sustainability

Article
Sustainable Downtown Development for the
Tsunami-Prepared Urban Revitalization of Regional
Coastal Cities
Takumi Ito 1, *, Tsuyoshi Setoguchi 2 , Takashi Miyauchi 1 , Akira Ishii 3 and Norihiro Watanabe 2
1 Division of Architectural and Structural Design, Graduate School of Engineering, Hokkaido University,
Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-8628, Japan; [email protected]
2 Division of Architectural and Structural Design, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Sapporo,
Hokkaido 060-8628, Japan; [email protected] (T.S.); [email protected] (N.W.)
3 Northern Regional Building Research Institute, Hokkaido Research Organization, Asahikawa,
Hokkaido 078-8801, Japan; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +81-11-706-6243




Received: 27 December 2018; Accepted: 12 February 2019; Published: 15 February 2019


Abstract: Regional cities in Japan are facing a decline in the downtown area owing to urban expansion
and a decrease in the population. Promoting downtown living is indispensable for the realization
of downtown revitalization. Since many coastal cities originally developed outward from a port,
their downtown areas are located near the coast and are at high risk of tsunamis. The purpose of this
research is to reveal the effectiveness of dealing with the above two issues in parallel by evaluating
the Deae-ru Saiwai estate, a public housing relocation project in downtown Kushiro, Hokkaido,
Japan that incorporates a tsunami evacuation facility with questionnaires and a GIS survey. Placing
public housing in the downtown area shortens the distance to public facilities and improves the
convenience of the surrounding environment for many residents. Installing the tsunami evacuation
facility improves the feeling of reassurance of residents who would feel anxiety about immigration
with regards to tsunamis. This research has clarified the synergistic effect of dealing with the daily
and emergency issues in parallel for promoting downtown living. Planning downtown revitalization
and disaster prevention concurrently, which has been separated so far, is a fundamental planning
approach for urban revitalization in regional coastal cities.

Keywords: urban revitalization; downtown living; tsunami; public housing; coastal cities

1. Introduction
The achievement of sustainable urban development in the face of a declining population is
a global issue in urban planning. Population decline is a common and serious problem in many
developed cities around the world. In recent years, a declining birthrate and an aging population in
Japan have made its population decline particularly serious. The population of Japan began to decline
from 128.06 million in 2010 and it is estimated to drop to less than 100 million in 2048 [1]. Japan’s
declining population foreshadows the situation in other developed countries in the coming decades.
The population decline is exacerbated in regional cities due to population movements to large cities that
offer advantages in terms of convenience, school attendance, and employment, on top of the overall
chronic population decline and declining birthrate [2]. In Hokkaido, the northernmost prefecture of
Japan, the population decline has outpaced that of the rest of Japan by 10 years [3]. Therefore, the
implementation of sustainable urban development that is capable of catering to a declining population
is particularly required in this prefecture.

Sustainability 2019, 11, 1020; doi:10.3390/su11041020 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2019, 11, 1020 2 of 23

Urban expansion is one of the most serious problems in many countries, including both developed
and developing countries. In Japan, urban expansion began with an increase in the population after
the war since the 1960s. Even then, the city continued to expand owing to the motorization, road
improvements in the suburbs, the placing of large-scale shops and the relocation of public facilities to
the suburbs and cheaper residential land than in the downtown area. Urban expansion has induced
various problems globally. Erosion in the agricultural land [4,5] and an increase in the greenhouse
gas and CO2 emissions [6,7], urban public services expenditure [8], and travel costs [9] have been
experienced globally. Especially in Japan, a decrease in the downtown population due to the population
decline and population outflow to big cities has resulted in a higher population density in vast urban
areas, lower than in the expanded cities. The low density and vast urban area not only caused high
maintenance expenses but also a decline in convenience [10].
Expansion in cities results in a decline in the downtown area. In Japan, the decline in the
downtown area is mainly caused by the out-migration of the residents, reducing the exchange
population and the withdrawal of commercial facilities such as retail stores due to the expansion of
cities. The outflow in population is caused by the change in the lifestyle of residents with regards
to convenience that does not depend on the location and on living in large detached housing due
to motorization and road improvement, high land prices and a lower level of convenience in the
downtown area due to the relocation of commercial facilities and public facilities to the suburbs [11].
The commercial facilities in the downtown area are withdrawn due to the large commercial facilities
that attract customers and are located in suburban areas [12]. A decline in the downtown area, as
well as urban expansion, has several problems. There is an increase in vacant houses and crime [13],
an inefficiency of the existing infrastructure [14], and a loss in stable tax sources [15]. Since 2000,
owing to the low convenience and increased maintenance expenses, local governments are aiming
at consolidating expanded and low-density urban areas [16]. Under this policy, the downtown area
is expected to play a vital role, such as work, commerce, education, and welfare, among others, in
consolidated cities. From this viewpoint, the decline in the downtown area is a serious problem.
The downtown revitalization aims to overcome the abovementioned two major problems [17,18].
Downtown revitalization is to reintegrate centripetal forces of the downtown area by realizing a city
with a high convenience for everyday living and the aggregation of residential and public facilities.
This approach can suppress urban expansion and the decline in the downtown area and lead to the
downsizing of the urban area. Methods for downtown revitalization are being studied globally. There
are commercial activation [12] and tourism and the culture-led revitalization [19,20]. In Japan, the
important factor contributing to downtown revitalization is an increase in the resident population. It is
also possible to stimulate the increase in the population due to the commercial activation of the positive
correlation between the population density and the sales value in the downtown area. For this reason,
downtown living is particularly promoted as a means of downtown revitalization in Japan [21]. This
is a plan to introduce the population to the downtown area from the suburbs by placing residential
and public facilities in the downtown area. Common challenges in the promotion of downtown living
are securing a convenient everyday life and cheap and high-quality housings.
In inducing the movement of residences and public facilities to the downtown area, local
governments are particularly promoting public housing relocation [21]. This is because public housing
is both a residential facility and a policy-controllable facility. Public housing planning is one of the
most important strategies for promoting downtown living. In other words, the relocation of public
housing contributes to the realization of downtown revitalization in Japan. Research into public
housing planning often discusses the habitability of this safety net for low-income earners. Galster
and Hesser [22] and Riazi and Emami [23] evaluated satisfaction with public housing, while Mu and
Szumien [24] and Morris et al. [25] considered the improvement of the community within public
housing through social mixing. In addition, Tam et al. [26] developed a universal design guide for
handrails focusing on the needs of the elderly in public housing. However, there has been little research
into the utilization of public housing for urban restructuring such as in downtown revitalization.
Sustainability 2019, 11, 1020 3 of 23

In regional cities in Japan, local governments are promoting the integration of various public
facilities to reduce fiscal burdens and maintain existing services [27]. It is similarly necessary to
consider the possibility of complex public facilities in public housing. In this way, public housing can
play a further role in the realization of downtown revitalization. Complexing of public facilities in
public housing can thus be seen as a tool for solving regional problems. In Hokkaido, a project was
carried out in which a childcare facility was incorporated into public housing [28]. This project was
aimed at improving the child-rearing environment in the downtown area to promote the inflow of
households which have children into the downtown area. It is thought that public housing relocation
can contribute not only to the building of sufficient-quality housings in the downtown area but also
to the improvement of the convenience of everyday life, i.e., to solve problems for the promotion of
downtown living. However, the effect of this measure on the living environment in the surrounding
urban areas has not been revealed. To explore the possibility that public housing can foster downtown
revitalization, it is important to clarify the effect of such measures on the problems.
Several large-scale tsunami-related disasters have occurred in recent years, especially in island
countries. The Indonesian tsunami in 2004 affected more than 10 countries and killed about 300,000
people [29]. In the Tohoku earthquake of 2011, the tsunami water reached more than 5 km inland in
some areas, reaching a maximum of 19.5 m above sea level [30]. The eventual death toll was 15,641,
with an additional 5007 people declared missing. After the 2011 Tohoku tsunami, it has become
necessary to produce estimates and countermeasures for the largest earthquakes and tsunamis that
may occur in every coastal area of Japan [31]. The largest earthquakes and tsunamis predicted based
on seismology threaten several coastal areas of Japan such as the Nankai Trough area [32]. As the
urban areas of many coastal cities have developed through port development [33], their central urban
areas are located near the coast and are at high risk of tsunami damage.
Two types of measures are taken against tsunami disasters in coastal cities. The first is to relocate
the urban area to a higher ground. In the course of rehabilitation planning, some local governments
of areas that suffered tsunami disaster in the 2011 Tohoku Tsunami relocated urban areas to hills.
However, this prolonged the period for which evacuees had to live at their evacuation destination
because too much time was required to acquire land and carry out construction [34]. Consequently,
fewer residents returned to the new urban areas than expected, and there was a lot of unused land.
Depending on the environment of the relocation destination, this kind of resettlement can have a
negative influence on the livelihood of the relocated households [35]. In addition, since the relocation
of the urban area expands the city area, it could lead to an increase in the maintenance cost of urban
facilities. The above indicates that relocation planning is not realistic as a response to tsunami disasters
in coastal cities. Therefore, planning to reduce the risk of tsunami disasters while maintaining the
existing downtown area is an important issue for local governments in coastal cities.
Thus, the second type of tsunami-mitigation measure is the construction of tsunami evacuation
buildings in coastal downtown areas. This is being carried out in many coastal cities and has
been identified as the main strategy used in order to reduce disaster risk and conduct safe urban
development [36,37]. These tsunami evacuation buildings are generally tall and are constructed with
high seismic, wave and fire tolerances [38–41]. However, most tsunami evacuation buildings in Japan
have been designated as evacuation facilities for existing high-rise buildings [42]. A total of 1790
buildings in Japan were designated as evacuation facilities in 2009; however, this increased to 3986 after
the 2011 Tohoku tsunami [43]. The existing high-rise buildings do not have structural reinforcements
or sufficient equipment; therefore, such buildings are not good enough.
The above reveals that local governments in regional coastal cities in Japan have a dilemma:
they want to promote downtown living to realize downtown revitalization, but there is a high risk of
tsunami damage in downtown areas. Therefore, it is necessary for regional coastal cities to respond in
parallel to the two tasks of the promotion of downtown living and tsunami prevention for downtown
revitalization. However, most of the current urban development in these cities only cover one of
these tasks. The Deae-ru Saiwai estate project deals with the promotion of downtown living and the
Sustainability 2019, 11, 1020 4 of 23

