VINEET SETIA’S PHYSICS AND MATHS CLASSES

MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF CURRENT AND MAGNETISM

PART 1 MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM
SYLLABUS: Concept of magnetic field, Oersted’s experiment. Biot - Savart law and its application
to- current carrying circular loop. Ampere’s law and its applications to infinitely long straight wire,
straight and toroidal solenoids. Force on a moving charge in uniform magnetic and electric fields.
Cyclotron. Force on a current-carrying conductor in a uniform magnetic field. Force between two
parallel current-carrying conductors-definition of ampere. Torque experienced by a current loop in
uniform magnetic field; moving coil galvanometer-its current sensitivity and conversion to ammeter
and voltmeter. Current loop as a magnetic dipole and its magnetic dipole moment. Magnetic dipole
moment of a revolving electron. Magnetic field intensity due to a magnetic dipole (bar magnet)
along its axis and perpendicular to its axis. Torque on a magnetic dipole (bar magnet) in a uniform
magnetic field; bar magnet as an equivalent solenoid, magnetic field lines; Earth’s magnetic field
and magnetic elements. Para-, dia- and ferro - magnetic substances, with examples. Electromagnets
and factors affecting their strengths. Permanent magnets.
OERSTED’S EXPERIMENT
During a lecture demonstration in 1820, the Danish
physicist Hans Christian Oersted noticed that a current in a
straight wire caused a noticeable deflection in a nearby
magnetic compass needle. The experimental arrangement is
as shown in fig. He found that the whenever current passes
through the wire the magnetic needle deflects through some
angle. It is noticeable when the current is large and the
needle is sufficiently close to the wire, so that the earth’s
magnetic field may be ignored. Reversing the direction of
the current reverses the orientation of the needle. The
deflection increases on increasing the current or bringing
the needle closer to the wire. Iron filings sprinkled around
the wire arrange themselves in concentric circles with the
wire as the centre. Oersted concluded that moving charges
or currents produced a magnetic field in the surrounding space.
The direction of the rotation of the magnetic needle is given by the SNOW rule According to which
if the current is allowed to flow from south to north the magnetic needle turn towards west.
Conclusions:
Just as static charges produce an electric field, the currents or moving charges produces a magnetic
field, denoted by B
CONCEPT OF MAGNETIC FIELD, LORENTZ FORCE
The space around a magnet or current carrying conductor within which its influence can be felt
is called the strength of magnetic field (B).
Strength of Magnetic field B is often called as magnetic field or magnetic flux density or magnetic
induction or magnetic vector.
In the current carrying conductor the magnetic field disappears as soon as the current is switched
off.
MAGNETIC FORCE
Let us suppose that there is a point charge q
v = velocity of charge q in magnetic field B
θ = angle between the direction of magnetic field
strength and direction of velocity of q.
The magnitude of the force ( F ) experienced by the
charge (q) is
(i) Directly proportional to the charge q
i.e. F  q ----------- (1)
(ii) Directly proportional to the component of v
perpendicular to the B
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i.e. F  vsin  ----------- (2)
(iii) Directly proportional to the strength of magnetic field B
i.e. F  B --------------------- (3)
Combining (1), (2) and (3) we get
F  qvBsin 
 F  kqvBsin 
Where k is constant of proportionality and it value is 1 i.e. k = 1
Therefore F  qvBsin 
Vectorially F  q(v  B)
F
 B 
qvsin 
Where B is magnetic field and its SI unit are tesla (T) named after Nikola Tesla. Tesla is a large unit.
A smaller unit (non-SI) called gauss (=10–4 tesla) is also often used. The earth’s magnetic field is
about 3.6 × 10–5 T.
If F = 1 N, q = 1C, v = 1ms-1 and θ = 900
1N
Then B   1tesla(T)
1C  1ms1 sin 900
Therefore t  Nm1A1 (where Cs-1 = A (ampere))
Thus magnetic field is said to be 1 tesla if a charge of 1C moving with 1ms -1 in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field experiences a force of 1N.
Another si unit of magnetic field Wbm-2
Dimensional formula of B is [MA-1T-2].
Direction of magnetic force:
Direction of the magnetic force is given by right hand screw rule( or right hand thumb rule or right
hand palm rule or curl rule) or Fleming’s Left Hand Rule
RIGHT HAND THUMB RULE: If we turn the fingers of our right
hand in a direction from v to B in the cross product v  B then the
thumb represent the direction of the force

FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE

If we stretch our first finger, the central finger and the thumb Mutually
perpendicular to each other such that

 The First finger represents the direction

of the Field.
 The Central finger represents the
direction of the Current (in the classical
direction, from positive to negative).
 Then Thumb represents the direction of
the Thrust (force) or resultant Motion.

LORENTZ FORCE
Let a point charge q moving with a velocity
v and, located at r at a given time t in
presence of both the electric field E (r) and
the magnetic field B (r). The force on an
electric charge q due to both of them can be written as
F  qE  q(v  B)  Felectric  Fmagnetic  q(E  v  B) is called Lorentz force.
Conclusions:
 The magnetic force is zero if charge is not moving (as then |v|= 0) i.e. only a moving charge

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feels the magnetic force.
 Since magnetic force acts perpendicular to the direction of motion of the charge particle,
therefore the work done by the Lorentz force on moving charge is zero.
MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR
Consider a rod of a uniform cross-sectional area A and length l.
Let n = no. of free electrons per unit volume;
nAl = total no. of free electrons;
-nAle = total charge due to free electrons;
I = current flowing through conductor;
v d = drift velocity of electrons;
B = external magnetic field applied.
Therefore force acting on these electrons =
F  -nAle(vd  B) ------------------------ (1)
Since Il is a current element in the direction of current and I = neAvd
Therefore we have
Il = neAvdl in scalar form and Il   neAlvd in vector form. –ve sign is used because vd and l are in
opposite directions.
Use Il   neAlvd in (1) we have
F  -nAle(vd  B)  (  neAlvd )  B  I(l  B) ---------------------- (2)
Hence F  I(l  B) is the force acting on the conductor placed in a magnetic field.
Special cases:
If θ = 0 or 1800 then F = IlBsin0 = 0 i.e. no force acts on the current carrying conductor when placed
parallel or anti parallel to the direction of B.
If θ = 900 force F = IlB = max. force.
Direction of F is perpendicular to the plane containing l and B and can be given by Fleming’s left
hand rule or by right hand palm rule.
Note: The equ. (2) is applicable for straight conductor and if the conductor is not straight then it is
considered as made up of small straight strips of length dl.
Then F   I(dl  B) .
MOTION OF CHARGE PARTICLE MOVING IN ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELD
MOTION OF CHARGE PARTICLE IN ELECTRIC FIELD
Consider a uniform
electric field E set up
between two oppositely
charged parallel plates as
shown in fig.
Let a positively charged
particle having charge +q
and mass m enters the
region of electric field E
at x = 0 with velocity u
along X-direction.
Let x = distance traveled
by the charge particle in
electric field;
y = vertical height of charge particle inside the electric field;
t = time for which the charge particle remains in the field.
Motion along Horizontal
x
ux = u (hor. Vel.) so we have t  ---------------------- (1)
u

