Language of Journalism

1. Concrete

Journalistic writing favors specific details over vague language. This helps readers grasp the exact
situation without ambiguity.

Example:

● Vague: "The weather was bad yesterday."

● Concrete: "A powerful thunderstorm with 60 mph winds and heavy rain hit the city yesterday
afternoon."

2. Specific

Specificity ensures that the reader gets a clear picture of the events or topics being discussed.

Example:

● General: "A large number of people attended the rally."

● Specific: "Over 10,000 people attended the rally in downtown Chicago."

3. Active

Active voice makes writing more direct and engaging, highlighting who is doing what. It generally
makes sentences shorter and clearer.

Example:

● Passive: "The decision was made by the board to increase tuition fees."

● Active: "The board decided to increase tuition fees."

4. Clear

Clarity is crucial in journalism to ensure that the message is easily understood by the audience. Avoid
jargon, complex sentences, and unnecessary words.

Example:

● Unclear: "The company's quarterly earnings experienced a significant uptick."

● Clear: "The company's profits rose by 15% in the last quarter."

5. Democratic

Journalistic language should be accessible to everyone, regardless of their education or background.

This means avoiding elitist or overly technical language.

Example:

● Elitist: "The fiscal policy adjustments initiated by the executive arm will ameliorate the
inflationary pressures."

● Democratic: "The government's new policies will help reduce inflation."

6. Non-Sexist
Journalists should avoid language that perpetuates gender stereotypes or excludes certain genders.

Example:

● Sexist: "The firemen responded quickly to the blaze."

● Non-Sexist: "The firefighters responded quickly to the blaze."

7. Non-Racist

Language should be free of racial bias or stereotypes, ensuring fair representation and avoiding
offensive terminology.

Example:

● Racist: "The suspects were three Black men."

● Non-Racist: "The suspects were three men."

8. Non-Casteist

In regions where caste systems exist, it's essential to avoid language that discriminates or
perpetuates stereotypes based on caste.

Example:

● Casteist: "The lower-caste worker was assigned menial tasks."

● Non-Casteist: "The worker was assigned tasks."

These principles of journalistic language ensure that reporting is ethical, effective, and inclusive,
allowing for clear communication that respects all audiences.

Media laws and ethics

Freedom of Speech and Expression under Article 19(1)(a) of the Indian Constitution grants every
citizen the right to freely express their opinions, thoughts, and ideas. This right is fundamental to a
democracy, enabling individuals to participate in public discourse, criticize the government, and
share information freely.

Article 19(1)(a):

Article 19(1)(a) states: "All citizens shall have the right to freedom of speech and expression." This
includes the right to express oneself through any medium, whether it be spoken or written words,
art, music, or even through symbolic gestures.

Reasonable Restrictions under Article 19(2):

However, the freedom granted by Article 19(1)(a) is not absolute. The Constitution provides for
reasonable restrictions under Article 19(2), which allow the state to impose limitations on this
freedom in certain circumstances. These restrictions are intended to balance individual rights with
the interests of the community and the state.

The reasonable restrictions under Article 19(2) can be imposed on the following grounds:

Security of the State: Any speech that endangers the security of the state or incites violence against
the state can be restricted. For instance, speech that encourages rebellion or terrorism can be
curtailed.

Friendly Relations with Foreign States: Speech that damages India's relations with other countries
can be restricted. For example, derogatory statements about a foreign nation could harm diplomatic
relations and thus may be limited.

Public Order: Speech that disrupts public order or incites violence can be restricted. Public order
refers to the peace and tranquility of society. For instance, hate speech or inflammatory remarks that
lead to riots can be curtailed under this ground.

Decency or Morality: This includes restrictions on obscene content or speech that violates societal
norms of decency and morality. For example, pornography or vulgar content can be restricted.

Contempt of Court: Speech that undermines the authority or integrity of the judiciary, such as
making baseless allegations against judges, can be restricted.

Defamation: Speech that harms the reputation of an individual can be restricted. Defamatory
statements that are false and injurious to someone's reputation can lead to civil or criminal action.

Incitement to an Offense: Speech that incites people to commit crimes can be restricted. For
instance, encouraging violence, theft, or other criminal activities is not protected under free speech.

Sovereignty and Integrity of India: Any speech that threatens the sovereignty and integrity of India
can be restricted. This includes speech that advocates for the secession of any part of the country or
undermines national unity.

