Generie Bective Paper -It (Optics, Special Theory of Relativity, Atomic Physics, Quantum [Mechanics and NuclearPhysics) unr. (Optic: Elementary ideas of monachomiticaberaions and heir minimization, ‘chromatic aberation, achromatic combination, Theory of formation of primary and scconday rainbow, condition of interference, cobercat sources, Youngs deuble slit ‘experiment, bipriom and measurement of wave length of light of by i, cle of thin Sls and Newoas rings, Fresel and Fraunhale diaction, daction by sage sit, plane wansmissongsaing. Optics: Flecromagnctis natwe of light, polarized and unpolarized Hal, polaizaion by selection and reaction, Brewsters Lav, Mauls Law, Deuble ‘efiseon, Ordinary and extraordinary ys UNFTAL Atomic Phystes Iadoquacy of lasial physics, bie ouline of Rayleigh Jean theory and Planks quantum theory of radiation, parle nature of clecwomagactic radiation photo ectc efit, Compton effect, dual nate of sadiation, wave nature of pails, do- Broglie hypothesis, mater wave, wave particle daly, Davisson ermereperiment Bohes theory of Hydrogen stom, explanation of Hydrogen Spectra, conection for fixe mast of the nucleus, Bohrs comespondence principle, Hiniations of obey ‘theory, Discrete ney, exchange by stom Frank Hentzexperinent unrr- Quantum Mechanics: Heisenbergs) Unceruinty relation, Time dependent Scrodingers wave equstion in one dimension and thee dimensions, The physica interpretation of the wave function, Probebilty density and probability exrent density, Equation of conimity, Nomalzation of the Wave funcon, Expectation Value ofan observable, Ehrenerts theorem. Time independent Schrodinger: wave ‘equation in one dimension panicle ia a bax, enegy eigen values and eigenfunctions, uNIry Nuclear Physies + Propertics of the nucleus Charge, Size, Spin, Magnetic ‘Moment, Mas, Mass defect, Binding energy, Packing fraction, Nuclear force and is characteristics features, Radioactive decay laws, average lif, hal Tift, nuclear fission, nuclear fusion, Linear accelerators, and eycotron Relativgy: Galilean wansformaton, Newtonian relativity and its limitation, MichelsonMorleyexperimentanditsconsequence,postlatesofspcialincory of ‘laity. Lorentz transformation, length contraction, time dilation, relavistie ‘mass and momentum, mass energyelation. ‘Text Books: 1. University Physics, H.D. Young, RA. Freedman(Person) 2. Fundamentals of Physics, Resnick, Halliday, Walke(WHey) Reference Books: LA Text Books book of Optics N Subeahmanyam and Brij Lal (S Chand Publishing) 2. Introduction to Spesial Relativity-R. Resnick (ln Wiley) = Cc a3Cheomatic ALbexation - D Finitlon Googie “en 8 fae elie oad poi The emage OF a white object Formed. by a eee = 1S Usuate Coloured 2 brunned« THU CoH e og: it _ - OF . cs a (l the tmage Casted CHROMATIC. MATIC ABBERATIog — 2 . A ] ‘ — 0; Apo Y a i Se : aa gs Wf Yous whe 5 qj ed The Phenomency tn which edge OF Convex Jong atts vn O Prism nd Gert the white “Light into differents 8°! A Wavelengtrs is" Card Chromatic Abhenation.. ( “f eee There ete a Dt oneal o Tis o¢ c , - ork fy thatonar ! ’ Char ahonp |, Ch ~Abberartion es tie Ob erratic sa hy 1° tt Teed As torlon dy writ ne FR vet, opticad 5 tug aul a Qe abeCOTPACTIYA) MPRA Od a yy) Achrepmatic : Mik aa ‘ DowbLet tg ie ie Rea RBlue” oye mold 2 !POwolenptsy NY 4. TL Fotured a 4) Same ‘Po Giceon speMmal yp, . Out of Achromatic focug Obieetive — t i a oy ° Neo hromat Triplet Focuses att the 4 ) ¥isibie (eon lenny) 0» ke ae “aay Pole Ke nl Ap ochromatic gantd amr obsective. ) i Thorne ane 9 mau ty on . DY TTREA PP v Chea rat fe! Abb orcas ion wy “Lonaytpetyat ROMATIO. ARE PEER RATION