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Motion along vertical
Vertical height = y;
Vertical vel. vy = 0;
Force experienced by the charge particle in the electric field (E) = qE = mass x acceleration
qE
Therefore acceleration  a  
m
1 2
Using the relation s  ut  at we have
2
1 qE 2
y  t ---------------------------------------- (2)
2 m
Use (1) in (2)
1 qEx 2 2mu 2
y  or x 2
 y
2 mu 2 qE
This represents a parabola. Hence a charge particle covers a parabolic path inside the electric field.
CHARGED PARTICLE MOVING IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD
Let q = charge particle of mass m entering in the uniform magnetic field B;
v = velocity of charge particle inside the magnetic field at an angle
 with the direction of magnetic field;
Resolve v in two components
vcosθ (= v1) along the direction of B;
vsinθ (= v2) along perpendicular to the direction of B.
For the component of v2
Force acting on the charge particle inside the magnetic field
F  q(v2  B)
 F  qv2 Bsin900  qv2 B
 F  qvsin B
This force acts perpendicular to the plane containing v2 and B. As this force acts perpendicular to the
v2 so it cannot change the magnitude of the velocity. It changes only the direction of motion. Hence
the charge particle covers a circular path of radius r as shown in fig. this force F on the charge
particle provides necessary centripetal force.
mv 22
Therefore  qv2 B
r
Bqr
 v2  i.e. charge particle covers a circular path of radius r.
m
mv 2
And r   v2  r
Bq
2r 2rm 2m
Its time period is given by T    which is also constant due to the
v2 Bqr Bq
component of velocity
perpendicular to the
direction of B.
Now for the component v1
force = zero, because the
angle between v1 and B is
00. However due to the
velocity v1 charge particle
covers some distance in the
direction of magnetic field.
So under the combined
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effect of both components charge particle tends to be in circular path as well as also try to cover the
distance in the direction of magnetic field. i.e the path of charge particle will be helical having axis
parallel to the direction of magnetic field.

MOTION IN COMBINED ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS

Velocity Selector (i.e., velocity Filter)
Velocity selector is a set up to select charged particles of a particular velocity out of a beam
containing charges moving with different speeds
(irrespective of their charge and mass). Having the crossed
fields electric field E towards y axis and magnetic field B
towards z axis.
Let a charged particle having charge q enter a region where
mutually perpendicular electric field E and magnetic field
B exist with a velocity v at right angle to the B.
The force acting on the charged particle due to electric
field is given by
Fe  qE  qEjˆ --------------------------- (1)
acts in the direction of electric field as shown in fig.
The force acting on the charged particle due to magnetic field is given by
   
FB  q v  B  q viˆ  Bkˆ  qvbjˆ ---------------------- (2)
From (1) and (2) Fe and FB are opposite to each other and let these are also equal as shown in fig.
Thus in magnitude
E
qE = qvB  v 
B
This condition can be used to select charged particles of a particular velocity out of a beam
containing charges moving with different speeds (irrespective of their charge and mass). The crossed
E and B fields, therefore, serve as a velocity selector. Only particles with speed E/B pass un
deflected through the region of crossed fields. This method was employed by J. J. Thomson in 1897
to measure the charge to mass ratio (e/m) of an electron. The principle is also employed in Mass
Spectrometer a device that separates charged particles, usually ions, according to their charge to
mass ratio.
CYCLOTRON
The cyclotron is a machine to accelerate charged
particles or ions to high energies. It was invented by
E.O. Lawrence and M.S. Livingston in 1934 to
investigate nuclear structure.
PRINCIPLE: Cyclotron is an application of cross
fields i.e. when a charge particle is made to accelerate
between both electric field E and magnetic field B
perpendicular each other then it gets accelerated and
covers a circular path of increasing radius.
CONSTRUCTION:
The cyclotron consists of two D shaped metallic
chambers marked D1 and D2. They are separated by a
very small gap. An alternating high voltage is applied
across the gap with the help of a high frequency
oscillator. The voltage is of the order of 104 V and its
frequency is of the order of 107 Hz. The dees are closed
in a steel box which is placed between the pole pieces
of a very strong magnet. The magnetic field is applied
perpendicular to the plane of the dees.
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WORKING: An alternating voltage is applied across the dees. The positive ion to be accelerated is
introduced the centre of the dees. Suppose at that instant D1 is -ve. The particle will be accelerated
towards D1 and will describe a semicircle. By the time it comes to the edge of D1 the polarity of the
dees is reversed. D2 becomes -ve and D1 becomes + ve. The particle is further accelerated and it
describes a circle of larger radius under the effect of both electric and magnetic field. As it emerges
from D2 the polarity again changes. This goes on. Every time the particle crosses the gap, and its
radius increases every time so it accelerates. This process continues till the particle reaches the
periphery of the dee system. At this stage, the charge particle is deflected by the deflecting plate
which then comes out through the window (W) and hits the target.
THEORY:
Force acting on the charge particle moving with speed v perpendicular to the magnetic field
F = qvB
This force provides the required centripetal force to the charge particle, hence
mv 2
 qvB
r
Bqr
 v 
m
mv
OR r 
Bq
 v  r
Time taken by the charge particle to cover a semicircular path is
r m
t   = constant
v Bq
Time period to complete one rotation is
2m
T 
Bq
Thus time is independent of both velocity of ion and radius of circular path.
Let r0 = max. radius of circular path
Bqr0
v0 = max. velocity of the ion =
m
then max. K.E. of the ion is
2
1 2 1  Bqr0  B2 q 2 r02
mv0  m  
2 2  m  2m
Frequency of cyclotron
1 Bq
  
T 2m
It is called magnetic resonance frequency.
Bq
Angular frequency of cyclotron is   2 
m
LIMITATIONS OF CYCLOTRON
a) Cyclotron can not accelerate uncharged particles like neutron.
b) Cyclotron can not accelerate electrons because they have very small mass. Electrons start
moving. at a very high speed when they gain small energy in the cyclotron. Oscillating electric
field makes them to go quickly out of step because of their very high speed.
c) The positively charged particles are accelerated by the cyclotron it moves with greater and
greater speed. When the speed of ion becomes comparable to the speed of light, the mass of ion
increases accordingly

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m0
m  Where m0 = rest mass of ion; M = mass of ion moving with velocity v
v2
1 2
c

Now the time taken by the ion to describe semicircular path is

m  m0
t  
Bq Bq v2
1
c2
i.e. if v increase then t also increases it means the charge particle takes a longer time and it will not
come into the gap exactly at the same time when the polarity of the dees changes. And hence it will
not accelerate further. Therefore ion can’t move with a speed greater than a certain limit.
USES OF A CYCLOTRON
a) It is used to synthesize fresh substances.
b) It is used to improve the quality of solids by adding ions.
c) It is used to bombard the atoms with highly accelerated particles to study the nuclear, reactions.
d) It is used for producing radioactive material for medical purposes i.e., diagnostics and treatment
of chronic diseases.
MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A CURRENT ELEMENT, BIOT-SAVART LAW
Biot- Savart’s law is an experimental law predicted by Biot and Savart. This law gives the magnetic
field at a point due to a small current element.
Let XY be a conductor in which current I is flowing. Consider the small current element Idl on it as
shown in fig. Acc. to Biot Savart’s law magnetic field at point P due to this current element is
dB  I
 dl
1

r2
 sin 
Combining we get
Idlsin 
dB 
r2
Idlsin 
dB  K
r2
Where K is a constant of proportionality. Its value depends on the system of units chosen.
0
In SI K 
4
Where  0 is the absolute permeability of free space and
0  4  107 TA 1m
 4  107 WbA 1m 1
hence
0 Idlsin 
dB 
4 r 2
In vector form
0 I dl  r 0 I(dl  r)
dB  or dB 
4 r 3
4 r 3