improvement of tsunami evacuation performance together. The purpose of this paper is to clarify
the necessity and effects of dealing with the promotion of downtown living and the improvement of
tsunami evacuation performance in parallel to downtown revitalization in regional coastal cities by
evaluating the Deae-ru Saiwai estate project.
Sustainability 2019, 11 FOR PEER REVIEW

2. Materials and Methods

There are two issues, namely, the downtown revitalization and tsunami prevention fo
There are two issues, namely,
urban the downtown
revitalization, in therevitalization
regional coastal andcity.
tsunami
This prevention
study uses for the urban
a program at Deae-ru Saiwai E
revitalization, in the regional coastal city. This study uses a program at Deae-ru Saiwai
in Kushiro city, Hokkaido as its case study. It is the relocation of public housing to the down Estate in
Kushiro city, Hokkaidoareaas its casea study.
with tsunami It is the relocation
evacuation of public
facility. housing
This paper aimstotothe downtown
clarify area and effects of de
the necessity
with a tsunami evacuationwith facility.
the promotion This paper aims to clarify
of downtown living the
andnecessity and effects
the improvement of of dealing
tsunami evacuation perform
with the promotion of downtown living and the improvement of tsunami evacuation
in parallel in regional coastal cities by evaluating the Deae-ru Saiwai estate project. performance in
parallel in regional coastal cities by evaluating the Deae-ru Saiwai estate project.
2.1. Overview of Kushiro City
2.1. Overview of Kushiro City
Kushiro city is located in the eastern part of Hokkaido (Figure 1). It is a core coastal city
Kushiro city is located
facesinthe
the Pacific
eastern Ocean.
part of Hokkaido
Kushiro city (Figure
has1). It is a core
airports andcoastal
harbors cityandandplays
faces a leading role i
the Pacific Ocean. Kushiro city has airports
comprehensive and harbors
development of and plays a leading
the eastern role in the in
part of Hokkaido comprehensive
terms of administration, comm
development of the eastern part of Hokkaido in terms of administration,
and operations, medical and welfare services, education, and culture. commerce and operations,
The logistics function o
medical and welfare services, education, and culture. The logistics function of
Kushiro Port plays a particularly important role that extends to the Okhotsk the Kushiro Port plays a area and the To
particularly important role
area.that
In extends
addition, to the Okhotsk
Kushiro cityarea
hasand the Tokachi
magnificent area. In
natural addition, Kushiro
attractions such as the Kushiro We
city has magnificent natural attractions such as the Kushiro Wetland
National Park, Akan National Park, forests, lakes, and the Pacific National Park, AkanOcean,
National which is one of the
Park, forests, lakes, andbeautiful
the Pacific Ocean, which is one of the most beautiful
natural environments in Hokkaido. The population of Kushiro citynatural environments in peaked at 227,2
Hokkaido. The population of Kushiro city peaked at 227,234 in 1980. Since then the population
1980. Since then the population decline has progressed and the population is expected to decline
has progressed and the population
106,088 in 2040,is expected
less thanto reach
half its 106,088 in 2040, 2).
peak (Figure lessThe
than half its peakof(Figure
composition 2).
the population is also chan
The composition of the as population is also changing as the proportion of elderly people increases
the proportion of elderly people increases and that of young people decreases. Like other Jap and
that of young people decreases.
regional Like
cities,other
a pastJapanese
increaseregional cities, a past
in the population ofincrease
Kushiroin thecaused
city population of area to expand
the urban
Kushiro city caused thethe urban area to expand from the downtown area to the suburbs.
downtown area to the suburbs. Even as the population began to decline, the expansion of uEven as the
population began to decline,
areas the
did expansion
not stop, and of urban
there areas
was alsodid not stop, and
an outflow ofthere
peoplewas also anconvenience,
seeking outflow school attend
of people seeking convenience, school attendance opportunities and employment
opportunities and employment opportunities of larger Hokkaido cities such opportunities of as Sapporo city
larger Hokkaido citiesAsahikawa
such as Sapporo city and Asahikawa
city. Consequently, Kushirocity. Consequently,
city has Kushiro city
become an inefficient urbanhasarea with a low-de
become an inefficient urban area with a low-density population distributed over sprawled
population distributed over sprawled urban areas. This low population density and urban spra urban areas.
This low population density andan
not only urban sprawl is not
inconvenience onlyresidents
for the an inconvenience for the residents
but also inefficient in termsbut also infrastructure, w
of urban
inefficient in terms of urban infrastructure,
has significant which has
maintenance costs.significant maintenance
So, the local government costs.
hasSo, the localdowntown living
promoted
government has promoted downtown living. It is necessary for the promotion
necessary for the promotion of downtown living to introduce residential of downtown livingand
to public facilities t
introduce residential and public facilities
downtown area. to the downtown area.

Figure 2. The population changes in

Figure
Figure1.1.Kushiro
Kushirocity.
city. Kushiro city.

2.2. Risks of Tsunamis in the Downtown Area

The occurrence of the Tohoku tsunami in 2011 and the flood prediction map for the la
class of tsunami make it clear that the downtown area of Kushiro is at high risk of tsunami dam
as can be seen from the combination of these data in Figure 3. Most of the downtown area is pred
to be flooded to a depth of 5 m to 10 m or more. The time from the occurrence of the earthqua
the arrival of the tsunami in the downtown area is 30 min. Since the evacuation would start 10
after the earthquake occurs, the actual time available for evacuation is 20 min [29]. Based on thi
wa city. Consequently, Kushiro city has become an inefficient urban area with a low-density
on distributed over sprawled urban areas. This low population density and urban sprawl is
an inconvenience for the residents but also inefficient in terms of urban infrastructure, which
ficant maintenance costs. So, the local government has promoted downtown living. It is
y for the promotion of downtown
Sustainability living
2019, 11, 1020 to introduce residential and public facilities to the 5 of 23
wn area.

Figure
Figure 2. The2.population
The population
changeschanges in city.
in Kushiro
Figure 1. Kushiro city.
Kushiro city.
2.2. Risks of Tsunamis in the Downtown Area
The occurrence of the Tohoku tsunami in 2011 and the flood prediction map for the largest class
of Tsunamis in the of
Downtown
tsunami Area
make it clear that the downtown area of Kushiro is at high risk of tsunami damage, as can
be Tohoku
e occurrence of the seen from the combination
tsunami in 2011 and of these data prediction
the flood in Figure 3.mapMostfor ofthe
the largest
downtown area is predicted to be
flooded to a depth of 5 m to 10 m or more. The time from
sunami make it clear that the downtown area of Kushiro is at high risk of tsunami damage, the occurrence of the earthquake to the arrival
of the tsunami
seen from the combination of these indata
the downtown area is
in Figure 3. Most of30themin. Since the
downtown areaevacuation
is predicted would start 10 min after the
ded to a depth of 5 m to 10 m or more. The time from the occurrence of the earthquake to Based on this, the distance
earthquake occurs, the actual time available for evacuation is 20 min [29].
over
al of the tsunami in thewhich it is possible
downtown area is to30 evacuate
min. Since onthe
footevacuation
is 1032 m, would
assuming starta 10
walking
min speed of 0.86 m/s, which
earthquake occurs,isthe
reasonable
actual timefor available
the winterfor period when is
evacuation there may[29].
20 min be snow
Basedcover. When
on this, the adopting a walking speed
of 0.5 m/s, which is more suitable for vulnerable people
over which it is possible to evacuate on foot is 1032 m, assuming a walking speed of 0.86 (those with difficulty walking or physical
disabilities,
ch is reasonable for the winter infants,
periodseriously
when there ill people,
may beetc.),
snow this figure
cover. comes
When down toa 500 m. Figure 4 shows the
adopting
500 m and 1000 m ranges in terms of the road distance from the evacuation completion point without
being in danger from the tsunami flooding along the evacuation route. This figure indicates that it
is difficult to evacuate from the main part of the downtown area to the evacuation completion point
within the time available for evacuation. The local government has been promoting the construction
of new public facilities with good tsunami evacuation performance and the designation of existing
private high-rise buildings as tsunami evacuation facilities in the downtown area (Figure 5). In Figure 5,
tsunami emergency shelter refers to a structure that is resilient to tsunamis and has evacuation space
indoors. A tsunami evacuation building is a building to which people can temporarily evacuate when
escape is delayed; its performance as an evacuation facility is low. The above shows that, similar
to other regional coastal cities, Kushiro city has the dilemma that while it is necessary to promote
downtown living for the realization of downtown revitalization, the downtown area is at high risk
from tsunamis.
the designation of existing private high-rise buildings as tsunami evacuation facilities in the
downtown area (Figure 5). In Figure 5, tsunami emergency shelter refers to a structure that is resilient
to tsunamis and has evacuation space indoors. A tsunami evacuation building is a building to which
people can temporarily evacuate when escape is delayed; its performance as an evacuation facility is
low. The above shows that, similar to other regional coastal cities, Kushiro city has the dilemma that
Sustainability 2019, 11, 1020 6 of 23
while it is necessary to promote downtown living for the realization of downtown revitalization, the
downtown area is at high risk from tsunamis.