anion co 0 This OCLUMR whe» derenent toavelen arg feaued ot der. ae Po ee the beela. axis. Sit “resuts ns Bek FHS OF Hien Hye has! : r a4 3 » ont BB Foto borodA y objexts, ; Panticuany, when “they Cora oe CF pod.anaverde’ Co CHROMATIC ABERRATION aa ° Thig Oconee whe dite. consetengts and. Focupod at @> Lateral Tiree 66 | scare Rein bou different positions tn the image Plane, portend cutorn | hop recetey tn the optical axis. \ i To Pre SoHE results In Coton falngingy ameund the edges OF Tse Conn Qbiecks Noticeabie toward? the edged Of/ 4) Image p ) ma a | Semnny iD) Carupes an yao |v nRefroe © Ditrenont oovelangtg OF - Light shave’ dinrorent enh to Speeds whey passing thsUph a tons material: medam, ( “0 The tong Share 2 material Can Comtaibute tp itm how muth each wavelength js mefracted « eaotent Ls jinside, Conmection methods - if suasnce Se ehiods a 0 =Achro atic _Lenses - » ( Disper: These are made: by Combining 400 -typep of The 4g Blass. with ier. dispersion Poorectieg ty bring Desqee ight ly sHton § Wavelengtys (- oe tyPicury med 9 “biae) int Focup | {n tho Same Plane + i © Apochvomatic tencey — Those > any goon | boing, 3 wavelonial' (IL, ved green ed bre) , Ven POUR sock atte 1 Same! p iad! Heid! e WHE" betroy Csomect! on « 4 . 120 eiAl Vih | aodod Wd? > 1! . + gue digit Comaeap of ten incense Sortware a § Bo Cosne.ct Chromatle aber ret! 6) jp Post FT Pypcegsingy. pete gd WRPGA Jal Theor of fermmition of Prima E20 nny nainbes as Rainbows ane Formed due to the rcofmwerion (ere. neptacetsy a) BS hétitdy BF Ligne eheyin coactere drppLete, Te mage: Primary RAINBow. (0 _Rerrateton, Primary & Seconpary , nainbsws are. Geprerenty 2 Mt Commonty Observed tyeg " ¥ Whey Sunlight emteng eo wator dreoptet , it Slows hy ; ; ’ dow R bendy (néFracts ) becaupe oF the Change sy Us ; . : medum (from: arn ty waren) * to i (22 Internal Rofiec fon ; Inside the deopiee , the, ight TaN £4 $046 “tho Iehen. Surface + 1 ' ' (9 Dispersion a The Light is disponged into tio Chist tory Coping: ning Porouge dipronont, wavolengtiy ve Ligne’ tepnact ‘ob Guightiy sdirfenent angiey. ' ul 6 1 Foc ug ' \ ‘ ty? (yy Second Refraction Aste HAE ORS) the dheoelety it wapader e again, ; bending: feucthon. & Sepanacting mone inte HW Component ors. Inge 7 TOON Rg “the Comb ination ‘of there Procge thiviang nexit Be dropiet ar vanouy angiey jos sporteoted 1085) “tian blue ghd | for the Primany walibois is! “couse, toe Lignt tp | Oy ned tight being The ‘angie. oF dewasion | UyPicaty anound ys i for med Lgnt 2 YO" fon biue Light. THE, requit is Q Spectrum of Colors whty red onthe ouden eage R biue on the Sofware. innen Cd Ge OF -the ant.SECONDARY _RAtBOWY i Gy Reprmetion oh a «at Bee ) ' ‘ F.. Simian 40 the primary nainbaw, Sutighh enteng, a todtth droplet & retracts + ; a ” Forma (ay) Prva Bikennddt_reertectibn walsh Meret The or i reptetts OPP the iqnen SuPate oF the 4 he ditp p Lat + ~! yh a : whe 4 © Jeownd_intennad reriection coat ts Unlike the, Preah rainbow, the, a rePlects (ly Corocc’ | SP OF nother inthenas. funface voP “bie ‘drebptek! dutside | (io Dispension ae wey . , RE ey During, the eaPLectiong the, en dispongeg inte rohbow TtB Constituent ColLong- | resent rtp eR 1 cl dyss- (5) Wied nefaaetion | a | fonsit The Light. exts ye dmoplet,, moraeelng inp ~ . ; d . | Vhe t ° Doe ‘to the Second internat FR WLICD, the {ont | tight CxIES “the dieoplet at ao Yreater i ONGIRes This) aidditis’gall ; reget (aye. MAPLettion Cargod the, Satondany ralabow ty ane qua: oe “he Primary palm bou.,ast 1M @hpte: OF @perarimatl (8 gerasa 5e- EX _ egceng The Coton onder ts revorgod , alth 8) (Hy He 4 a ot nner edge & bive on cthe Outen. edge ste Seong sued ae ae Ie Quse falrten,, because, more. rights, fest ite) te ® By eat Item natieetion; cosy eee tO phasee won Ral bow : Formed: Re One sin-tennal, TEOPTELEION - ‘ : ng th ( ° e SD -angie: fc For rod wight ~4e fon btue light - tts) (Wy Coton onde’! Red on-the et! Outside, biue On the jnside ' . 