Net Resultant magnetic field is given by

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0 I(dl  r)
B   dB 
4  r 3
Direction of dB is same as that of (dl  r) i.e. cross product of dl and r and is given by right
hand grip rule. Here in the fig. the direction of dB is perpendicular to the plane of paper in directed
inwards.
The Biot-Savart law for the magnetic field has the following similarities and differences with the
Coulomb’s law for the electrostatic field.
a) Both are long range, since both depend inversely on the square of distance from the source to the
point of interest.
b) The principle of superposition applies to both fields.
c) The electrostatic field is produced by a scalar source, namely, the electric charge. The magnetic
field is produced by a vector source Idl .
d) The electrostatic field is along the displacement vector joining the source and the field point.
The magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane containing the displacement vector r and the
current element Idl .
e) There is angle dependence in the Biot-Savart law which is not present in the electrostatic case.
RELATION BETWEEN 0 & 0
0  1  7
9 
10  
1 1 1
00  40    or c 
4  9  10  3 10 8 2 c2 0 0

MAGNETIC FIELD ON THE AXIS OF A CIRCULAR CURRENT LOOP/RING/COIL

Consider a circular
loop or coil of radius R
carrying current I. Let
P be the point on the
axis of a circular loop.
At which magnetic
field is to be find.
Let OP = x
CP = r
Let AB be a small
current element of
length dl at a According to Biot-Savart's law, magnetic field due to a small element AB at point P is
0 Idlsin  0 Idlsin 
dB  
4 CP 2
4  x 2  a 2 

Since the angle between dl & r is 900 because radius is small.

0 Idl
Therefore dB 
4  x  a 2 
2

The direction of dB is perpendicular to the plane formed by dl and r and is along PL which
is perpendicular to PC.
Resolve dB into two components:
(i) dBcosθ, towards PY
(ii) dBsinθ, towards PX
Similarly due to another current element A’B’ present at the diametrically opposite end we have
dBcosθ towards PY’ and dBsinθ towards PX.
So due all pairs of current elements at the diametrically opposite end we have all dBcosθ’s are equal

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and opposite and cancel each other. And all dBsinθ’s are along PX.

So all dBsinθ’s being in same direction PX. They add up with each other and give the resultant
magnetic field due to whole loop.
 Idl
Therefore B   dBsin    0 2 sin 
4  x  a 2 
0 Idl a 0 Ia
 B   4   dl
 x  a  x  a2
2 2 2 4
x 2
a 
3
2 2

0 Ia(2a) 0 Ia 2
 B  
4 2 3 3

 x  a2 2 2 x2  a2 2
N0 Ia 2
If the coil/loop/ring has N turns then B  NB  3
2 x2  a2 2
Special case: magnetic field at the centre of the loop can be obtained
by putting x = 0
0 Ia 2 0 I
B  3

2a 2a
The magnetic field lines due to a circular wire form closed loops as
shown in Fig. The direction of the magnetic field is given by right-
hand thumb rule:
Right-hand thumb rule Curl the palm of your right hand around the
circular wire with the fingers pointing in the direction of the current.
The right-hand thumb gives the direction of the magnetic field.

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A STRAIGHT CONDUCTOR CARRYING CURRENT

Consider a straight wire conductor AB lying in the plane of paper carrying current I in the direction
A to B as shown in fig
Let P be a point at a distance a from the straight conductor.
Consider a small current element Idl of the straight conductor at O.
Let PC = a, OP = r , OC = l
θ = angle between dl and r
According to Biot -Savart's law, the magnetic field induction at
point P due to current element Idl is given by
0 Idlsin 
dB  --------------------------- (1)
4 r 2
In rt. Angle triangle ΔPOC,     900
 sin   sin(900  )  cos  --------------- (2)
a a
Also cos   or r  ------------------------ (3)
r cos 
Again in ΔPOC l  a tan   dl  a sec2 d ------- (4)
Use (2), (3) and (4) in (1)
0 Ia sec2 d.cos 
dB 
4  a 
2

 cos  
 

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0 I
 dB  cos d
4a

The total magnetic field at point P due to current through the whole straight conductor AB is given
by
2 2
0 I
 B   dB
1
  4a cos d
1
2
0 I
4a 1
 B  cos d

0 I
sin 2 1

 B 
4a
0 I
 B  sin 2  sin(1 )
4a
0 I
 B  sin 2  sin 1 
4a
Direction of magnetic field: The magnetic field lines due to
straight conductor carrying current are in the form of concentric
circles with the conductor as axis of these concentric circles as
shown in above fig. The direction of magnetic field lines is
anticlockwise, if the current flows from A to B in the straight
conductor and is clockwise if the current flows from B to A in
the straight conductor, the direction of magnetic field lines is
given by Right Hand Thumb Rule.
Right hand thumb rule: According to this rule, if we imagine
the current carrying straight conductor to be held in the grip of
the right hand so that the thumb points in the direction of current
then the direction of curling of the fingers around the conductor
will represent the direction of magnetic field lines.
Special cases:
(i) When the conductor AB is of infinite length and the point P lies near the centre of the conductor
then 1  2  900
0 I 0 I
 B  sin 900  sin 900  
4a 2a
(ii) If length of conductor is finite and point P lies on right bisector of conductor, then
1  2  
0 I  I2sin 
 B  sin   sin   0
4a 4a

(ii) When the conductor is of infinite length but the point P lies near the end B (or A) then
1  900 and 2  0
0 I
 B 
4a
Note:
(1) The magnetic field lines due to straight conductor carrying current are in the form of
concentric circles it implies that the field at every point on a circle of radius r, (with the wire
along the axis), is same in magnitude. In other words, the magnetic field possesses a
cylindrical symmetry. The field that normally can depend on three coordinates depends only
on one r.
(2) The field direction at any point on this circle is tangential to it.
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(3) Even though the wire is infinite, the field due to it at a nonzero distance is not infinite. The
field is directly proportional to the current and inversely proportional to the distance from
the conductor.

MAGNETIC FIELD AT THE CENTRE OF THE CIRCULAR COIL/LOOP/RING

CARRYING CURRENT
Consider a circular coil of radius r with centre O lying with its plane
in the plane of paper. Let I be the current flowing in the circular coil
in the direction shown in fig.
According to Biot-Savart's law, the magnetic field at the centre O.
of the circular coil due to the current element Idl is given by
0 Idlsin 
dB 
4 r 2
Since the angle between Idl and r is 900 therefore
0 Idl
dB 
4 r 2
Total magnetic field is
 Idl 0 I
B   0 2 
4r 2 
 dl
4 r
0 I 0 I
 B  2r 
4r 2
2r
The direction of magnetic field induction B at centre of ring/loop due to current through circular coil
is perpendicular to the plane of the circular coil and directed inwards.
In general, if current through a circular coil flows in clockwise direction, then the direction of
magnetic field at the centre of the circular coil is perpendicular to the plane of the coil, directed
inwards. On the other hand, if current through a circular coil flows in anticlockwise direction, then
the direction of magnetic field at the centre of the circular coil is perpendicular to the plane of the
coil directed outwards.
AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW
Ampere's Circuital Law states that the line integral of the magnetic field around any closed path in
free space is equal to absolute permeability (  0 ) times the net current enclosed by the path.