Sustainability 2019, Figure

11 FOR 3.
PEER
TheREVIEW
urban structure and tsunami inundation forecast in Kushiro city. 6
Figure 3. The urban structure and tsunami inundation forecast in Kushiro city.

Figure 4. The area from which it is possible to evacuate to a higher elevation (500 m, 1 km).
Sustainability 2019, 11, 1020 7 of 23
Figure 4. The area from which it is possible to evacuate to a higher elevation (500 m, 1 km).

Figure 5. The evacuation facility locations in the downtown area.

Figure 5. The evacuation facility locations in the downtown area.
2.3. The Deae-ru Saiwai Estate: Public Housing with Tsunami Evacuation Facilities
The Deae-ru project has relocated aging public housing in the suburbs to the downtown area,
incorporating public facilities corresponding to the issues of the downtown area. The Deae-ru Saiwai
estate has been relocated as part of this project and a tsunami evacuation facility has been incorporated
into it in order to contribute to the tsunami evacuation measures of the downtown area (Figure 6).
The site is near the Japan Rail (JR) station, and a market, post office, elementary school, and nursery
school are located in the surrounding area (Figure 7). It comprises 40 units. A total of 15 of these
are child-rearing support units, which are only available as residences for households which have
young children. The residential units are installed only on the second floor or above in consideration of
tsunami flooding. Since the first floor of the building would ward off the impact of the tsunami, it has
been designed as a warehouse and bicycle parking facility, with no walls other than those necessary for
construction. Emergency power supplies, stockpiles, rooftop hovering space, and evacuation spaces
are installed on the top floor (Figure 8). The top-floor evacuation space is planned to be used as a
meeting place for residents and as a childcare facility at normal times; however, it becomes a temporary
evacuation facility in the event of a disaster (Figure 9). Should a disaster occur, about 1000 refugees can
evacuate to evacuation spaces including shared corridors from the 4th floor upwards. The estimated
inundation height near the site in the event of the largest predicted tsunami is 6.2 m. Comparing the
tsunami inundation level in their former residences to the tsunami inundation level in the surrounding
area of the Saiwai estate, it can be seen that most residents have been relocated to an area with a higher
tsunami inundation level (Figure 10). This reflects the fact that most of the households moving to the
downtown area are facing living with the risk of an increased danger of tsunami flooding. For this
reason, to promote downtown living, it is important to reduce the psychological burden imposed by
moving to the downtown area by improving citizens’ reassurance that adequate tsunami evacuation
measures are in place.
 Sustainability 2019, 11, 1020 8 of 23
Sustainability 2019, 11 FOR PEER REVIEW 7
Sustainability 2019, 11 FOR PEER REVIEW 7
Sustainability 2019, 11 FOR PEER REVIEW 7

Figure 6. The Deae-ru Saiwai estate.

Figure
Figure6. The
TheDeae-ru Saiwaiestate.
Deae-ru Saiwai estate.
Figure 6.6.The Deae-ru Saiwai estate.

Figure 7. The evacuation space and meeting place.

Figure
Figure Theevacuation
7.7.The evacuation space
space and
andmeeting
meetingplace.
place.
Figure 7. The evacuation space and meeting place.

The location
Figure8.8.The
Figure location of
ofthe
theestate.
estate.
Figure 8. The location of the estate.
Figure 8. The location of the estate.
Sustainability 2019, 11, 1020 9 of 23
Sustainability 2019, 11 FOR PEER REVIEW 8

Sustainability 2019, 11 FOR PEER REVIEW 9

Figure 9. The
Figure 9. The composition
composition of
of the
the estate.
estate.

2.3. The Deae-ru Saiwai Estate: Public Housing with Tsunami Evacuation Facilities
The Deae-ru project has relocated aging public housing in the suburbs to the downtown area,
incorporating public facilities corresponding to the issues of the downtown area. The Deae-ru Saiwai
estate has been relocated as part of this project and a tsunami evacuation facility has been
incorporated into it in order to contribute to the tsunami evacuation measures of the downtown area
(Figure 6). The site is near the Japan Rail (JR) station, and a market, post office, elementary school,
and nursery school are located in the surrounding area (Figure 7). It comprises 40 units. A total of 15
of these are child-rearing support units, which are only available as residences for households which
have young children. The residential units are installed only on the second floor or above in
consideration of tsunami flooding. Since the first floor of the building would ward off the impact of
the tsunami, it has been designed as a warehouse and bicycle parking facility, with no walls other
than those necessary for construction. Emergency power supplies, stockpiles, rooftop hovering space,
and evacuation spaces are installed on the top floor (Figure 8). The top-floor evacuation space is
planned to be used as a meeting place for residents and as a childcare facility at normal times;
however, it becomes a temporary evacuation facility in the event of a disaster (Figure 9). Should a
disaster occur, about 1000 refugees can evacuate to evacuation spaces including shared corridors
from the 4th floor upwards. The estimated inundation height near the site in the event of the largest
predicted tsunami is 6.2 m. Comparing the tsunami inundation level in their former residences to the
tsunami inundation level in the surrounding area of the Saiwai estate, it can be seen that most
Figure 10.Former
Figure10. Former addresses
addresses ofofresidents.
residents.
residents have been relocated to an area with a higher tsunami inundation level (Figure 10). This
2.4. Evaluation
reflects factMethods for of
the Saiwai Estate (Table 1) to the downtown area are facing living with the
2.4.the that
Evaluation most
Methods for the households
the Saiwai moving
Estate (Table 1)
risk of
Asan increasedindanger
organized of tsunamithis flooding. For this reason,the to promote downtown living, it is
As organized in the introduction, this paperaims
the introduction, paper aims to clarify
to clarify necessity
the necessity andand effects
effects of dealing
of dealing
important
with with to reduce
the promotion the psychological
of downtown living burden
and the imposed by moving to the downtown
performance by
area
the promotion of downtown living and theimprovement
improvement of of tsunami evacuationperformance
tsunami evacuation in
improving
parallel citizens’
in the reassurance
regional thatby
coastal cities adequate
evaluatingtsunami evacuation
the Deae-ru Saiwaimeasures are in place.
estate project.
in parallel in the regional coastal cities by evaluating the Deae-ru Saiwai estate project.
In thisInstudy, four four
this study, surveys, A, A,
surveys, B, B,
C,C,andandD,D,were
were conducted
conducted totoinvestigate
investigate the the Saiwai
Saiwai estateestate
program from two methodical viewpoints: 1) as a survey of people from public
program from two methodical viewpoints: (1) as a survey of people from public housing relocated housing relocated to to
the downtown areas and 2) as a survey of the people installed from tsunami
the downtown areas and (2) as a survey of the people installed from tsunami evacuation facility toevacuation facility to
public housing (Table 1). Additionally, the effects of the estate were organized from two viewpoints
public housing (Table 1). Additionally, the effects of the estate were organized from two viewpoints of
of evaluation: 1) its effect on the promotion of downtown living and 2) its effect on the improvement
evaluation: (1) its effect on the promotion of downtown living and (2) its effect on the improvement
of tsunami evacuation performance. The former effect is evaluated by survey A-1, A-2, D-1, and D-2.
of tsunami evacuation performance. The former effect is evaluated by survey A-1, A-2, D-1, and D-2.
Survey A was conducted to clarify the effect on the everyday-life convenience of residents due to
Survey A was
living in theconducted
downtownto clarify
area. SurveytheDeffect on the everyday-life
was conducted to clarify the convenience of residents
effect on citizens’ reassurance due to
livingregarding
in the downtown
the tsunamiarea. Survey
evacuation of D was conducted
residents due to theto clarify theofeffect
construction on citizens’
the estate. reassurance
The latter effect
regarding the tsunami
is evaluated evacuation
using survey B and of
C. residents
Survey B was dueconducted
to the construction
to clarify theofeffect
the estate. The latter effect
on the recognition of is
the estate as an evacuation facility due to installing a tsunami evacuation facility
evaluated using survey B and C. Survey B was conducted to clarify the effect on the recognition of the to the public
housing. Survey C was conducted to clarify the effect on the reduction of the shortest evacuation
distance due to the construction of the estate.
The detailed investigation method is as follows. Survey A-1, a questionnaire survey of estate
residents, was conducted to clarify the effect of moving there with regards to their satisfaction with
the convenience of their surrounding area (number of target households: 38; collection rate: 61%;
implementation period: October 7, 2016, to October 10, 2016). Though downtown living is being
Sustainability 2019, 11, 1020 10 of 23

estate as an evacuation facility due to installing a tsunami evacuation facility to the public housing.
Survey C was conducted to clarify the effect on the reduction of the shortest evacuation distance due
to the construction of the estate.