1 (iy than the Secmndar oty ren bows dire to Leos internal, moflection Ceeusing fees sight ity Foumed, by -tioo Internat pop ecrtons* (ny Angles vh0°- 4530) deg nord 4 (1) Coton. orden : Rod cin lthe inside, bie on the outside » “thay the primary | dig ’ addislonas Internal REPEL ION Causing mone Light Logs. __ Avss: (YThe two. Soureex of Light Shoutd omit 706 chitemasic t Light Loan Cont inousey + SM) (oy the amplitude of 2 waver Showd be o us equal: mately (3) Sopanatioy bet coon ‘2 Sountoy Shoutd be Semouth + ty The 2 Souncey of Light Should be Poine - “Punta 1 Hed, oy lost ' SOWLL + phase dipfenente between (6) Tye 2 Scuncsy of Light Sheutd be Cohersnt ve the saad wa nearly 5 rosso | them Should be Zene/éongton | % ,Coherent ene refer to Sourctag Of Light (or. othonf Ge ' Woven) “that have O Lonstoyt Phage seLactionsh! Pky De Game frequency * “big! meang’ that '-the warog Foo these Sourons Can intenPere with each othor Const ours on degtrucctively, Loading to the Ponmation of Clean & Stable intenference pactberns+ Ke Chanactongricg OF CHhenont Soueeg include + A Sone Op 2! Stik: (19 Constant Phage Dirrenence — 1Y Fioby » The Phase dirrenence between the, coavey) From \ Coherent Sourte? Semains Constant ver time win taxes . ; ; Lh the par ’ 4 | Polet ‘pi The waves hove. ame Feequaency oT a very Path, Smart dipperence “PSEIUPN CY,» inp BD Monochromatic Light — kh GE ad 1 eghenent Soutcez Often Omit mppnochromatic Light; | wg whi) 6 Wight GF a’ Single Wavelength. (5) 7 SP { 2 eKame lex 5; wat oll (BB) =| 4G Lageng, tologvarhy » Interferometry: GOs) 14 av dayne of huual? 7 Hiqnn Young Joule Sth deen irdeto Neat 4 { + ¢ xperum reTtinn ps rotinangrd © 7 ¢ wr gp 5 + yas na02 wee here 92004 ae4 hon, ~~ Geientiot “Thomag.iteon Produbed vwmhertence; Goivecon i 4 by double ‘Git method + Thene ‘i a naickinwe/ Polat i Sounce of monochromatic Neht (S) - w Teo, ‘Sits (5) 9 “Uy (8) axe made, Spmetricatty, on ay opaaue. Obstacte- ‘ The Sopanotion betwee 2 pits = ds; t A Sense te Placed ata distance D + . , : : TEO™ the Pl OF 2 Stites The Point oF ‘dBsonwation \p’ Fat : ; lie ‘at a distance ig? Hiiamy “tye Ede PSinE DO” oy “thy, gerensy)- Whether. a hadomrs Peinge oni dark fringe. WI fanee Plate cet -the Polat “of ohserwation ‘p! depends On the Path dherenence between!’ 2! whlviy 'ardklving ad! Point ‘pl’, y \ Path dierenence betwee, 2 wovey naaching at Polat p ts em by + An = SP 7 SP } a 2 (SP). GO = (SPALOEP o5)R) baits ' ts, . ri 4 my >) SP HDR SPHD , . "Aap abd ' (sib) - (5,0 = 2D x An, —_- -- O Lo) aah inh = (bt BA) - (58 AF) e . + (r+) | - [se qa] dy ~ (yd) ae GY GH 4 aor ® » 2 5p - SP = rad | d e 2D x bn + 24d Dan tAO bright -Pringesvtole be-Poem Ob Ane” polit oF bse te De Ban (4) ore id eon ge ane ’ Thug bright toingg wit be! Foumod at e Rane bs pon A ask Prin 2, wit, be pra ot he Point; oF. + Observation “Pp jp = (n- 1) Ay Coheed =1,2,3, ia (2h yd whe ~A ne i " AD dak POE Mangia 2» YE one) AD ¥ ( 34 hos the 4 Thug, dank, Feinges Wilt -be »-Horem ed at mt b di. ‘ ye AD SAD | SAD i b doy don nddv cad Sado ys 4 & aad 1 vA { y! ; Fringe Wwiddtt p! , Y ‘ w doy Tt is derined af, the’ /Sepanction betiveen 2! 