 B dl  0 I
Where B is the magnetic field, dl is the small element,  0 is the absolute permeability of free space
and I is the current.
let AB be a long conductor in which current I is flowing from A to B.
the magnetic field due to this conductor is
0 I
B  ------------------------- (1)
2r
Consider a circle of radius r. Let Idl be a small current element. dl
and B are in the same direction because direction of B is along the
tangent to the circle.
 B dl  Bdlcos0  Bdl ------------ (2)
Therefore
 B dl   Bdl
0 I
Use (1) we get  B dl   Bdl   2r dl
0 I
  B dl 
2r 
dl

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0 I
  B dl 
2r
2r  0 I
This result holds good for a closed path of any size and shape around a current carrying conductor
because the relation is independent of distance r.
Ampere's law deals with steady currents.
APPLICATIONS OF AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW- THE SOLENOID AND THE
TOROID
MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A LONG SOLENOID
A cylindrical coil of many tightly wound turns of insulated wire with generally diameter of the coil
smaller than its length is called a Solenoid. A solenoid has enameled wire wound in the form of a
helix. Each turn of the solenoid can be regarded as a circular loop. Total magnetic field due to the
whole solenoid
will be equal to
the vector sum of
the magnetic field
of each turn.

EXPRESSION
FOR
MAGNETIC
FIELD

Consider a very long solenoid having n turns per unit length of solenoid. Let current I be flowing
through the solenoid. Magnetic field inside the solenoid is almost uniform, strong and directed along
the axis of the solenoid. The magnetic field outside a very long solenoid is very weak and can be
neglected, and is taken as zero.
Let P be a point within
the solenoid. Consider
any rectangular loop
PQRS (known as
Amperian Loop)
passing through P as
shown in Fig.
Therefore line integral of magnetic field intensity along the closed loop PQRS is
 B dl  0  total cureent through solenoid
PQRS

Also 
PQRS
B dl   B dl   B dl   B dl   B dl
PQ QR RS SP
0
And for QR and SP the angle between B and dl is 90 therefore
  B dl   B dl  0
QR SP

And out side solenoid B = 0 therefore  B dl

RS
 0

Hence we have 
PQRS
B dl   B dl
PQ
  Bdl = 0  total cureent through solenoid

B dl  0  nlI
 Bl   0  nlI
 B   0 nI
When the solenoid is of finite length L then

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0 nI
 B 
L
Note: at the end

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A TOROID

The toroid is a hollow circular ring on which a large number of turns of a wire are closely wound. A
toroid can be considered as a ring shaped closed solenoid as shown in Fig. carrying a current I.
Magnetic field in the open space inside at all point like P and exterior points Q is zero.
The field B inside the toroid is constant for an ideal toroid of closely wound turns.

The direction of the magnetic field inside is clockwise according to right-hand thumb rule for
circular loops.
Let 1,2 and 3 be Three circular Amperian loops are shown by dotted lines in above fig. due to
symmetry, the magnetic field is tangential to each of them and constant in magnitude for a given
loop.

Let B1 = the magnetic field along loop 1 and since for this loop I = 0
Therefore 
loop1
B dl  0 nI  0 n(0)  0

from the sectional cut, we see that the current coming out of the plane of the paper is cancelled
exactly by the current going into it. Thus, for loop 3 we have
Ie= 0, and B3 = 0.
Therefore 
loop3
B dl  0

Let for the loop 2

r2 = radius of loop 2
B = the magnetic field inside the solenoid
I = current flowing per turn
n= no. of turns per unit length
Therefore

loop2
B dl  0  total current

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 B 
loop2
dl  0  2rnI

 B2r  0 n2rI
 B  0 nI
This is the expression for the magnetic field due to a toroid and is same as that of a solenoid.
NOTE: In an ideal toroid the coils are circular. In reality the turns of the toroidal coil form a helix
and there is always a small magnetic field external to the toroid.
N 0 NI
If N = total no. of turns then n  therefore we must have B 
2r 2r

FORCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL CURRENTS, THE AMPERE

Consider X1Y1 and X2Y2 two infinite long straight parallel conductors carrying currents I1 and I2 in
the same direction.
Let r = distance between two conductors;
As shown in fig. each of two conductors is under the influence of the magnetic field produced by the
other. Therefore each conductor experiences a force.

Magnetic field induction at a point P on conductor X2Y2 due to current I1 passing through X1Y1 is
0 2I1
B1 
4r
Acc. to right hand rule the direction of B1 is  to the plane of paper and directed inwards.
As the current carrying conductor X2Y2 lies in the magnetic field B1 the force experienced by unit
length of X2Y2 is
F2 = I2 B1 x 1
Put the value of B1 we have
 2I 0 2I1I2
F2  I2 0 1  ---------------------------------- (1)
4r 4r
Acc. to Fleming's Left Hand Rule force on conductor X2Y2 acts in the plane of the paper  to X2Y2,
directed towards X1Y1.
Similarly the force experienced by unit length of X1Y1 is
0 2I1I2
F1  ------------------------------------------------- (2)
4r
Now again acc. to Fleming's Left Hand Rule force on conductor X 1Y1 acts in the plane of the paper
 to X1Y1, directed towards X2Y2.
i.e. two linear parallel conductors carrying conductor in the same direction attract each other.

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Similarly we also can show that if the current flows in the opposite direction then the magnitude of
the force is again given by the equ. (1) or (2) and these repel each other.
i.e. we can say Parallel currents attract, and anti parallel currents repel.
The above expression is used to define the ampere (A), which is one of the seven SI base units.
ONE ampere
The ampere is the value of that steady current which, when maintained in each of the two very long,
straight, parallel conductors of negligible cross-section, and placed one metre apart in vacuum,
would produce on each of these conductors a force equal to 2 × 10–7 newton per metre of length.
NOTE:
(1) when two charges q1 and q2 moves with velocities v1 and v2 parallel on parallel straight paths at
0 q1q 2 v1v 2
a distance r apart then the force acting between them is F  .
4r 2
(2) If l and L (l<L) are the lengths of two straight conductors placed parallel to each other at a
distance r apart and if I1 and I2 are the current flowing through them then
force on short conductor due to long cond. = force on long cond. due to short =
0 2I1I2
F1  l.
4r
TORQUE ON A RECTANGULAR CURRENT LOOP/COIL IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC
FIELD
Consider a rectangular coil PQRS be suspended in the uniform magnetic field B.
Let PQ = RS = l
QR = SP = b.
I = current flowing through coil from P to Q, Q to R etc. as shown in fig.
θ = the angle which plane of the coil makes with the direction of magnetic field
The forces F1, F2, F3 and F4 acts on the four sides PQ, QR, RS and SP of the coil due to magnetic
field.

Forces on the arms QR an SP are given by

F2  I(QR  B)  IbBsin  in a direction  to QR and in the plane of coil as shown.
F4  I(SP  B)  IbBsin  in a direction  to SP and in the plane of coil as shown.
Since F2 and F4 are equal and opposite and acts on the same line of action, these cancel each other.
Forces on the arms PQ an RS are given by
F1  I(PQ  B)  IlBsin 900  IlB in a direction  to plane of coil and directed outward
given by Fleming right hand rule.
F3  I(RS  B)  IlBsin 900  IlB in a direction  to plane of coil and directed inward given
by Fleming right hand rule.

