancelling each other’s effect.
The third part of the slit remains uncancelled and produces first secondary maxima. Only one-third of
the slit contributes to first maxima. Hence the intensity is less than central maxima. These become
weaker when the slit is divided into 5, 7, 9 parts.
0
 Wave Optics

93080803
In general, for nth secondary maxima,
path difference=a sin θ= (2n+1) λ/2
Linear Width =β=D λ/a
expression for linear width and angular width of
Central maxima in single slit experiment
Linear widt=2x=2 D λ/a
Angular width =2 θ= 2λ/a

DIFFRACTION
Diffraction is a slight bending of light as it passes around the edge of an object.
Diffraction of visible light is not so common since the aperture of sizes comparable to the wavelength of visible
light are hardly available. For the case of sound waves and radio waves, diffraction can be easily observed,
because the wavelength of these waves is large, and the apertures of this order can be easily obtained.

Diffraction of Light at a Single Slit: (study the concept and formulas)

Formation of diffraction pattern.
It can be explained on the basis of Huygens’ wave theory.
Consider a plane wavefront incident on the slit AB. Fig.shows a magnified view of the slit. According to Huygens’
hypothesis, each point of the incident wave front will be a source of secondary wavelets. These wavelets
emanate from the wave front in the same phase.

Formation of central maximum. Imagine the slit to be divided into a number of very narrow strips of equal width
parallel to the slit. All the wavelets originate from the narrow strips in the same phase. All these wavelets reach a
point (opposite to the mid-point C of the slit) on the screen after covering equal distances. So, all these wavelets
arrive at ‘O’ in the same phase. These wavelets reinforce each other’s effect to give maximum intensity at 0.

Formation of secondary minima

Suppose, the secondary wavelets diffracted at an angle θ1 and reaching a point
P1 on the screen produce the first minimum called first secondary minimum.
This occurs when the path difference between the extreme wavelets is λ.

Imagine the slit to be divided into two equal halves AC and BC . The path
difference between the secondary waves, from corresponding points A and C,
reaching P1 will be λ/2. In fact, for every point in the upper half AC, there is a
corresponding point in the lower half BC for which the path difference between
secondary waves reaching P1 is λ/2. So, the wavelets arrive at P1 with a path difference of λ/2. 9
(or a phase difference of π) and thus cancel each other’s effect there.

The condition for the first secondary minimum is that P1 should have an angular separation θ1 from O such that ,

0
 Wave Optics

93080803

Suppose the secondary wavelets diffracted at an angle θ2 and reaching a point P2 on the screen produce the
second secondary minimum. This occurs when the path difference between the extreme wavelets is 2λ. Imagine
the slit to be divided into four equal parts AC 1, C1C, CC2 and C2B. The wavelets from the corresponding points in
the two parts AC1 and C1C will differ in phase by π on reaching P2 and cancel each other’s effect. Similarly, the
wavelets from the corresponding points in the two parts CC 2 and BC2 will cancel each other’s effect at P2. Thus,
the condition for the second secondary minimum is that P2 should have an angular separation θ2 from O such
that,

To establish the condition for nth secondary minimum. A point P on the screen
will be the position of nth minimum if

[The value n = 0 has been excluded because this corresponds to the central maximum.]

Formation of secondary maxima. Consider the formation of first secondary maximum. Suppose it is produced by
wavelets diffracted at an angle 𝜃1′ reaching a point 𝑃′1on the screen. This occurs when the path difference
3𝜆
between the extreme wavelets is 2 .
Imagine the slit to be divided into three equal parts AC1, C1C2 and BC2. The wavelets reaching 𝑃′1 from the
corresponding points of the a AC1 and C 1C2 will cancel each other’s effect. The
wavelets from the part C2B will produce first secondary maximum. The
condition for first secondary maximum is

10
 Wave Optics

93080803
Suppose the wavelets diffracted at an angle 𝜃′ and reaching a point 𝑃′ on the screen produce the second
2 2
5𝜆
secondary maximum. This occurs when the path difference between the extreme wavelets is 2 .Imagine the slit
to be divided into five equal parts AC1,C1C2,C2C3,C3C4 and C4B.While the wavelets from four parts will cancel each
other’ effect at 𝑃2′.The condition for second secondary maximum is,
5𝜆
a sin 𝜃2′ =
2

sin 𝜃′ = 𝜃′
2 2
Therefore,
5𝜆
𝜃2′ =
2

The condition for nth secondary maximum. A point P on the screen will be the
position of nth maximum if,

𝜆
𝜃𝑛′ =(2n + 1)
2𝑎 . Here, n = 1,2,3….

11
 Wave Optics

93080803

12