4 , an bright fang on. 2 Grnsecurive dork, | & 7 / | KER - GRR doug Wt ' i 2 |» ' - + j , g it | ody . | dang ~ j , i, 124 i — distanee between (nei) ahd HY bulge city ALS nger wy a pe than _ (pap, ° Se 4 up a ileeww ak eeswt 22:06 ChatGPT G : Karan Kumar Das Fresnel and fraunhoffer diffraction chatGPT Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction are two different regimes of wave diffraction, which describe how waves, such as light, bend and spread when they encounter obstacles. Fresnel Diffraction + Near-Field Diffraction: This occurs when the distance between the wave source or an obstacle and the observation screen is relatively small. + Spherical Wavefronts: In Fresnel diffraction, the curvature of the wavefront is considered, leading to more complex patterns that depend on the distance from the source to the screen. + Example: Diffraction patterns observed when light passes through a slit and is observed at a short distance. Fraunhofer Diffraction + Far-Field Diffraction: This occurs when the wave source or an ~>stacle and the observation screen are at a’ wy ‘ance from each other. + Plane Wavefron, aunhofer diffraction, the wavefrante are annFAvimated ac nlanar laadina + — Message & PT) = C awt 22:07 = ChatGPT Gi: Paunmurer uniacuun + Far-Field Diffraction: This occurs when the wave source or an obstacle and the observation screen are at a large distance from each other. + Plane Wavefronts: In Fraunhofer diffraction, the wavefronts are approximated as planar, leading to simpler, more predictable patterns. - Example: Diffraction patterns observed with light passing through a slit and observed with a lens or at a large distance. Key Differences + Distance: Fresnel diffraction is applicable for near-field conditions, while Fraunhofer diffraction is for far-field conditions. + Wavefront Curvature: Fresnel considers spherical wavefronts; Fraunhofer approximates them as planar. + Complexity: Fresnel patterns are more complex and depend on the specific geometry of the setup, whereas Fraunhofer patterns are simpler and can often be described using Fourier transforms. Understanding the differences between these types of diffraction is crucial in optics and various applications like microscopy, astronomy, and the design of optical instruments. + — Message u PT) t) u12:19 OS oa ChatGPT G S The electromagnetic nature of light refers to the theory that light is a form of electromagnetic radiation. This theory was first proposed by James Clerk Maxwell in the 19th century and is described by Maxwell's equations. According to this theory: 1. Electromagnetic Waves: Light consists of oscillating electric and magnetic fields that are perpendicular to each other and to the direction of wave propagation. ” Speed of Light: These waves travel at the speed of light (approximately 299,792 kilometers per second in a vacuum). Wave-Particle Duality: Light exhibits both wave-like and particle-like properties. As a wave, it can interfere and diffract. As particles, called photons, it can exhibit phenomena like the photoelectric effect. 4, Spectrum: Light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum, which includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays. Visible light is the portion of the spectrum that can be detected by the human eye. » This electromagne*’ “ture of light underpins many modernte’ yy _ s, including telecommunicatic, dical imaging, and + — Message & i?) t) uPotasisation he Phonomenon by virtue oF which pest wo (estlct the vibrations oF Ugh jee a single. po plane Ss caued as “polanis ation TR ®a Light wane Contains vibacetiog which ane Perpendiauar +o the plane of Sagar oF tight is. tated as Peds Polarised ight A 2 ni 1 Fansieteen ts tau IWIN INN, COTTE, The law