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The forces F1 and F3 are equal and opposite and acts on different lines of action, therefore these
constitute a couple. Torque will acts on the coil and is given by
  either force  dis tan ce between them
   F1  ST
   IlB  PScos 
   IlbBcos   IABcos 
If the coil has N turns then   NIABcos 
Since NIA = M called magnetic dipole moment of the coil.
Therefore   MBcos 
Let α be the angle between the normal to the plane of coil and the direction of magnetic field B
θ + α = 900  cos   sin 
   MBsin  this is the expression for the torque acting on the coil.
In vector form   M  B
NOTE:
(1) if the coil is set up with its plane parallel to the direction of magnetic field i.e. θ = 0 0 and
α = 900. then   NIBA is maximum. Then the field is said to be radial.
(2) The net force on the loop in the uniform magnetic field is zero but torque may or may not
be zero.
(3) In the equilibrium position net magnetic force and torque both are zero.
THE MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER
Moving coil galvanometer is an instrument used for
detection and measurement of small electric currents.
PRINCIPLE: Its working is based on the fact that when
a current carrying coil is placed in a magnetic field, it
experiences a torque.
CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING: The
galvanometer consists of a coil, having large no. of
turns, free to rotate about a fixed axis as shown fig. in a
uniform radial magnetic field. There is a cylindrical soft
iron core which not only makes the field radial but also
increases the strength of the magnetic field. The motion
of coil is controlled by two hair springs. A pointer is
attached to its moving part which moves on a scale with
zero as its centre. When a current flows through the coil,
a torque acts on it which rotates the coil. As a result of it
the hair springs gets twisted and the pointer show a
reading on the scale.
Let B = magnetic field
I = current flowing through it:
A = area of a conductor:
N = no. of turns
Therefore torque acts on the coil is
  NIBA
Since the field is radial by design, we have taken sin θ = 1 in the above expression for the torque.
Let θ = rotation produced
k= restoring torque per unit twist or torsional constant of the spring.
A spring Sp provides a Restoring torque kθ that balances the magnetic torque NIAB; resulting in a
steady angular deflection θ. In equilibrium
kθ = NI AB

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k
 I  --------------------------------- (1)
NBA
 k 
 I     G
 NBA 
Where G is called galvanometer constant. Hence I   .
Current sensitivity of a galvanometer is defined as the deflection produced in the galvanometer
when a unit current flows through it.
If θ is the deflection produced when current I is passed then current sensitivity is
 nBA
Is   ------------------------- (2) {by using (1)}
I k
A galvanometer is said to be sensitive if it shows large deflections for small currents. From (2) it is
clear that a galvanometer is sensitive if n, B and A is large and k is small. But if we increase the no.
of turns or area of coil the coils become heavy which decreases the sensitivity instead of increase it.
The value of B can be increased by using a strong horse shoe magnet.
The value of k can be decreased by choosing a suitable material. Therefore we choose quartz or
phosphor bronze material to decrease the value of k.
SHUNT
Shunt is a low resistance connected in parallel with the galvanometer.
CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO AMMETER AND VOLTMETER
TO CONVERT A GALVANOMETER
INTO AN AMMETER OF GIVEN
RANGE
An ammeter is obtained by connecting a
shunt in parallel to the galvanometer.
Let I = current passes through the ammeter.
i.e. range of the ammeter is 0 – I A.
Ig = current through galvanometer.
S = shunt connected to the galvanometer.
G = resistance of the galvanometer.
The distribution of the current is as shown in fig.
Since in the parallel circuit the potential difference is same therefore
Pot. across galvanometer = Pot. across shunt
IgG = (I-Ig)S
Ig G
 S 
 I  Ig 
Ig G
i.e. to make an ammeter of range 0 – I we have to connect a shunt of the value in parallel
I  I 
g

with the galvanometer.

SG
Net resistance of the galvanometer R   S,G
SG
Ammeter is always connected in series with the whole circuit. Because in series current is same and
whole of the current is passed through the ammeter. And also due to its low resistance, the potential
difference across it is very small.
Range of ammeter can be increased only but cannot be decreased.
TO CONVERT A GALVANOMETER
INTO VOLTMETER OF GIVEN
RANGE
A voltmeter is obtained by connecting a
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high resistance in series with the galvanometer.
range of the voltmeter is 0 – V.
Ig = current through galvanometer.
R = High resistance connected in series to the galvanometer.
G = resistance of the galvanometer.
Therefore net resistance of the voltmeter is R+G
Acc. to ohm’s law
V  Ig (R  G)
V
 R  G
Ig
V
i.e. to make voltmeter of range 0 – V we have to connect a resistance of the value  G in seriesl
Ig
with the galvanometer.
Range of voltmeter is increased or decreased both.
Voltmeter is always connected in parallel with the whole circuit. Because in parallel voltage is same
and due to its high resistance a small amount of current passes voltmeter.

Magnetic dipole moment (M) of the current carrying loop/ring/coil

Consider a circular coil in which current I is flowing as shown in
fig. The magnetic dipole moment (M) depends upon
M  I (current flows through coil)
 A (Area of coil)
Combining the above two
M  IA
Also if the coil has N turns then
M = NIA is called the magnetic dipole moment of the coil.
In vector form
M  NIA
Its direction is given by right hand grip/palm rule which state that if we curl the fingers of our right
hand in the direction in which current is flowing then thumb represent the direction of the magnetic
dipole moment.
Also acc. to sign conventions used if in the face of the coil the current flows is in anticlockwise then
it behaves like a north pole. And if in the face the current flow is in clock wise direction then it is
like as South Pole. Thus a current loop has two poles and its magnetic dipole moment is from south
to north.
THE MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT OF A REVOLVING ELECTRON
Let an electron moves in uniform circular motion around a stationary heavy nucleus of charge +Ze.
This constitutes a current I.
e
Therefore I  ------------ (1)
T
Where T = time period of revolution.
Let r = orbital radius of the electron, and v the orbital speed.
2r
Then T  put in (1)
v
ev
I  -------------------- (2)
2r
We know magnetic dipole moment is given by M = NIA
Therefore for N = 1 we have