Table 1. The evaluation methods for the Saiwai estate.

Viewpoints of Evaluation
Effects on the Improvement
Effects on the Promotion of
of Tsunami Evacuation
Downtown Living
Performance
[survey B] the effect on the
[survey A-1] the effect on the usability of the estate as an
everyday life convenience of evacuation facility due to
Qualitative survey
residents due to living in the installing a tsunami
Placing public downtown area evacuation facility in the
housing in the public housing
downtown area [survey A-2] the effect on the
Quantitative everyday life convenience of
survey residents due to living in the
Viewpoints of downtown area
Method
[survey D-1 and D-2] the effect
on the reassurance regarding
Qualitative survey tsunami evacuation of
Installing a residents due to the
tsunami construction of the estate
evacuation facility [survey C] the effect on the
to the estate Quantitative reduction of the shortest
survey evacuation distance due to the
construction of the estate

The detailed investigation method is as follows. Survey A-1, a questionnaire survey of estate
residents, was conducted to clarify the effect of moving there with regards to their satisfaction with
the convenience of their surrounding area (number of target households: 38; collection rate: 61%;
implementation period: 7 October 2016, to 10 October 2016). Though downtown living is being
promoted in some regional cities in Japan, the concrete effect of living there on the living environment
has not been clarified. Numerous studies have shown that high accessibility to public facilities is
related to residents’ satisfaction with their surroundings when living in a city [44,45]. Among the
effects of moving on the living environment, this research article especially clarifies the improvement
of accessibility to public facilities (Supermarkets, Hospitals, City Halls, Childcare facilities, Cultural
facilities, Exercise facilities, Elementary schools, Middle schools and Commuting facilities). As well
as questions evaluating residents’ general satisfaction with the surrounding environment, questions
were set to evaluate their satisfaction with concrete items in the surrounding environment such as the
accessibility to public facilities and public transportation, security, and the liveliness of the area. In
survey A-2, the distances by road from the estate and from their former residences to public facilities
were analyzed and compared to quantify the effect of downtown living on convenience. It also
compared the corresponding annual gasoline costs because Kushiro city is one of the leading areas for
automobile ownership in Hokkaido. The questionnaire survey showed that about 80% of residents
in the estate own one or more cars, and 25% own two or more cars. Therefore, the comparative
gasoline cost has a large effect on their household finances. Survey B, a questionnaire survey of the
surrounding residents, was conducted to clarify the effect on the usability of the estate as a tsunami
evacuation facility due to installing an evacuation space in a public facility (target household number:
721, number of responding households: 194, implementation period: 21 October–4 November 2016).
The questionnaire was set to evaluate awareness of the evacuation facility in the Saiwai estate and the
recognition of the evacuation destination by candidates. Based on the coverage area of each evacuation
facility set by the local government, the target is the residents who live in the entire city block in
the covered area of the Saiwai estate [46] (Figure 11). Survey C was conducted to clarify the effect
of building an estate with a tsunami evacuation facility on the shortest evacuation distance of the
surrounding residents. For the total number of residents in the surrounding area, this survey took the
Sustainability 2019, 11, 1020 11 of 23

daytime population (data from 2015). This number was adopted because the area around the Saiwai
estate has a larger population during the daytime than during the nighttime. This discrepancy arises
because public facilities such as Japanese-style commercial markets and the central post office, and
educational facilities such as junior high schools and nursery schools are all present in the surrounding
area. Based on the coverage area that the local government sets for each evacuation facility, the target
Sustainability
area is the2019, 11 FOR
whole cityPEER
blockREVIEW
in the covered area of the Saiwai estate [46]. The evacuation starting 11
point was set as the midpoint of the closest side of each block to the nearest evacuation facility. The
evacuation completion point was set as the closest point to the entrance Evaluation
of the evacuation facility on the
side of the city block where the evacuation facility is located. In the Effectsdistance
evacuation on the improvement
measurement,
Effects on the promotion of
the evacuation distance generally includes thedowntown distance to climb up to a of tsunami
height evacuation
where there is no
living
performance
possibility of tsunami flooding in the evacuation facility [47,48]. However, in the case of this study,
it is unnecessary to consider the traveling time inside the building for the [survey B] the effect
following threeon the
reasons.
First, it is clear that residents can evacuate [survey
to theA-1] the effect
nearest evacuation usability
on the facility of thethe
within estate as an
evacuable
Placing Qualitative everyday life convenience of evacuation facility due to the
time (20 min) because all the blocks within the scope of the survey belong to the coverage area of
public survey residents due to living in the installing a tsunami
evacuation facilities. There is no point in clarifying the evacuation distance correctly. Second, this
housing in downtown area
survey focused on changes in the evacuation distance before and after theevacuation constructionfacility in the
of the estate.
the public housing
The travel time inside the building does not affect these changes. Third, the estimated inundation
downtown [survey A-2] the effect on the
height is the same in all of the places within this investigation range; therefore, even if the nearest
area Quantitative everyday life convenience of
evacuation destination changes to the Saiwai estate, the travel time inside the building does not change.
survey residents due to living in the
Viewpoints
Survey D, a questionnaire survey of residents in and around the estate, was conducted to clarify
downtown area
of on the feeling of reassurance regarding tsunamis with regards to the incorporation of a
the effect
[survey D-1 and D-2] the
Method
tsunami evacuation facility into the Saiwai estate. Kawakami and Asano [49] showed the necessity for
effect on the reassurance
evaluating the feeling of reassurance that disaster prevention projects give to citizens. Survey D-1 is a
Qualitative regarding tsunami
questionnaire survey of residents (target households: 38, collection rate: 61%, implementation period:
Installing
survey evacuation of residents due
7 October 2016, to a tsunami
21 October 2016). The questionnaire items are set to evaluate worries regarding
to the construction of the
tsunamis that arise evacuation
from downtown living and the feeling of reassurance provided by living in the
estate
facility to
Saiwai estate with its tsunami evacuation facility. They are also set to evaluate the issues that contribute
[survey C] the effect on the
the estateor anxiety about the estate with regards to tsunami evacuation. Survey D-2
to this feeling of security
Quantitative reduction of the shortest
is a questionnaire survey of residents survey
in the surrounding neighborhood evacuationhousehold
(target distance due number:
to the
721, number of responding households: 194, implementation period: 21 October 2016, to 4 November
construction of the estate
2016). The questionnaire items were set to evaluate the same items as Survey D-1 did. The target is the
same as in Survey B.

Figure 11.
Figure The questionnaire
11. The questionnaire survey
survey range.
range.

3. Results

3.1. [Survey A] The Questionnaire Survey for Residents of the Estate

Sustainability 2019, 11, 1020 12 of 23

3. Results

3.1. [Survey A] The Questionnaire Survey for Residents of the Estate

Figure 12 shows the results of survey A. Regarding “satisfaction with surrounding areas,” more
than 60% of residents answered “satisfied” or “somewhat satisfied.” Regarding “convenience of the
surrounding area,” nearly 60% of residents answered “convenient” or “somewhat convenient.” More
than half of2019,
Sustainability the 11
residents
FOR PEERanswered
REVIEW “satisfied” or “somewhat satisfied” for items other than “distances 12
to facilities suitable for daily shopping” and “distances to sports/cultural facilities” and “liveliness of
“distances
the city” in to facilities suitable
“satisfaction for dailyitems
with particular shopping” and “distances
in the surrounding to sports/cultural facilities” and
area.”
“liveliness of the city” in “satisfaction with particular items in the surrounding area.”