states that; the tangent of thol! polarising ongte. Of incidence oF @ Frans Parent median ig egdal tots" kefeactive’: ince Mires! Hanis API > Hone Lp = Polaris sing ange ) Couete: Maier Ware / de broglle wave R Whose Wavelempie » WHA. ts Given by ; : ' ‘he! ow P. mv™ j seated AT Oe ee | A phodoRentttive otal plete c Ce i a metal placto. A Ceausel 22 collectore) aWw yt @ ay ® wy te FOS & « ts vaud onty for yt Fouls te LRP ICA the Dohr'S -thesany | hydsro gen & hy Crear © droge, Ke Rlenents rebit of Ciect os where etietiCk OTbIt axe alsa oqualy PrObAL e- +o 4 4“ 4 4 yedsenbeng Uncenralnty Prindere - qe foals b& expla, existence oF orbital Sane 2 ZeeMon bret:Sa + 02:11 1G 2 3%, a ChatGPT G : quantized nature of electron energy levels. Bohr's correspondence principle Bohr's correspondence principle is a concept in quantum mechanics that states the behavior of quantum systems must correspond to classical physics in the limit of large quantum numbers. In other words, as the scale of the system becomes large (or the quantum numbers involved become large), the predictions of quantum mechanics must align with those of classical physics. Niels Bohr introduced this principle to provide a bridge between the new quantum theory and the well-established classical mechanics. It implies that the quantum mechanical description of physical systems should approximate classical descriptions when the systems are large enough to be described classically. The correspondence principle helps ensure the continuity and consistency between the two realms of physics. Some key points about Bohr's correspondence principle: Vv + It was crucial i, zelopment of the old quantum theory and helped in Message u i?) = Cc a)[ _bneorctalnty Pilqcl Pie” bexaoie = 2 fommutaked by sere Fe “heteant P uncelttaty palace) ‘ | Fermoy, PhySleist Unthnen hedsenberf (9 1424 oe = 2 | 6+ th Poy Fundamental pomcleie of Quartun methanicg - basket j i e | Ot sStactex that 1 3S Impossibie +o Simones aber 1 a Preesety Know both the position & momentum pf a Path "HY panthue Wy absolute Contalety- a Mi | Methomakti Catty, _. . i | Aa | 4 j | Bw Ap "OS a ie i : : 12) 6 isk Ay = Unteralnty In posttton 2 7) & ti Ap = uneantalnty ty momentum | | i \ s { a he Pe redue d oo Congteant \> (& B MOSUSTIB KIO Ere ]Vv i oaciieen ll i oa PT Ne am eo ina ” \ t As the scale of the gystem beasmes tare, the predict ef Quantum mechanicn must ation with these OF ces! Cad Chysicg- . 3 dimenstonal oy sy yy zee 0 met ay + yz = (eE-v) Y = E = Tota Vo =. Potentiat energy h = Plarce's constant = 6.63 x io 34 y= Ampiitude OF wave FunctionThe wave eq! of Stationary wome in coondinake Sy ster Y= Asnamn TD A oin , " ATE A Me distance from MURIEL A> maximum value of y Ueveventiate Uy wet Hm = A Cos 2 (A) EOD Rates dy _ ana a Areremontiat® again eatery Word Ww ay dh [28K ie 2K ve (Sor \ 2:54 . (gin SEN) BE: pr “A (-si9 a ) A 4 2 eye in 2ER Be af toma) foom e274 & (3) we get 2 Pg as oe ade- bmogiia ware Length oie Mut * SUR ly Wyma ys - yn mul y 2v i? eee ( + L unatel “ys oe (9 Teta eperpy = KE PE \ os aMe tv > (ey bow ) wos 2(e-Y) ae (6) mM r value OF UI ea tS) we geta, (eo ee 4 3 & = Seatternn angic wf photon. Probability density R PTOHALNEY cardont denied ONL Con oF Quantum meohanicg that dercmlbog “tre behaviowe oF Paelcleg at the atom % Qwoatomic feves- 4 so e RePraert the Probability of Findlng ae partie Withinr a given weplon of Space - iy hats e BDecwibed by thy GUAM Cs Of the Abcotute value of tre wave Function (yir)) . eo Units ~ preballeity Per wart velsuma Cr). F&F Poo o Represents the plow of Probabivty density to space x time» eo Described by