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ev 2 1
M or l  r  evr -------------------- (3)
2r 2
Now according to the Bohr’s theory we have
nh nh
mvr  mvr   l Here, l is the magnitude
2 2
nh of the angular momentum of the electron
 vr  put in (3) we get
2m about the central nucleus and is called
orbital angular momentum.
enh  eh 
l   n  ---------------------- (4)
4m  4m 
Dipole moment (μl) in above equ. is called the orbital magnetic moment.
For n = 1
eh
l(min imum)   B is called Bohr Magneton. It is the natural unit of magnetic moment.
4m
1.6x1019 x6.6x1034
l(minimum)  B   9.27x1024 Am2
4x3.14x9.1x1031
Thus Bohr Magneton can be defined as the orbital magnetic moment of an electron circulating in the
innermost orbit or we also can say that electron circulating in an orbit with the smallest allowed
value of orbital angular momentum.
e  e
From (4) we have l  l or l  is called the gyromagnetic ratio and is a constant.
2m l 2m
Its value is 8.8 × 1010 C /kg for an electron.
Part 2 MAGNETISM AND MATTER
The word magnet is derived from the name of an island in Greece called magnesia where magnetic
ore deposits were found, in 600 BC. The directional property of magnets was also known since
ancient times. A thin long piece of a magnet, when suspended freely, pointed in the north-south
direction. A similar effect was observed when it was placed on a piece of cork which was then
allowed to float in still water. The name lodestone (or loadstone) given to a naturally occurring ore
of iron magnetite means leading stone.
EARTH MAGNETISM & ITS CHARACTERSTICS:
 The earth behaves as a giant magnet with the magnetic field pointing approximately from the
geographic south to the north.
i.e. the south pole of earth’s
magnet is towards the
geographic north and the north
pole of earth’s magnet is
towards the geographic south of
earth. As shown.
 The strength of the earth’s
magnetic field varies from place
to place on the earth’s surface;
its value being of the order of
10–5 T.
 The magnetic field lines of the
earth be similar to that of a
magnetic dipole located at the
centre of the earth. The axis of
the dipole does not coincide
with the axis of rotation of the earth but is presently titled by approximately 11.3º with respect
to the later. In this way of looking at it, the magnetic poles are located where the magnetic
field lines due to the dipole enter or leave the earth. The location of the north magnetic pole is
at latitude of 79.74º N and a longitude of 71.8º W, a place somewhere in north Canada. The
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magnetic south pole is at 79.74º S, 108.22º E in the Antarctica.
 According to the new nomenclature the pole near the geographic north pole of the earth is
called the north magnetic pole and the pole near the geographic South Pole is called the south
magnetic pole. This convention is used because the magnetic north was the direction to which
the north pole of a magnetic needle pointed; the north pole of a magnet was so named as it was
the north seeking pole. Thus, in reality, the north magnetic pole behaves like the south pole of
a bar magnet inside the earth and vice versa.
 The magnetic poles inside the earth change their position with time. On the scale of a million
years, the earth’s magnetic field has been found to reverse its direction. Basalt contains iron,
and basalt is emitted during volcanic activity. The little iron magnets inside it align themselves
parallel to the magnetic field at that place as the basalt cools and solidifies. Geological studies
of basalt containing such pieces of magnetized region have provided evidence for the change
of direction of earth’s magnetic field,
several times in the past.
PROPERTIES OF A BAR MAGNET
 When a bar magnet is freely suspended, it
points in the north-south direction. The tip
which points to the geographic north is
called the North Pole and the tip which
points to the geographic south is called
the south pole of the magnet.
 Like poles repel each other and unlike
poles attract each other.
 Poles always exist in pairs i.e. monopole does not exist. We cannot isolate the north, or South
Pole of a magnet. Because if a bar magnet is broken into two halves, we get two similar bar
magnets.
 Repulsion is sure test of magnetism.
 Two poles of a magnet always have equal strength.
 The poles of magnet i.e. north pole and south
pole are situated slightly inward from the ends
AB of the magnet. AB is called the geometrical
length and NS is called magnetic length.
6
magnetic length  x geometric length
7
 The force of attraction and repulsion between two poles of pole strength m1 and m2 is directly
proportional to the product of two pole strengths and is inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them.
F  m1m 2
1

r2
combining the two we get
Km1m 2
F  where K is called the magnetic force constant
r2
0
In SI K   107 WbA 1m1 and in cgs K = 1
4
0 m1m2
thus F  this is just like the coulombs law, so we call it coulombs law in
4 r 2
magnetic force.

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THE MAGNETIC FIELD LINES
Magnetic field lines are the lines straight or curved tangent at any point of which gives the direction
of magnetic field.
These lines are used to represent the magnetic field pictorially.
Properties of magnetic field lines
 The magnetic field lines of a magnet (or a solenoid) form continuous closed loops. This is
unlike the electric dipole where these field lines begin from a positive charge and end on the
negative charge or escape to infinity.
 The larger the number of field lines crossing per unit area, the stronger is the magnitude of the
magnetic field B.
 Two field lines can never cross each other. (If they did, the field
at the point of intersection will not have a unique direction, which
is absurd.) If two electric lines of force intersect each other then
there are two directions of electric field at the point of
intersection which is not possible. Hence no two electric field lines
cut/intersect/cross each other.
 Magnetic lines contract lengthwise to represent attraction between two unlike poles
 Magnetic field lines exert lateral (sideways) pressure on each other to represent repulsion
between like poles.
MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT
A magnetic dipole consists of a pair of magnetic poles of equal and opposite strength separated by a
small distance.
Examples of magnetic dipoles are magnetic needle, bar magnet, current' carrying solenoid, a current
loop etc. Atom is also considered to behave like a dipole so the fundamental magnetic dipole in
nature is associated with the electrons.
Distance between the two poles is called magnetic length and is taken as 21. Let m be the pole
strength of each pole.
Magnetic dipole moment is defined as the product of the pole strength of either pole and distance
between the poles.
Magnetic dipole moment is given by
M = m x 2l
It is a vector quantity hence in vector form M  m  2l
Direction of magnetic dipole moment is from south to north pole.
S.1. unit of pole strength (m) is ampere-metre (A m) and that of m is ampere-metre2 (A m2) or
joule tesla-1 (J T-1).
MAGNETIC FIELD INTENSITY AT A POINT ON THE AXIAL LINE OF AN MAGNETIC
DIPOLE (END-ON POSITION)
Let SN = 2l magnetic length:
OS = ON = l:
m = pole strength of each pole:
To find the magnetic field at point P
we assume that there is a unit North
Pole present at P.
Now the magnetic field intensity at P
due to the south pole of the bar magnet
0 m
B1  Along PS
4 (r  l) 2
Similarly magnetic field at P
0 m
B2  Along NP produced
4 (r  l)2
Therefore the net magnetic field at P is given by
0 m  m
Ba  B1  B2   0
4 (r  l) 2
4 (r  l)2
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0 m  1 1 
 Ba  
4  (r  l) (r  l)2 
 2

0 m  4rl 
 Ba 
4  (r 2  l2 )2 
Since m x 2l = M magnetic dipole moment
0 2Mr
Therefore Ba  along NP or along SN produced
4 (r 2  l2 )2
If l <<< r then r 2  l2  r 2
0 2M
 Ba 
4 r 3
MAGNETIC FIELD INTENSITY AT A POINT ON THE EQUATORIAL LINE OF THE
MAGNETIC DIPOLE (BROAD SIDE POSITION)
Let SN = 2l magnetic length:
OS = ON = l and OP = r SP = PN = r 2  l2
m = pole strength of each pole:

To find the magnetic field at point P we assume that there is a

unit North Pole present at P.
Now the magnetic field intensity at P due to the south pole of the
bar magnet
0 m 0 m
B1   Along PS
4 SP 2
 
4 r 2  l 2 2

0 m
B1  ------------------ (1)
4 r 2  l 2
Similarly magnetic field intensity at P due to the north pole of the bar magnet
0 m
B2  Along NP produced ------------------------ (2)
4 r 2  l 2
From (1) and (2)
0 m
B1  B2 
4 r 2  l 2
As shown in fig the resultant of B1 and B2 is towards PK.
Let B1 is represented by the side PS of ΔPSN
B2 is represented by the side NP of ΔPSN
And the resultant Be is represented by the side NS
Therefore by triangle law
B1 Be

PS NS
B1 0 m 2l
 Be  NS 
PS 4 (r  l ) r  l2
2 2 2

Since 2ml = M magnetic dipole moment therefore

0 M
 Be 
4 2 2 32
(r  l )
If l <<< r then r 2  l2  r 2
0 M
 Be 
4 r 3
TORQUE ON A DIPOLE PLACED IN UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD

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If a magnetic dipole is placed in a uniform magnetic
field as shown in figure 15 then North and South
poles of
the magnet will experience equal and opposite
forces.
Let 2l = Magnetic length of magnet
m = Pole strength of each pole
B = Strength of magnetic field
θ = Angle between m and B
Then Force acting on North Pole = mB along B
Force acting on South Pole = mB opposite to B
So these forces are equal and opposite therefore
these constitute a coupe. And the torque will acts on the dipole which rotate the dipole in the
direction of magnetic field.
Torque acting on the magnet is (  ) = moment of couple
= either force x perpendicular distance between the forces
= mB x NR ----------------------------- (1)
NR
 sin 
In ΔSNR SN
NR  SNsin   2lsin 
Therefore (1) becomes   mB  2lsin   (2lm)Bsin 
  MBsin 
In vector form   MB
The direction of  is given by right handed thumb rule. Here it is into the plane of the paper
perpendicular to the plane containing M and B

TO FIND THE VALUE OF B USING AN ELECTRIC DIPOLE (COMPASS NEEDLE)

Consider a small magnetic dipole (or compass needle) of magnetic moment m and let
I = moment of inertia
Torque acting on the magnetic dipole (or compass needle)
  MBsin 
d2
Now in equilibrium I  MBsin 
dt 2
Negative sign with mB sinθ implies that restoring torque is in opposition to deflecting torque.
Since is small therefore sin θ ≈ θ
d2
I  MB
dt 2
d2 MB
 2
 
dt I
d2
This represents a simple harmonic motion. Compare it with the standard equation  2 
dt 2
 2  4 2 I
2
MB I
We get 2      B  and T  2
 T  I MT 2 MB

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POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A DIPOLE IN MAGNETIC FIELD
Consider an electric dipole of length 2a in a uniform electric field B such that the dipole moment
( M ) makes an angle  with the electric field ( B ) as shown in the diagram shown in the previous
page. The equal and opp. Forces mB are also shown.
The torque acts on the dipole is given by
  MB sin 
Work done in rotating the dipole through some angle d
is given by
dW  d  MBsin d
Total work done in rotating the dipole from 1 to 2
2 2

W   MBsin d
1
 W  MB  sin d
1

 W  MBcos   MB(cos 2  cos 1 )

2
1

This work is stored as the potential energy of the system


If 1  & 2   then
2
U (  ) = MBcos  = M B
Special cases: (1) when   0 the U = -MB = minimum.
i.e. dipole is in stable equilibrium. Also dipole is like parallel to Electric field.
(2) when   1800 U = MB = maximum.
i.e. dipole is in unstable equilibrium. dipole is anti parallel to Electric field
BAR MAGNET AS AN EQUIVALENT SOLENOID
Study of magnetic field lines due to a solenoid and a magnet shows that magnetic field lines due to
both are almost same. So a solenoid can act as a bar magnet. All the properties of the magnet can be
applied to the solenoid also.
If a magnetic needle is brought near to the solenoid and then to the bar magnet the deflection is same
in both cases.
To make this analogy more firm we calculate the axial field of a finite solenoid.
Let the solenoid in Fig. consists of n turns per unit length. Let its length be 2l and radius a.
Let P point on the axial line at a distance r from the centre O the magnetic field is to be found.
Consider a circular
element of thickness dx
of the solenoid at a
distance x from its
centre. It consists of n d
x turns.
Let I = current through
the solenoid.
The magnitude of the
field at point P due to the
circular element is
0 ndxIa 2
B  3
2  (r  x) 2  a 2  2
3
for r  a and r  l we have  (r  x)2  a 2  2  r3
0 ndxIa 2
 B 
2r 3
The magnitude of the total field is obtained by summing over all the elements in other words by
integrating from x = – l to x = + l. Thus,
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2 l
0 nIa
B 
2r 3  dx
l

0 nIa 2 0 nI2la 2
 
l
 B  x l

2r 3 2r 3
Here rearranging the numerator of the above relation we have
0 2(n2l)Ia 2
B 
4r 3
Where (n2l)Ia 2  total no. of turns  current  area  m = magnetic dipole moment.
0 2m
 B 
4r 3
This is also the relation for axial magnetic field of a bar magnet. Thus, a bar magnet and a solenoid
produce similar magnetic fields. The magnetic moment of a bar magnet is thus equal to the magnetic
moment of an equivalent solenoid that produces the same magnetic field.

THE ELECTROSTATIC ANALOG

Magnetism and electrostatics have similarities with each other.
1
In most of the relations if electric field E is replaced by magnetic field B and is replaced by
4 0
0
, charge q by pole strength by m we get the similar results for the magnetic field. For example
4
2p
In electric field we have E axial  and here if we replace p by m
40 r 3
1
and  0 we get the results in the magnetic field
0
0 2m
Baxial 
4r 3
p m
Similarly E equ.   Bequ.  0 3
40 r 3 4r

MAGNETISM AND GAUSS’S LAW

The net magnetic flux through any closed surface is always zero.
B   B dS  0
OR B   B dS  0
S
SOME TERMS ELATED TO EARTH MAGNETISM
A vertical plane passing through NS line (Magnetic axis) of
freely suspended magnet is called the magnetic meridian.
And the vertical plane passing through the north south
direction is called geographic meridian.

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MAGNETIC ELEMENTS OF EARTH
The magnitude and direction of the earth’s magnetic field at a place are completely given by the
quantities known as magnetic elements. These are
(i) Magnetic declination (θ)
(ii) Magnetic inclination or dip (δ)
(iii) Horizontal component of earths magnetic field
(H)
MAGNETIC DECLINATION (θ): Magnetic
declination at a place is defined as the angle between
geographic meridian and magnetic meridian at that
place. (Fig 1)
OR
The angle between the magnetic axis and the geographic axis is called
the magnetic declination.
The declination is greater at higher latitudes and smaller near
the equator. The declination in India is small, it being 0º41′ E at Delhi
and 0º58′ W at Mumbai. Thus, at both these places a magnetic needle
shows the true north quite accurately.
MAGNETIC INCLINATION OR DIP (δ): Magnetic dip is the angle
between the direction of total intensity of magnetic field of earth and a
horizontal line in tile magnetic meridian. (Fig. 2)
Dip is also represented by symbol I which stands for inclination.
In most of the northern hemisphere, the north pole of the dip
needle tilts downwards. Likewise in most of the southern hemisphere,
the south pole of the dip needle tilts downwards.