Figure 12.
Figure The questionnaire
12. The questionnaire on
on the
the resident
resident evaluation
evaluation of
of the
the surrounding
surrounding environment.
environment.
3.2. [Survey A-2] Change in Commuting Distance and Distance to Public Facilities after Moving
3.2. [Survey A-2] Change in Commuting Distance and Distance to Public Facilities After Moving
Figure 13 and Table 2 show the results of survey B. On average, the distance to locations other
Figure 13 and Table 2 show the results of survey B. On average, the distance to locations other
than “sports facilities” and “junior high school” has decreased. The reduction of the distances to
than “sports facilities” and “junior high school” has decreased. The reduction of the distances to a
a “supermarket,” “nursery school/kindergarten,” “sports facility” and for their commute has the
“supermarket,” “nursery school/kindergarten,” “sports facility” and for their commute has the effect
effect of reducing the household gasoline cost by more than 10,000 yen per year. Interestingly, while
of reducing the household gasoline cost by more than 10,000 yen per year. Interestingly, while the
the distance to a supermarket decreased, a low level of satisfaction was reported with “distance to
distance to a supermarket decreased, a low level of satisfaction was reported with “distance to shops
shops suitable for everyday shopping.” The comments from residents in the questionnaire’s free entry
suitable for everyday shopping.” The comments from residents in the questionnaire's free entry
column indicate that this contradiction arose for the following two reasons. First, in the Japanese
column indicate that this contradiction arose for the following two reasons. First, in the Japanese
trading market next to the estate, the price of everyday goods is higher than in supermarkets in general.
trading market next to the estate, the price of everyday goods is higher than in supermarkets in
Second, a large supermarket next to the estate closed shortly after the construction of the housing
general. Second, a large supermarket next to the estate closed shortly after the construction of the
estate. This result shows that, even in the downtown area, a decline in living convenience can occur if
housing estate. This result shows that, even in the downtown area, a decline in living convenience
hollowing out causes a withdrawal of public facilities.
can occur if hollowing out causes a withdrawal of public facilities.

Table 2. The changes in the distance to public facilities and gasoline fee before and after the moving.

Distance of One Gasoline

Facility Frequency
Way Cost/Year
Before 642 m 16,854 yen
Supermarket Average After 164 m 4305 yen Twice/week
Changing −478 m −12,549 yen
Before 1260 m 16,539 yen
Hospital Average After 689 m 9044 yen Once/week
Changing −571 m −7495 yen
Before 1816 m 11,919 yen
City Hall Average After 562 m 3688 yen Twice/month
Changing −1254 m −8230 yen
Before 732 m 22,511 yen
Child-rearing
Average After 343 m 48,042 yen Fifth/week
facility
Changing −390 m −25,530 yen
Before 2004 m 13,152 yen
Cultural facility Average After 384 m 2520 yen Twice/month
Changing −1620 m −10,632 yen
Sustainability 2019, 11, 1020 13 of 23
Sustainability 2019, 11 FOR PEER REVIEW 13

Figure 13. The

Figure changes
13. The in in
changes thethe
distance
distanceto
topublic facilitiesand
public facilities andgasoline
gasoline costs
costs caused
caused by moving.
by moving.
Table 2. The changes in the distance to public facilities and gasoline fee before and after the moving.
After 573 m 37,607 yen
Facility Changing Distance−20 m Way
of One −1181 yen
Gasoline Cost/Year Frequency
Before
Before 1045
642 mm 68,584 yenyen
16,854
Middle school Average
Supermarket Average After After 1218
164 mm 79,939 yen
4305 yen Twice/week
Fifth/week
Changing
Changing −190
478 m
m 11,354 yenyen
−12,549
Before 2834 m 186,019 yen
Before 1260 m 16,539 yen
Commuting Average
Hospital Average After 2466 m 161,848 yen Fifth/week
Once/week
After 689 m 9044 yen
Changing −368 m −24,171 yen
Changing −571 m −7495 yen
Sustainability 2019, 11, 1020 14 of 23

Table 2. Cont.

Facility Distance of One Way Gasoline Cost/Year Frequency

Before 1816 m 11,919 yen
City Hall Average Twice/month
After 562 m 3688 yen
Changing −1254 m −8230 yen
Before 732 m 22,511 yen
Child-rearing facility Average Fifth/week
After 343 m 48,042 yen
Changing −390 m −25,530 yen
Before 2004 m 13,152 yen
Cultural facility Average Twice/month
After 384 m 2520 yen
Changing −1620 m −10,632 yen
Before 1001 m 6570 yen
Exercise facility Average Twice/month
After 1058 m 6944 yen
Changing 57 m 374 yen
Before 591 m 38,788 yen
Elementary school Average Fifth/week
After 573 m 37,607 yen
Changing −20 m −1181 yen
Before 1045 m 68,584 yen
Middle school Average Fifth/week
After 1218 m 79,939 yen
Changing 190 m 11,354 yen
Before 2834 m 186,019 yen
Commuting Average Fifth/week
After 2466 m 161,848 yen
Sustainability 2019, 11 FOR PEER REVIEW Changing −368 m −24,171 yen 14

3.3.
3.3. [Survey
[Survey B]
B] Improvement
Improvement of
of the
the Usability
Usability of
of the
the Estate
Estate as
as an
an Evacuation
Evacuation Facility
Facility
Figure
Figure14 14shows
showsthetheresults
resultsofof
survey B. B.
survey For “Recognition
For “Recognition of Saiwai
of Saiwaiestate as an
estate asevacuation facility,”
an evacuation
more than
facility,” 60%than
more of the residents
60% answered,answered,
of the residents “I know that it is anthat
“I know evacuation facility.” For
it is an evacuation “candidates
facility.” For for
evacuation destination,” more than 60% of the residents cited public facilities, and
“candidates for evacuation destination,” more than 60% of the residents cited public facilities, and few people cited
private facilities such as hotels.
few people cited private facilities such as hotels.

Figure14.
Figure Thequestionnaire
14.The questionnairefor
forsurrounding
surrounding residents
residents on
on the
the evacuation
evacuation against
against tsunamis.
tsunamis.

3.4. [Survey C] Reduction in Evacuation Distance Around the Saiwai Estate

Figure 15 and Table 3 show the results of survey C. The shortest evacuation distance is reduced
in the eight blocks, including the block where the Saiwai estate is located. The total population to
experience a reduction in the evacuation distance is 948 people, and the evacuation distance is reduced
by 157 m on average. This is a shortening of the evacuation time by about 3 min at a winter season
walking speed. There are especially high reductions of more than 200 m in the evacuation distance for
Sustainability 2019, 11, 1020 15 of 23

blocks No. 23 and No. 25, which each have a daytime population exceeding 100 people. There is a
nursing home and a central post office in block No. 23, for which the evacuation distance is reduced by
240 m. The reduction of the evacuation distance by 240 m has the effect of shortening the evacuation
time of 8 min by 8.7 min when converting based on the walking speed of vulnerable people.
Sustainability 2019, 11 FOR PEER REVIEW 15

Figure 15. The reduction in the shortest evacuation distance around the Saiwai estate.
Figure 15. The reduction in the shortest evacuation distance around the Saiwai estate.

3.4. [Survey C] Reduction in Evacuation Distance Around the Saiwai Estate

Figure 15 and Table 3 show the results of survey C. The shortest evacuation distance is reduced
in the eight blocks, including the block where the Saiwai estate is located. The total population to
experience a reduction in the evacuation distance is 948 people, and the evacuation distance is
reduced by 157 m on average. This is a shortening of the evacuation time by about 3 minutes at a
winter season walking speed. There are especially high reductions of more than 200 m in the
evacuation distance for blocks No. 23 and No. 25, which each have a daytime population exceeding
100 people. There is a nursing home and a central post office in block No. 23, for which the evacuation
Sustainability 2019, 11, 1020 16 of 23

Table 3. The changes in the shortest evacuation distance before and after the construction of the
Saiwai estate.

The Shortest Evacuation Distance

Block No. Daytime Population
Before the Construction After the Construction Changing
1 8 504 m 504 m 0m
2 101 430 m 430 m 0m
3 16 293 m 293 m 0m
4 9 389 m 389 m 0m
5 52 187 m 187 m 0m
6 31 360 m 360 m 0m
7 11 267 m 267 m 0m
8 12 223 m 223 m 0m
9 32 201 m 201 m 0m
10 110 372 m 372 m 0m
11 37 336 m 336 m 0m
12 18 307 m 307 m 0m
13 14 433 m 433 m 0m
14 27 407 m 407 m 0m
15 33 357 m 357 m 0m
16 10 322 m 322 m 0m
17 17 340 m 316 m 24 m
18 20 328 m 328 m 0m
19 36 235 m 213 m 22 m
20 88 246 m 224 m 22 m
21 19 124 m 124 m 0m
22 34 314 m 314 m 0m
23 380 260 m 20 m 240 m
24 19 263 m 114 m 149 m
25 175 246 m 18 m 228 m
26 83 292 m 250 m 42 m
27 22 291 m 291 m 0m
28 39 318 m 318 m 0m
29 150 141 m 87 m 54 m
30 370 182 m 182 m 0m
31 197 171 m 171 m 0m
32 33 216 m 216 m 0m
33 139 183 m 183 m 0m

3.5. [Survey D-1] Questionnaire Survey for Residents of the Estate

Figure 16 shows the results of survey D-1. Regarding whether they are “worried about tsunamis,”
more than 80% of residents responded “worried” or “a little worried.” Regarding “reassurance about
the threat of tsunami due to living in the Saiwai estate,” more than 60% of residents responded
Sustainability 2019, 11 FOR PEER REVIEW 17
“reassured” or “somewhat reassured.” For “reassuring items regarding the Saiwai estate,” “that it is
designated as a tsunami emergency evacuation facility” is the most cited factor. For “worrying items
factor. For “worrying items regarding the Saiwai estate,” “the evacuation of the surrounding
regarding the Saiwai estate,” “the evacuation of the surrounding residents” was the most cited issue.
residents” was the most cited issue.