the Product of woreFrunction Q \tA complex conhagate, mukteiled ty the Jmaginany cenit (i JR Planck's Conctant Oy + j e YAEtS t= PTOPALIEY Pex Unit Area Per Unit tHme Corrs ki f ,| | disappear , valen® ot 2 Nuclear Dindy “ aS nels Esme cppaare a ass € F oS. dk was was, tha feat ob escablish tra copivalerce Es wretll bis, fomous “siation The reledion Mean tnd when a cordatn ay ies ™ Binoclin. any Oo rutelew ie the Loner ia whe Inucloons eat ould Gn the nucleus meaty loth h cna (amy — Who. cif porance Aehooon tho Qum sk hu rrasace of | pputbione & preston reming, a nucleus 2 mare rhb i in ‘Calta mass Maas. ok nucleons - Maes, 5 nucleus Sam = Lemp tao my)-M norco. , Mp = mass st prodon, Mp = mass sk rancher M = mass of nucle i We mass of Am gate’ convorkeel Junty 2 Koopa. ae veto ee ot on Bircling energy e . Lin xe: : Tg AM’ as aoprasec) oo amu, Bink Ang = Am x93 May 1 We le xt 9 > ime s Ip” oy - i | '+ 02:13 1G v2! g3% a ChatGPT G Packing fraction The packing fraction is a concept used in nuclear physics to describe the stability of an atomic nucleus. It represents the ratio of the difference between the mass of a nucleus and the sum of the masses of its constituent protons and neutrons to the mass number of the nucleus. Definition and Formula: The packing fraction (( f )) can be defined mathematically as: (Zm,+(A-Z) mq —m,uclews) a where: Z) is the number of protons in the nucleus, m_p) is the mass of a proton, A) is the mass number of the nucleus ‘total number of protons and neutrons), m_n) is the mass of a neutron, m_nucleus ) is the actual mass of the nucleus. Vv Key Points Abou..-acking Fraction: Message q i?) = C a)bb Pate nucleon be, su ocd, bey rch Mes Stable Mea Fan feat sk aeachion acting obansn 8 ee \ Baxi Kesenad Hee dapat feiss a traci i netbeans Q puchons Locomus exe than |e ems “thay danesme Mardy reopuulsive 4 Nuclear, {eecas cures! the sbi gest horce in (ast ae ‘ho shines. stg! than shectreostebic. 1 2 10 time” stan than sah qravtlational en | Aawhaaeen Q & nucleon oe, | al Niucloare lindo 6h charge. They ome | Aortwoon as ie. rotons, oO he atl . fee Re naa uy sheck ine ce Thuy oct ct.aan wl | ee aoe 8 ‘epee taso . sab be Ps se ie A plo oF the nueloons ie au. paral Spin) Real A daca | eo& | as the reoporcte dy viuchud? t tobrich 0. tay, ghomord> dis tokn wails uk Without bein, 4 duals thy | wae discovered 7 ie Bec querel dn egg 2 ees Boston, Countrimentsl investigations. preovec sted the reovely eae “e ns Ve, “abr coneiate of ent ten stale. abibitey as peaitiecke, ants hey, low “~~ 4 acd wlth leas hartiedig Peo, "Ve ra hs eas which is athe nucleus { = |The vind ‘wth sp Ut wh by Dat ete partes movi je ‘cotta Bt Tetons) ‘t ro eh ood rein has La wi ce iehitng Power | euce ama, te : | losalnatb |r Hh Sekine = ha rusnlo, xt oboe. - i | fp rt Betton ek \"5 coe wh no. de veaboatber aie a | in Aha Bample oc arat Instant Prelats tat Ny = NO. ke clove! besarte ortat'y ; | | o a te ek Taye ot cok dng PME dn “he seme” aN = Lira ne. sk odome ah, an & Lee Inkucyel coe |on Ts = al ar < Wi Merce >= constant: 5 proportional known ax ie gaaiog Conta te. ay Const B or Ss = cbt “i : | hay des we ee [apf mies ee ae ry oe es 2-atie ——-U where. C= Conte st ir | tence, Ae et, ahs “he above ¢ aucehion Lecemes, f dea N 2->dxo +e ca ory C= MMe La oO Ione Ne ad Lege No ; i Nagel = “eke “ ore ey cpt| reodinnchve Actmple reoducos te 1 ma afd ei oo levee tn the Sample | Se foance. ot D Contant Conadart BL a, 4 eadiapetive 2lemerdt- tte roche, dhe Llomoyp + 4 meank casera Dd 42, Small , Substance, ahonong abi: Be whan > ‘ie dana te Lubtenee dec te St wit» al “é my He i a. rodivactive Qobackoneg aloment ~~ BH defined os tre dime cLurcin which, half ato ays ys reoprezannbal by| / [ae a / We have, Ne pee oe Ob Taking cor ‘ both ides +- Dry, Ane = lok = rt, toe edn >> = My sind. y at, = tho. + 7 2 & | . 