Media Laws and Ethics:

In the context of media, these restrictions are crucial in ensuring responsible journalism and
preventing the misuse of the freedom of speech and expression. Media houses and journalists are
expected to report news and express opinions within the bounds of these reasonable restrictions.
Ethical journalism involves respecting the rights of individuals, avoiding harm, and maintaining the
integrity of the information shared with the public.
Defamation refers to any false statement made about a person that damages their
reputation. Defamation is typically categorized into two types: slander and libel.

Slander refers to defamation that is spoken. It involves harmful statements made verbally, which can
be temporary in nature, such as in conversations, speeches, or broadcasted audio.

Libel refers to defamation that is written or published in some permanent form. This includes
statements made in writing, online posts, articles, and even images, videos, or other media that can
be preserved and circulated.

Both forms of defamation require the plaintiff to prove that:

The statement was false.

The statement was presented as a fact (not an opinion).

The statement was communicated to someone other than the plaintiff.

The statement caused harm to the plaintiff's reputation.

Right to Information
The Right to Information (RTI) is an important tool for the press and the general public to promote
transparency and accountability in government. In India, the Right to Information Act, 2005
empowers citizens, including journalists, to seek information from public authorities. This law is vital
for the media as it provides access to documents, reports, and other governmental data that can be
used for investigative journalism or to inform the public on various issues.

Key Aspects of the Right to Information for the Press:

1. Access to Public Information: Journalists can request information from government bodies,
promoting investigative journalism and public interest reporting. This allows the press to
uncover corruption, inefficiency, or any matters of public importance.

2. Promotes Accountability: Governments and public officials are accountable to the public
when their actions are subject to scrutiny. The press can use RTI to hold officials accountable
for their decisions.

3. Exemptions: RTI laws generally have some exemptions, such as information related to
national security, personal privacy, or trade secrets. Journalists must navigate these
exemptions carefully.

4. Deadlines for Information: Public authorities are often required to respond within a certain
time frame to RTI requests, which helps journalists meet deadlines for stories.

5. Legal Framework: Each country has its own legal framework. In India, for example, the RTI
Act, 2005, enables citizens to request information from any public authority. In the U.S., the
 Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) provides a similar mechanism for accessing federal
agency records.

6. Appeals and Redress: Journalists can appeal if their RTI requests are denied, often through a
specific information commission or legal system.

The Official Secrets Act (OSA) is a law designed to protect sensitive government
information, particularly related to national security, defense, and state affairs. It criminalizes the
disclosure of certain types of information, especially if the disclosure could threaten national security
or aid foreign enemies. The act is important because it balances the need for transparency (such as
through the Right to Information) with national security concerns.

Key Features of the Official Secrets Act:

1. Applicability:

o The act primarily applies to government officials, but it can also apply to any
individual, including journalists and civilians, who may obtain classified information.

o It covers the protection of classified government documents, official

communications, and sensitive materials related to national security.

2. Prohibited Actions:

o The act prohibits the collection, sharing, or publication of sensitive government

documents or information that could affect national security.

o It covers espionage, unauthorized sharing of secret government data, and activities

that could endanger the state’s defense or security.

3. Penalties:

o Violations of the Official Secrets Act can result in heavy penalties, including fines and
imprisonment. The act carries severe penalties for espionage, unauthorized access to
state secrets, and endangering the sovereignty or integrity of the state.

o A person can face imprisonment for up to 14 years depending on the nature of the
offense.

4. Impact on the Press:

o Journalistic Limitations: The act poses restrictions on journalists, especially when it

comes to reporting on sensitive issues related to defense, diplomacy, and national
security.

o RTI vs. OSA: While the Right to Information Act allows for access to certain
information, the Official Secrets Act prevents the disclosure of sensitive state secrets.
There is often a delicate balance between the two.

o Controversies: Journalists may face challenges when reporting on government

activities if such reporting inadvertently involves classified information. In such
cases, they risk being charged under the Official Secrets Act.
 5. Exemptions and Defenses:

o The act provides certain exemptions for individuals acting in good faith. However,
proving "good faith" can be challenging, especially for journalists who may argue
that they acted in the public interest.

o Public Interest Defense: In some cases, journalists may argue that disclosing
sensitive information is in the public interest. However, this defense is not always
explicitly recognized under the act.