Figure 16. The questionnaire of residents on the evacuation against tsunamis.

Figure 16. The questionnaire of residents on the evacuation against tsunamis.
Sustainability 2019, 11 FOR PEER REVIEW 17

Sustainability 2019, 11, 1020 17 of 23

factor. For “worrying items regarding the Saiwai estate,” “the evacuation of the surrounding
residents” was the most cited issue.
3.6. [Survey D-2] Questionnaire Survey for Residents Surrounding the Estate
Figure 17 shows the results of survey D-2. For “concern about the damage caused by the tsunami,”
about 80% of the surrounding residents answered “worried” or “a little worried”. A total of 80% of the
surrounding residents responded with “reassured” or “somewhat reassured” to “reassurance about
the threat of tsunami due to the construction of the Saiwai estate,” and about 80% of that number live
in a block where there has been a decrease in the shortest evacuation distance. In other words, about
20% of the residents who answered that they feel reassured regarding tsunamis did so despite a lack of
a decrease in their evacuation distance. For “reassuring items regarding the estate,” more than half
of the residents answered, “it is nearby, and I can evacuate immediately.” Additionally, about 30% of
residents answered, “Evacuation space in on the top floor” For “worrying items regarding the estate,”
60% of residents answered, “evacuation space will be full in the event of a disaster.” For “candidates
for evacuation destination,” more than 60% of the residents cited public facilities, and few people cited
Figure
private facilities 16. The
such questionnaire of residents on the evacuation against tsunamis.
as hotels.

Figure 17. The questionnaire for surrounding residents about tsunami evacuation.
Figure 17. The questionnaire for surrounding residents about tsunami evacuation.
4. Discussion
3.6. [Survey D-2] Questionnaire Survey for Residents Surrounding the Estate
[Survey A-1] clarifies that moving has provided the residents with a more convenient surrounding
Figure
environment 17andshows
that the
theyresults
are more of satisfied
survey D-2. withFor “concern about
the surrounding the damage
environment thancaused
they wereby the
before
tsunami,”
moving.about 80% degree
The high of the surrounding residents answered
of resident satisfaction “worried”environment
with a surrounding or “a little worried”.
that has a A total
high level
of 80% of the surrounding
of perceived convenience residents
support the responded
findings of with “reassured”
previous studiesor[44,45],
“somewhat reassured”
confirming to
the positive
“reassurance
impact of theabout the threat of
accessibility to tsunami
surrounding due to the construction
facilities of the
on residents’ Saiwai estate,”
satisfaction. The and about
results 80%
of [Survey
of that
A-2]number
show that livethe
in atravel
blockdistance
where there has been
to public a decrease
facilities in theshortened
has actually shortest evacuation distance.
and the travel costsIn have
other words,after
reduced about 20% ofThese
moving. the residents
reductions whoinanswered that they
travel distance andfeelcostsreassured regarding
due to moving to atsunamis
downtown
didarea
so despite a lack ofwith
are consistent a decrease in their
a previous studyevacuation
[50] thatdistance.
confirmed Forthat“reassuring items
there is high regarding the
accessibility in the
estate,” more than
downtown halfaof
area and the residents
resulting low cost answered,
of movement.“it isThese
nearby, and results
survey I can evacuate
suggest thatimmediately.”
the downtown
Additionally,
area is more about 30% of residents
convenient answered,
than suburban “Evacuation
high-rises space
that offer in onlevel
a high the top floor” For
of safety “worrying
against tsunamis,
items regarding
making the estate,”
the residents 60% ofwith
satisfied residents answered, “evacuation
the surrounding environment.space On thewillother
be full in the
hand, byevent
moving of to
a disaster.” For “candidates
the downtown for evacuation
area, residents now live in destination,”
areas wheremore than 60%
potential of theisresidents
flooding deeper than cited public
before they
facilities, and few people cited private facilities such as hotels.
moved. According to the questionnaire survey on tsunami evacuation [Survey D-1], many residents
feel anxious about tsunami hazards due to living in the downtown area. However, it can be seen
4. Discussion
that living in an estate with tsunami evacuation facilities improves the responding residents’ sense
of security.
[Survey Thus,
A-1] the inclusion
clarifies that of a tsunami
moving has evacuation
provided the facility in public
residents housing
with a more in the downtown
convenient
area improves both the living convenience and the reassurance
surrounding environment and that they are more satisfied with the surrounding environment thanof the residents of the estate with
theyregards to the moving.
were before threat of The
tsunamis. This project
high degree realizes
of resident both the introduction
satisfaction with a surroundingof residence and public
environment
facilities to the downtown area for the promotion of downtown living
that has a high level of perceived convenience support the findings of previous studies [44,45], and the inclusion of a tsunami
evacuation facility with sufficient structural reinforcement and equipment
confirming the positive impact of the accessibility to surrounding facilities on residents' satisfaction. to improve the tsunami
Theevacuation performance
results of [Survey in thethat
A-2] show downtown
the travel area. This shows,
distance to publicforfacilities
the first has
time, the effect
actually of dealing
shortened
Sustainability 2019, 11, 1020 18 of 23

with the promotion of downtown living and the improvement of tsunami evacuation performance in
parallel to facilitate downtown revitalization in regional coastal cities.
The questionnaire about the attitudes of the surrounding residents towards tsunami evacuation
(Survey B) shows that they tend to evacuate to public evacuation facilities. From this, it is understood
that, in the event of a disaster, residents tend to evacuate to facilities that are available on a daily
basis and that are familiar to them. This influence of recognition by routine use on the selection of an
evacuation destination supports a previous study [51] that revealed the tendency of evacuees to select
facilities that they are highly aware on a daily basis. Furthermore, the current research has made it clear
that it is not important to residents whether facilities are designated as evacuation facilities. For this
reason, even if private facilities such as hotels and condominiums were to be designated as evacuation
facilities like the tsunami evacuation buildings in Kushiro city, there is a possibility that they would not
be used in the event of a disaster. Thus, there is a danger of the saturation of the evacuation space
due to the concentration of refugees converging on public evacuation facilities and a prolongation
of the evacuation distances of evacuees who do not use the closest evacuation facility. Research has
been carried out previously on the evacuation possibilities in existing buildings in Kushiro city [47,48].
However, there have been no descriptions of the tendencies of residents to select particular evacuation
destinations. There is a policy to promote public awareness of evacuation facilities on a daily basis by
utilizing such places for public functions such as childcare in the Saiwai estate. When setting up an
evacuation facility, the promotion of its daily use and raising the neighboring residents’ awareness
that it is an evacuation facility increase the usability of the evacuation facility in the event of a disaster.
Therefore, it is necessary for local governments to install public functions in tsunami evacuation
facilities and make them available to the neighborhood on a daily basis to improve awareness.
The questionnaire survey on tsunami evacuation (Survey D-2) indicates that the construction of a
high-rise estate with a tsunami evacuation facility on the upper floors improves the reassurance of not
only the residents of the estate but also the surrounding residents about the threat of tsunamis. The GIS
analysis of the tsunami evacuation distance (Survey C) further shows that the construction of the estate
with its tsunami evacuation facility reduces the shortest evacuation distance of many surrounding
residents. Some of the surrounding residents feel reassured regarding tsunamis even though their
shortest evacuation distance has not reduced. It can be seen that there is both a direct improvement
effect on the reassurance regarding tsunamis when accompanied by a reduction in the evacuation
distance and an indirect improvement effect on it when the construction of the estate causes no
reduction in the evacuation distance. From the above, it can be seen that the construction of high-rise
public housing incorporating tsunami evacuation facilities on the upper floors to the downtown
area contributes to the improvement of tsunami evacuation performance in the surrounding urban
areas. In other words, installing a public facility in public housing that addresses the problems of the
surrounding urban area improves the living environment of those surrounding areas. Municipalities
need to improve the living environment of the community by considering public housing not as a
simple housing supply but as a tool for solving the problems of the community and installing public
facilities in public housing that correspond to community problems. At first glance, the installation of
a public facility seems to be excessive for public housing, but this is not necessarily so, as the residents
around the estate also enjoy the benefits of the public facility. In addition, there is a possibility that
interaction between residents of the public housing and neighboring residents will be fostered through
the use of this public facility. Further investigation of this possibility is necessary. It has been revealed
that interaction with neighboring residents has a positive influence on the level of resident satisfaction
with living arrangements, especially for low-income residents [52–54]. However, problems can arise
with the installation of public facilities. It was originally planned that the evacuation space in the
Saiwai estate would be used as a childcare facility on a daily basis. However, as of 2016 when this
survey was carried out, this had not been initiated due to insufficient staff availability. At the time
of planning, there was a policy to set up a non-profit organization (NPO) to manage such facilities,
centering on officials in the local government. However, the municipality could not launch an NPO
Sustainability 2019, 11, 1020 19 of 23

because of the problems associated with responsibility for injuries to children when such a facility
is operated by citizens without childcare qualifications. This situation indicates that it is necessary
to consider and organize the entities that operate the public facility from the planning stage when
installing a public facility in public housing.