6 x bo ty, = ae Reet x a | Q90 a on Qoi a |g. aavacxete ee » Pb = | i x! ae &) V Ayan dike ds obbained 4, | ee tan ( “tha ato. sk alk odamt de stint atamave by : | ane abla no milstloe alemont -fe put cts be. rece placa clement ‘ The wor vi like of @ bbe Mean life (e)= ty j, = beh 29449 T a pre T= 0-698 ad dN wetive. ubotonce rcodioachve, Lame. , « elo any contdnyd- ef ne — NB wwe ~fetor -l|a i nlucl“Sa 02:15 1G 2 3%, a = ChatGPT G : § Nuclear fission and nuclear fusion are two different types of nuclear reactions that release energy due to changes in the nucleus of atoms. They are both central to nuclear physics and have significant applications in energy production. Nuclear Fission: Nuclear fission is the process in which a heavy atomic nucleus splits into two smaller nuclei, along with a few neutrons and a large amount of energy. Key Points: + Fissile Materials: Common fissile materials include uranium-235 and plutonium-239. + Chain Reaction: When a nucleus fissions, it releases neutrons that can induce fission in nearby nuclei, leading to a chain reaction. This is the principle behind nuclear reactors and atomic bombs. + Energy Release: The energy released in fission comes from the binding energy of the nucleus and is typically on the order of millions of electre~ “alts (MeV) per event. *ControlinRea \, 1uclear reactors, the chain reaction , dlled to release energy clawly and etaadih” Aantal rade ahearh + Message & i?) = Cc a)“Sa 02:15 1G 2G! g3% a = ChatGPT G + Energy Release: The energy released in fission comes from the binding energy of the nucleus and is typically on the order of millions of electron volts (MeV) per event. + Control in Reactors: In nuclear reactors, the chain reaction is controlled to release energy slowly and steadily. Control rods absorb excess neutrons to manage the reaction rate. + Applications: Fission is used in nuclear power plants to generate electricity and in nuclear weapons. Example Reaction: 235 141 U* 4. Kr” + Ba energy 4+ 8n+ Nuclear Fusion: Nuclear fusion is the process in which two light atomic nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus, releasing energy in the process. Key Points: * Fusion Materials: Common fusion reactions involve isotope ‘rogen, such as deuterium ana + Conditions: Fusionrequires extremely high + Message & i?) = Cc a)Sa + 02:15 1G 2 3%, a ChatGPT G iuciear rusrun. Nuclear fusion is the process in which two light atomic nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus, releasing energy in the process. Key Points: + Fusion Materials: Common fusion reactions involve isotopes of hydrogen, such as deuterium and tritium. + Conditions: Fusion requires extremely high temperatures (millions of degrees) and pressures to overcome the electrostatic repulsion between positively charged nuclei. - Energy Release: The energy released in fusion is also due to the binding energy of the nucleus and is significantly higher per event than fission. Fusion reactions power the sun and other stars. + Challenges: Controlling fusion on Earth is challenging due to the extreme conditions required. Research is ongoing in projects like ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor). + Applications: Potential future applications include fusion power plants that could provide a virtually ''mitless and clean energy source. we Example Reaction: Message u i?)