Horizontal Component of Earth's Magnetic field (H)

The component of total intensity of magnetic field of earth in the
horizontal direction in magnetic meridian is called as horizontal
component of earth's magnetic field. Fig. 2
From the fig. we have
V  R sin  ---------------- (1)
H  R cos  --------------- (2)

Divide (1) by (2)

V R sin 
  tan 
H R cos 
Square and add (1) and (2) we get
R  V2  H2
Value of H is different at different places. It is zero at poles and equal to total value of magnetic
field intensity at equators.
Note: (i) If δ1 and δ2 are observed angles of dip in two arbitrary vertical planes which are
perpendiculars to each other then the true angle of dip δ is given by
cot 2   cot 2 1  cot 2 2
(ii) If λ be the magnetic latitude at a place then the angle of dip δ at a place is given by
tan   2tan 
Some technical terms related to magnetic field/magnetic lines, commonly used to explain the
behaviour of magnetic materials, are given below:

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 Magnetic flux (ΦB)
The number of magnetic lines of force passing normally through a surface is defined as magnetic
flux and is denoted by ΦB
The SI unit of magnetic flux is weber (Wb). Dimensions of flux are [ML 2T-2A-1]
 Magnetic Induction or Magnetic Flux Density or Strength of Magnetic Field (B)
We know F  q(v  B) or in magnitude F = qvB sinθ
Now if q = 1C, v = 1 m/s and θ = 900 then F = B
Magnetic field strength of a magnetic field being equal to the force experienced by a unit positive
charge moving with unit velocity in a direction perpendicular to the magnetic field.
SI unit of B is weber/metre2 (Wbm-2) or tesla (T). the cgs unit of B is gauss. 1 gauss = 10-4T
 Magnetic Permeability
It is the ability of the material to pass magnetic field lines through it.
Relative Magnetic Permeability of a material is defined as the ratio of the magnetic induction in the
medium to the magnetic induction in the free space.
B
 r 
B0

Also  r 
0
i.e. we may also define the Relative Magnetic Permeability is the ratio of the magnetic permeability
of the material (μ) to the magnetic permeability of the free space (μ0).
SI units of Magnetic Permeability are tesla metre/ampere (TmA-1) or weber/ampere/metre
(WbA-1m-1) or henry/metre (H/m)
It has no dimensions.
 Magnetising Force or Magnetizing Intensity (H)
The magnetic field which magnetises a substance placed in it is called the magnetising field.
The degree or extent to which the magnetising field can magnetise a substance is known as the
intensity of magnetising field. It is denoted by H.
We know in a solenoid B = μnI
So the product nI = H is called magnetizing intensity.
Therefore we have B = μH
If inside the solenoid there is free space then B0 = μ0H
The SI unit of H are A/m
 Intensity of Magnetisation (I)
It is the extent upto which a material is magnetized by the magnetizing force.
The intensity of magnetization is defined as the magnetic moment per unit volume of the material.
magnetic moment M
I  
volume V
If A = area of cross section of the material
2l = magnetic length of the specimen
m= strength of each pole of the magnet
m  2l m
therefore I  
A  2l A
i.e. we may also define intensity of magnetization as pole strength per unit volume.
The SI unit of I are A/m which are same as of H.
 Magnetic Susceptibility ( χ m )
It is the ratio of the intensity of magnetization (I) induced in the material to the magnetizing force
(H) which magnetizes the material.
I
 χm 
H
It has no units and no dimensions.
It is the property of a material which tells the ease with which a material can be magnetized.
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Relation between Magnetic Permeability and Magnetic Susceptibility
Total magnetic field (B) in a solenoid is the sum of the magnetic field in vacuum (Bo) and the
magnetic field (Bi) due to the material core having non zero magnetization field.
i.e., B = Bo + Bi
But Bo = μ0H and Bi = μ0M
B = μ0H + μ0M = μ0(H + M)
Dividing both sides by H, we get
B  M
  0 1   --------------------------------------- (1)
H  H
B M
But   and  m
H H
Therefore (1) can be written as
  0 1  m 

  1  m 
0

We know  k is called relative dielectric permeability
0
Therefore we have k  1  m 
CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS
Faraday divided the materials in three classes according to their magnetic behaviour:
(a) Ferromagnetic Materials.
(b) Paramagnetic Materials.
(e) Diamagnetic Materials.
Diamagnetism
The materials which are weakly magnetized in a direction opposite to the direction of applied
magnetic field are known as Diamagnetic Materials. A magnet will repel a diamagnetic material
Examples : Gold, silver, copper, zinc, lead, bismuth, mercury, diamond, marble, glass, silicon,
quartz, water, alcohol, air, helium, argon, hydrogen nitrogen, salts like sodium chloride etc. are
diamagnetic materials.
It is very difficult to magnetize a diamagnetic material. They require very strong magnetic fields to
show magnetic properties. Their magnetic behaviour normally does not depend upon change in
temperature.
Paramagnetic Material .
The materials which are weakly magnetized in the direction of applied magnetic field are known as
Paramagnetic Materials. They move from space of weak magnetic field to stronger magnetic fields.
Examples: Aluminium, chromium, manganese, platinum, calcium, antimony, sodium, magnesium,
tungsten, copper chloride, salt solutions of iron and nickel, crown glass etc. are paramagnetic
materials.
Paramagnetic materials tend to lose their magnetic behaviour with the rise in temperature.
Paramagnetic materials can not be easily magnetized.
Ferromagnetic Materials
The materials which are strongly magnetized in the direction of the applied magnetic field are
known as Ferromagnetic Materials.
Examples: Iron, steel, nickel, cobalt and alloys like alnico (Aluminium + nickel + cobalt) are
ferromagnetic materials. Ferromagnetic substances can be easily magnetized.
Ferromagnetic effect is noticed even in the presence of weak magnetic field. With the rise in
temperature it becomes comparatively less easier to magnetize the ferromagnetic substance.

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HYSTERESIS LOOP (MAGNETISATION CURVE)
Consider a solenoid having ferromagnetic (Iron) core inside it. By changing the value of current in it
the magnetic field inside the solenoid also changes. This magnetic field magnetises the iron rod
placed in the solenoid.
Let initially the iron core is unmagnetised i.e. induced magnetic field (I) = 0. Now increase the
current which increases the intensity of magnetising field (H) from zero to X such that induced
magnetic field I has a value Y at position A. now further
increase in current increases the value of H but it will not
change the value of I. Thus point A is known as saturation
point corresponding to which I is maximum.
Now reduce the current in solenoid such that (H) becomes
zero as shown by point R. Now the magnetism in core
reduces along AR and not along original curve AO. Thus, the
value of I corresponding to zero value of H is equal to OR
called residual magnetic field or retentivity.
Reverse the current in the solenoid and increase it until poin
D is reached.
Reduce the current again such that (H) becomes zero.
Change the polarity of the current again and increase it until
point A is reached again. Curve ARCDEFA is known as
Hysteresis loop which is the result of a cycle of magnetization and demagnetisation. It is important
to refer to OR and OE in Figure which clearly indicates that even when there is zero magnetic field
intensity some magnetisation I is still there.
The magnetism retained by the specimen even when magnetising field is reduced to zero is called
residual magnetism of the material and this property of the magnetic material is known as
Retentivity or Remanence. To bring residual magnetism to zero, magnetising field intensity equal
to OC and OF is to be applied in the opposite direction. The property of a magnetic material which
depends upon the value of reverse magnetising field required to reduce the residual magnetism to
zero is known as Coercivity.

PERMANENT MAGNETS AND ELECTROMAGNETS

Permanent Magnets
The magnets which maintain their ferromagnetic properties for a
long time at room temperature are called permanent magnets.
Steel is a common material used to make permanent magnets. It
has high retentivity (residual magnetism) and very high
coercivity
Followings are some alloys are also used to make permanent
magnets:
(i) Cobalt steel. It contains cobalt, tungsten, carbon and iron.
(ii)ALNICO (alloy of aluminium, nickel, cobalt, copper and
iron.) It is brittle.
(iii) TICONAL (Alloy of tin, cobalt, nickel and aluminium.)
Permanent magnets are easily made by rubbing a ferromagnetic
material say iron bar with a
magnet in a particular fashion. Permanent magnets can also be made by placing hard ferromagnetic
bar in a current carrying solenoid.
Material for permanent magnet should have :
(i) high permeability
(it) high coercivity
(iii) high retentivity

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