Challenges and Criticisms:

● Vagueness: Critics argue that the act is too vague and can be used to suppress free speech
and the press, as it doesn’t clearly define what constitutes "classified" or "secret"
information.

● Misuse: There have been concerns about the misuse of the OSA to target whistleblowers or
journalists who expose government corruption or misuse of power.

● Calls for Amendment: Over the years, there have been demands to amend the act to ensure
it is not misused to curb press freedom, while still protecting legitimate national security
concerns.

Relevance Today:

● In countries like India, the Official Secrets Act (1923) is often debated in the context of
modern-day governance and transparency. While it protects national interests, it has been
criticized for being used to stifle information and intimidate journalists.

● In recent years, cases involving the press or whistleblowers have highlighted the tension
between the need for state secrecy and the right to information.

The Copyright Act of 1957 is the primary law governing copyright protection in India. It
provides the framework for the protection of creative works, granting exclusive rights to creators
over their literary, artistic, musical, and other forms of intellectual property. The act ensures that
authors, artists, musicians, filmmakers, and other creators are compensated for the use of their
works and that their rights are respected.

Key Features of the Copyright Act of 1957:

1. Subject Matter of Copyright:

The act protects original works in the following categories:

● Literary works (e.g., books, poems, articles)

● Dramatic works (e.g., scripts, plays)

● Musical works (compositions, songs, and melodies)

● Artistic works (e.g., paintings, drawings, sculptures)

● Cinematograph films (e.g., movies, documentaries)

 ● Sound recordings (e.g., songs, podcasts)

● Computer programs/software (considered literary works)

2. Exclusive Rights of the Copyright Owner:

The act grants creators exclusive rights to their works, including the right to:

● Reproduce the work.

● Distribute copies of the work to the public.

● Perform or communicate the work to the public.

● Adapt or translate the work.

● License the work to others.

These rights ensure that creators control how their work is used and are compensated for its
commercial exploitation.

3. Duration of Copyright:

● For literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic works: The copyright lasts for the lifetime of the
author, plus 60 years after their death.

● For films, sound recordings, and photographs: Copyright lasts for 60 years from the date of
publication or creation.

4. Fair Use (Fair Dealing):

The act includes provisions for fair dealing, allowing limited use of copyrighted works without
permission under specific circumstances, such as:

● Research or private study.

● Criticism or review.

● Reporting current events.

● Educational purposes (e.g., use in classrooms).

These exceptions aim to balance the rights of creators with public interest and access to information.

5. Infringement of Copyright:

Copyright infringement occurs when a work is used without the permission of the copyright holder,
such as:

● Unauthorized reproduction or distribution of the work.

● Public performance or communication of the work without permission.

● Creation of derivative works (such as adaptations or translations) without consent.

Infringement can lead to civil or criminal penalties, including fines and imprisonment.

6. Moral Rights:

The act recognizes the moral rights of creators, which include:

 ● Right to paternity: The right to be identified as the author of the work.

● Right to integrity: The right to object to any distortion, mutilation, or modification of the
work that harms the creator’s reputation.

7. Licensing and Assignment:

● Licensing: A copyright holder can grant permission (license) for others to use their work,
either for free or for a fee.

● Assignment: Copyright can be transferred to another party through an agreement. The

assignment can be partial (for specific rights) or full (all rights).

8. Performers' Rights:

In addition to copyright protection for creators, performers (e.g., actors, musicians) are also granted
rights under the act. Performers have the right to:

● Control the recording, broadcasting, and reproduction of their performances.

● Receive royalties for the commercial use of their performances.

9. Copyright Societies:

The act allows for the establishment of copyright societies to manage and enforce the rights of
creators and collect royalties on their behalf. Examples of such societies include the Indian
Performing Right Society (IPRS) for music and the Indian Reprographic Rights Organisation (IRRO) for
literary works.

10. Amendments to the Act:

The Copyright Act of 1957 has been amended several times to address changing technology and
international copyright standards:

● 1994 Amendment: Addressed issues related to digital technologies and introduced

provisions for computer programs.

● 2012 Amendment: Brought significant changes, including the recognition of the rights of
performers, the inclusion of a provision for copyright in the digital realm, and the
introduction of royalties for creators.