5. Conclusions
This research article has investigated the effect of dealing with the promotion of downtown living
and the improvement of tsunami evacuation performance in parallel by evaluating the Saiwai estate
program in Kushiro city, Hokkaido, Japan. In this chapter, we show the effects due to dealing with the
above two tasks in parallel. In Sections 5.1 and 5.2, the effects of this project, as clarified by evaluation,
are organized on the basis of two methodical viewpoints (placing public housing with a public facility
in the downtown area and installing a tsunami evacuation facility in the public housing area). In
chapter 5.3, the effects of this project, as clarified by evaluation, are organized on the basis of two
evaluation viewpoints (the effects on the promotion of downtown living and the improvement of
tsunami evacuation performance).

5.1. The Effects of Relocating Public Housing with a Public Facility to the Downtown Area [Survey A-1]
[Survey A-2] [Survey B]
• Building public housing in the downtown area induces a population shift from suburban areas to
the downtown area.
• On the other hand, residents living in downtown areas near the coast face a higher tsunami risk.
• By placing public housing in the downtown area, the satisfaction of the residents and the
convenience of the surrounding environment are improved compared to before moving.
• Building public housing in the downtown area could reduce the distance to public facilities
compared to before moving.
• Installing a tsunami evacuation facility in a public facility that is open to the neighborhood can
improve the function of the evacuation facility at the time of disaster.

5.2. The Effects of Installing an Evacuation Facility in the Estate [Survey C] [Survey D-1] [Survey D-2]
• Constructing public housing with tsunami evacuation facilities in the downtown area of a coastal
city can reduce the shortest evacuation distances of the surrounding residents.
• Installing a tsunami evacuation facility in on the upper floors of a high-rise public housing
building can improve the reassurance of the residents in and around the public housing area with
regards to the threat of tsunamis.

5.3. The Effects of Dealing with the Promotion of Downtown Living and the Improvement of Tsunami
Evacuation Performance in Parallel for Downtown Revitalization
In this chapter, the effects of this project, as clarified by evaluation, are organized on the basis of
the viewpoints of evaluation: the effects on the promotion of downtown living and the effects on the
improvement of tsunami evacuation performance. The effect on the promotion of downtown living
due to relocating high-rise public housing with tsunami evacuation facilities to the downtown area
is an improvement of both the convenience of everyday life and the reassurance of the residents in
the estate regarding tsunamis. Both of these improvements contribute to reducing the uneasiness that
can be a hurdle that discourages people from moving to the downtown areas of regional coastal cities.
These investigations have clarified the synergistic effect between the promotion of downtown living
and the improvement of tsunami evacuation performance in the downtown area. Therefore, dealing
with the promotion of downtown living and the improvement of tsunami evacuation performance in
parallel contribute to realizing downtown revitalization in regional coastal cities, and the relocation of
high-rise public housing with tsunami evacuation facilities in the downtown area can be an important
means to that end.
Sustainability 2019, 11, 1020 20 of 23

In addition, two strategies are required to secure the synergistic effect between the promotion
of downtown living and the improvement of tsunami performance. First is installing a tsunami
evacuation facility in a public facility that is open to the neighborhood, such as child-rearing support
facilities or day care centers. This strategy improves its recognition as an evacuation facility by
the surrounding residents, securing the usability of the tsunami evacuation facilities. From the
viewpoints of evaluation—the effects on the improvement of tsunami evacuation performance—it is
clear that public housing with a tsunami evacuation facility installed in public facilities realizes both
the improvement of the usability of the evacuation facility in the event of a disaster and the reduction
of the shortest evacuation distance. The abovementioned two realizations are a synergistic effect of
the promotion of downtown living and the improvement of tsunami evacuation performance, which
leads to the improvement of tsunami evacuation performance. Second is the development of high-rise
housing in which tsunami evacuation facilities are installed on the upper floors with public and private
partnership. This strategy helps local governments to develop a lot of high-rise housing within which
they install tsunami evacuation facilities with a smaller financial burden. The government is required
to develop both public and private high-rise housing and subsidize the installation of the tsunami
evacuation facility on the upper floors of the high-rise buildings. Supplying public and private housing
actively with public facilities to the downtown area can be expected to promote the recovery of the
population in the downtown area, thereby leading to downtown revitalization. In addition, installing
tsunami evacuation facilities in public and private housing contributes to downtown revitalization
due to the synergistic effect. Thus, the development of high-rise housing by installing tsunami
evacuation facilities on the upper floors with public and private partnership effectively contributes to
downtown revitalization.
Thus, we show that planning the downtown revitalization and disaster prevention in parallel,
which had been separately planned so far, is a fundamental approach for urban revitalization
corresponding to both normal situations and emergencies in regional coastal cities. Improving the
daily living environment through means such as downtown revitalization and building emergency
urban environments through disaster prevention together toward urban revitalization is not only
important for coastal cities where there is a danger from tsunamis but is also important for all cities at
risk from large-scale disasters such as floods, cliff collapses, or earthquakes. Therefore, the findings
of this research contribute to the sustainable development of every city where there is a high level of
disaster risk.

Author Contributions: Formal analysis, T.I.; A.I.; investigation, T.I.; resources, T.M.; writing—original draft
preparation, T.I.; writing—review and editing, N.W.; supervision, T.S.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Acknowledgments: This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number 26630269.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Japan’s Future Population. Available online: http://www.ipss.go.jp/pp-zenkoku/j/zenkoku2017/pp29_
gaiyou.pdf (accessed on 6 November 2018).
2. Sakamoto, K.; Iida, A.; Yokohari, M. Spatial patterns of population turnover in a Japanese Regional City for
urban regeneration against population decline: Is Compact City policy effective? Cities 2018, 81, 230–241.
[CrossRef]
3. Population Vision in Hokkaido. Available online: http://www.pref.hokkaido.lg.jp/ss/csr/ksk/jinkou/
kyogikai/3_shiryo3.pdf (accessed on 6 November 2018).
4. Gumma, M.K.; Mohammad, I.; Nedumaran, S.; Whitbread, A.; Lagerkvist, C.J. Urban Sprawl and Adverse
Impacts on Agricultural Land: A Case Study on Hyderabad, India. Remote Sens. 2017, 9, 1136. [CrossRef]
5. Li, X.; Yang, L.; Ren, Y.; Li, H.; Wang, Z. Impacts of Urban Sprawl on Soil Resources in the Changchun–Jilin
Economic Zone, China, 2000–2015. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 1186. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Sustainability 2019, 11, 1020 21 of 23