+ 02:15 1G 2G! s3% a ChatGPT Gi: D+T — He’ +n + energy Comparison: 1, Fuel Sources: e Fission uses heavy elements like uranium and plutonium. « Fusion uses light elements, primarily isotopes of hydrogen. 2. Energy Output: « Fusion releases more energy per unit mass compared to fission. 3. Byproducts: » Fission produces radioactive waste with long half-lives. « Fusion produces relatively less and shorter-lived radioactive waste. A. Safety: » Fission carries risks of nuclear accidents and proliferation. Fusion, while technologically challenging, has fewer risks of catastrophic failure. Both processes hold significant potential for energy production, with fission already being widely used and fusion representing a promising but still-developing technology. Message u i?) t) uJU way D4 ‘ AO mn ( yan JO ' A uvayINU ey 4 +Low versely —~ galt! sean Toanspos mat! 07 WP veedty - Lorentz.” Transternat!e) Koventz rraqséosmaton,- The Loree transeormaston is tye -transforrmation betus 2 Inertia reFerence -Pramek when one ts moving “th a Constourt werouyey Wik the Chex | :Positlon Prom uw " Mois ate ca! Sey ne ¥ (e+ vt’) et = ¥ (et +vt') | Poa pn Bhs) let = weeny} a) : ri J mlz Y(niyt)s =) als ¥(ct- vt) From 8B et! = yt (e-y) aie wee) ¢ Nowy pu the vate OF t! ty eam)Puttin é YY of v4 au) 2 1k ' tye. Val cute ing ne rls ve’) e1€6y(S) ea (a) wy\ torent deransFoomat!) WG i@ Known 4 eg". Lr tasty it is a device prota, elect Ton x parHle ett: to very high enemplar- uged to accrlerrate Charge parcicte Ke inn t pw. tt ts based UPen the prince that @ oO © panticie is arfeeteA bY beth electric a magnetic Lierd:6 + 02:10 $1-@ 2? g3%, a ChatGPT G The hydrogen spectrum consists of various series of spectral lines corresponding to transitions of electrons between energy levels in a hydrogen atom. When an electron in a hydrogen atom transitions from a higher energy level to a lower one, it emits a photon with a specific wavelength. These spectral lines are grouped into several series, each named after the scientist who discovered them: 1. Lyman Series: Transitions from higher energy levels (n > 1) to then = 1 level. These lines are in the ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum. al Balmer Series: Transitions from higher energy levels (n > 2) to then = 2 level. These lines are in the visible region and are responsible for the characteristic colors seen in hydrogen gas discharge tubes. » Paschen Series: Transitions from higher energy levels (n > 3) to then = 3 level. These lines are in the infrared region. * Brackett Series: Transitions from higher energy levels (n > 4) to then = 4 level. These lines are also in the infrared region. Pfund Series’ ‘ons from higher energy levels These lines aréym..«1€ far-infrared region. Message u i?) a sthen = 5 level. t) u+ 02:10 1G 2G! g3% a ChatGPT Gi: Inese nes are in ine inirarea region. 4, Brackett Series: Transitions from higher energy levels (n > 4) to then = 4 level. These lines are also in the infrared region. 5. Pfund Series: Transitions from higher energy levels (n > 5) to then = 5 level. These lines are in the far-infrared region. The wavelengths of the spectral lines in these series can be calculated using the Rydberg formula: where: + (\lambda ) is the wavelength of the emitted light, + (RH) is the Rydberg constant for hydrogen ce RH \approx 1.097 \times 10*7 ) m(*€1})), (nL (nL ) is the lower energy level, ) is the higher energy level. The hydrogen spectrum was crucial in the development of quantum mechanics, particularly in the formulation of the Bohr model of the atom, which explained the quantized nature of electron energy levels. Message & i?) t) u