6. Ala-Mantila, S.; Heinonen, J.; Junnila, S. Greenhouse Gas Implications of Urban Sprawl in the Helsinki
Metropolitan Area. Sustainability 2013, 5, 4461–4478. [CrossRef]
7. Li, K.-Q.; Lu, R.; Chu, R.-W.; Ma, D.-D.; Zhu, L.-Q. Trends and Driving Forces of Carbon Emissions from
Energy Consumption: A Case Study of Nanjing, China. Sustainability 2018, 10, 4348. [CrossRef]
8. Bo, C.; Xu, H.; Liu, Y. Examination of the Relationships between Urban Form and Urban Public Services
Expenditure in China. Adm. Sci. 2017, 7, 39.
9. Zolnik, E.J. The costs of sprawl for private-vehicle commuters. J. Transp. Geogr. 2012, 20, 23–30. [CrossRef]
10. Setoguchi, T.; Nagao, M.; Okabe, Y.; Oinuma, T.; Matsumura, H. The development of future city images
based on the citizen’s demands for intensive compact cities. The planning approaches for downsizing of city
area on Yubari city master plan. Trans. Archit. Inst. Jpn. J. Archit. Plan. Environ. Eng. 2014, 79, 949–958.
11. Wang, H.J.; Lee, H.Y. How government-funded projects have revitalized historic streetscapes—Two cases in
Taiwan. Cities 2008, 25, 197–206. [CrossRef]
12. Balsas, C.J.L.; Robertson, K.A. Can small-city downtowns remain viable?: City center revitalization in
Portugal. JAPA 1999, 65, 270–283.
13. Spader, J.; Schuetz, J.; Cortes, A. Fewer vacants, fewer crimes? Impacts of neighborhood revitalization
policies on crime. Reg. Sci. Urban Econ. 2016, 60, 73–84. [CrossRef]
14. Tamura, S.; Iwamoto, S.; Tanaka, T. The impact of spatial population distribution patterns on CO2 emissions
and infrastructure costs in a small Japanese town. SCS 2018, 40, 513–523.
15. Takayuki, K.; Higuchi, S.; Nakade, B.; Matsukawa, T. Study on Relationship between Fixed Property Tax
Revenue and Building Activity in Local Cities—A Case Study of Three Non-Area Divided Cities, Ueda City,
Ise City and Okinawa City. J. City Plan. Inst. Jpn. 2015, 50, 879–885.
16. Country Grand Design 2050. Available online: http://www.mlit.go.jp/common/001047113.pdf (accessed
on 7 November 2018).
17. Doratli, N. Revitalizing historic urban quarters: A model for determining the most relevant strategic
approach. Eur. Plan. Stud. 2005, 13, 749–772. [CrossRef]
18. Park, C. Lessons of downtown revitalization plans in Korea. Urban Policy Res. 2004, 22, 447–463. [CrossRef]
19. Osman, K.A.; Farahat, B.I. The conservation of the waterfront of Saida: A model for tourism and culture-led
revitalization in valuable areas. HBRC J. 2018, 14, 321–333. [CrossRef]
20. Vukonic, B.; Tkalack, D. Tourism and Urban Revitalization: A Case Study of Pore& Yugoslavia. Ann. Tour.
Res. 1984, 11, 591–605.
21. Miyauchi, T.; Setoguchi, T.; Kitahara, K.; Nakata, H.; Ito, T. Quantitative evaluations of the downtown
habitation programs with public housing redevelopments toward the consolidated compact cities. Trans.
Archit. Inst. Jpn. J. Archit. Plan. Environ. Eng. 2018, 83, 1025–1035. [CrossRef]
22. Galster, C.G.; Hesser, W.G. Residential satisfaction: Compositional and contextual correlates. Environ. Behav.
1981, 13, 735–758. [CrossRef]
23. Riazi, M.; Emami, A. Residential satisfaction in affordable housing: A mixed method study. Cities 2018, 82,
1–9. [CrossRef]
24. Mu, S. Community Building in Social-Mix Public Housing: Participatory planning of Ankang redevelopment
plan. Behav. Soc. Sci. Libr. 2016, 222, 755–762. [CrossRef]
25. Morris, A.; Jamieson, M.; Patulny, R. Is social mixing of tenures a solution for public housing estates. Evid.
Base 2012, 1, 1–21.
26. Tam, V.W.Y.; Fung, I.W.H.; Tsang, Y.T.; Chan, L. Development of a Universal Design-Based Guide for
Handrails: An Empirical Study for Hong Kong Elderly. Sustainability 2018, 10, 4233. [CrossRef]
27. Economic and Fiscal Effects of Consolidation and Declaration of Public Facilities etc. Available online:
https://www5.cao.go.jp/keizai3/2016/08seisakukadai09-0.pdf (accessed on 10 November 2018).
28. Child-rearing Support Housing Promotion Policy in Hokkaido. Available online: http://www.pref.hokkaido.
lg.jp/kn/jtk/grp/100915-3kosodatepamph.pdf (accessed on 10 November 2018).
29. Tomita, T.; Imamura, F.; Arakawa, T.; Yasuda, T.; Kawata, Y. Damage caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean
Tsunami on the southwestern coast of Sri Lanka. Coast. Eng. J. 2006, 48, 99–116. [CrossRef]
30. Mori, N.; Takahashi, T.; Yasuda, T.; Yanagisawa, H. Survey of 2011 Tohoku earthquake tsunami inundation
and run-up. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2011, 38. [CrossRef]
Sustainability 2019, 11, 1020 22 of 23

31. Goto, K.; Ikehara, K.; Goff, J.; Chague-Goff, C.; Jaffe, B. The 2011 Tohoku-oki tsunami-Three years on. Mar.
Geol. 2014, 358, 2–11. [CrossRef]
32. Sun, Y.; Yamori, K. Risk Management and Technology: Case Studies of Tsunami Evacuation Drills in Japan.
Sustainability 2018, 10, 2982. [CrossRef]
33. Lee, S.W.; Song, D.W.; Ducruet, C. A tale of Asia’s world ports: The spatial evolution in global hub port
cities. Geoforum 2008, 39, 372–385. [CrossRef]
34. Ishii, A.; Suzuki, H.; Setoguchi, T. Residential land supply methods to develop a housing reconstruction
scenario in a large tsunami-devastated area: Time series analysis of residential land supply based on building
GIS database after the Great East Japan Earthquake in Rikuzentakata city, Iwate. Trans. Archit. Inst. Jpn. J.
Archit. Plan. Environ. Eng. 2018, 83, 1273–1283.
35. Sina, D.; Chang-Richards, A.Y.; Wilkinson, S.; Potangaroa, R. What does the future hold for relocated
communities post-disaster? Factors affecting livelihood resilience. Int. J. Dis. Risk Reduct. 2018. [CrossRef]
36. Dall’Osso, F.; Dominey-Howes, D. Public assessment of the usefulness of “draft” tsunami evacuation maps
from Sydney, Australia–implications for the establishment of formal evacuation plans. Nat. Hazards Earth
Syst. 2010, 10, 1739–1750. [CrossRef]
37. Wegscheider, S.; Post, J.; Zosseder, K.; Muck, M.; Strunz, G.; Riedlinger, T.; Muhari, A.; Anwar, Z.H.
Generating tsunami risk knowledge at community level as a base for planning and implementation of risk
reduction strategies. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. 2011, 11, 249–258. [CrossRef]
38. Chock, G.; Butler, R. Evacuation planning considerations of the city of Honolulu for a Great Aleutian
Tsunami. In Proceedings of the Tenth U.S. National Conference on Earthquake Engineerin, Frontiers of
Earthquake Engineerin, Anchorage, AK, USA, 21–25 July 2014.
39. Goseberg, N.; Schlurmann, T. Non-stationary flow around buildings during run-up of tsunami waves on a
plain beach. Coast. Eng. 2014, 34. [CrossRef]
40. Scheer, J.S.; Varela, V.; Eftychidis, G. A generic framework for tsunami evacuation planning. Phys. Chem.
Earth 2012, 49, 79–91. [CrossRef]
41. Suppasri, A.; Shuto, N.; Imamura, F.; Koshimura, S.; Mas, E.; Yalciner, C.A. Lessons learned from the
2011 great east japan tsunami: Performance of tsunami countermeasures, coastal buildings, and tsunami
evacuation in Japan. Pure Appl. Geophys. 2013, 170, 993–1018. [CrossRef]
42. Ogawa, M.; Tsuboi, S.; Kuroyanagi, A. Research on designation and management of tsunami evacuation
building. Pap. Environ. Inf. Sci. 2012, 26, 289–294.
43. Specified Number of Tsunami Evacuation Building by Prefecture. Available online: http://www.mlit.go.jp/
common/000186681.pdf (accessed on 12 November 2018).
44. Mohit, A.M.; Ibrahim, M.; Rashid, R.Y. Assessment of residential satisfaction in newly designed public
low-cost housing in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Habitat Int. 2010, 34, 18–27. [CrossRef]
45. Tao, Z.; Cheng, Y.; Dai, T. Measuring spatial accessibility to residential care facilities in Beijing. Popul. Health
Geogr. 2014, 33, 616–624.
46. Tsunami Evacuation Plan in Kushiro City. Available online: https://www.city.kushiro.lg.jp/common/
000126473.pdf (accessed on 13 November 2018).
47. Miyamori, Y.; Uchiumi, K.; Shimizu, T.; Yamasaki, S.; Otsuka, H. A basic study of tsunami evacuation to
shelter buildings and civil structures in Kushiro City. Editorial Comm. J. Jpn. Soc. Civ. Eng. (Struct./Earthq.
Eng.) 2013, 69, 919–931.
48. Saito, T.; Muramoto, H.; Shimizu, T.; Miyamori, Y. A study of tsunami evacuation with consideration for
damage to tall buildings in Kushiro City. J. Soc. Saf. Sci. 2014, 24, 151–159.
49. Kawakami, T.; Asano, M. A study on the sense of security that a disaster measure gives to citizens. J. City
Plan. Inst. Jpn. 2001, 36, 409–414.
50. Dewita, Y.; Barbara, T.H.Y.; Burke, M. The effect of transport cost on housing affordability: Experiences from
the T Bandung Metropolitan Area, Indonesia. Land Use Policy 2018, 79, 507–519. [CrossRef]
51. Nishimura, H.; Kurimata, K.; Iwasaki, Y.; Yamaguchi, Y. A study on the recognition and selection factors
of the evacuation destination and evacuation route against the tsunami disaster. Proc. City Plan. Inst. Jpn.
Kansai Branch 2012, 10, 73–76.
Sustainability 2019, 11, 1020 23 of 23

52. Zhigang, L.; Fulong, W. Residential satisfaction in China’s informal settlements: A case study of Beijing,
Shanghai, and Guangzhou. Urban Geogr. 2013, 34, 923–949.
53. Chaskin, J.R.; Joseph, L.M. Social interaction in mixed-income developments: Relational expectations and
emerging reality. Urban Aff. A 2011, 35, 423–431. [CrossRef]
54. Parkes, A.; Kearns, A.; Atkinson, R. What makes people dissatisfied with their neighborhoods? Urban Stud.
2002, 39, 2413–2438. [CrossRef]

© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).