11. Digital Rights and Copyright in the Digital Era:

The 2012 Amendment also updated the act to account for the digital age, recognizing the increasing
importance of online works, digital reproduction, and internet broadcasting. It also includes
provisions related to digital rights management and protection against circumvention of
technological measures used to protect works online.

Challenges and Criticisms:

● Piracy: Despite the protections in the act, piracy of films, music, and software is a significant
issue.

● Enforcement: While the law provides penalties for copyright infringement, enforcing these
laws, especially online, can be difficult.
 ● Awareness: Many creators are not fully aware of their rights under the act, which can lead to
exploitation.

1. Fairness: This refers to unbiased, accurate, and impartial reporting, ensuring that all parties
involved are represented fairly and without sensationalism.

2. Public Interest: This concept involves publishing information that is beneficial or necessary
for the public to know, often for the greater good (e.g., exposing corruption or safety issues).

3. Privacy: Media must respect individuals' right to personal privacy, especially when reporting
on sensitive matters that don’t necessarily serve the public interest.

Case Example: Sushant Singh Rajput Death (India, 2020)

The media coverage of Bollywood actor Sushant Singh Rajput’s death is an example of the conflict
between these principles.

1. Fairness: Many news channels engaged in speculative and sensationalist coverage, accusing
various individuals without conclusive evidence, raising concerns about fairness in reporting.

2. Public Interest: While the public had a right to know about the death of a prominent figure,
the focus shifted from facts to sensationalism, undermining true public interest in seeking
justice.

3. Privacy: The actor’s personal life, including his mental health and relationships, was intensely
scrutinized and broadcast widely, violating the privacy of his family and others involved.

The Press Council of India (PCI) is a statutory body in India that governs the
conduct of the print media. Established in 1966 under the Press Council Act, 1965, it serves as a
watchdog for the press to maintain and improve journalistic standards. It has the authority to
censure newspapers and news agencies that violate journalistic ethics or standards. However, its
recommendations are advisory, and it cannot enforce its decisions, which often leads to challenges in
implementation.

Key Recommendations of the Press Council of India (PCI):

1. Journalistic Ethics and Code of Conduct:

o The PCI has periodically recommended and issued guidelines to ensure ethical
journalism. These recommendations emphasize truthfulness, fairness, accuracy, and
respect for privacy.

o It advises against sensationalism, paid news, fake news, and maintaining fairness
during elections.

2. Independence of the Press:

o The PCI regularly advocates for the press's independence from governmental and
corporate influence. It recommends creating an environment where journalists can
function without fear of reprisal or undue influence from political or corporate
interests.

3. Regulation of Digital Media:

 o While primarily focused on print media, the PCI has recommended regulatory
frameworks for digital media and social media, which operate outside its jurisdiction.
This is due to the growing influence of online journalism and its role in shaping
public opinion.

4. Protection of Journalists:

o The PCI has often urged the government to introduce laws and mechanisms to
protect journalists from violence, intimidation, and undue pressure. This includes
proposals for ensuring journalist safety, especially in conflict zones or while covering
sensitive issues.

5. Transparency and Media Ownership:

o It has called for transparency in media ownership, stressing that a clear disclosure of
ownership patterns would ensure that readers can assess potential biases.

6. Paid News Phenomenon:

o The PCI has issued multiple warnings and reports against the practice of "paid news,"
where media outlets receive payment for publishing or suppressing news content
without disclosing it. The 2010 report on paid news was an important document in
this regard.

7. Role in Electoral Reporting:

o During elections, the PCI recommends a code of conduct for fair and unbiased
reporting. It discourages the practice of publishing unverified or biased content that
could influence voters' perceptions.

8. Expansion of Jurisdiction:

o The PCI has also recommended expanding its jurisdiction to cover electronic and
digital media, which currently fall outside its purview, thereby calling for broader
media regulation.

Current Status of Press Council of India (PCI):

● Limited Powers: The PCI’s recommendations, though significant, are advisory in nature. It
lacks the enforcement authority to impose its decisions or penalties on offenders, which
weakens its influence in regulating the press.

● Jurisdiction: The PCI currently only regulates the print media, while electronic media falls
under the purview of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. Calls to expand the PCI’s
jurisdiction to cover digital and electronic media remain unimplemented.

● Press Freedom and Challenges: India’s press freedom rankings have seen a decline in recent
years, raising concerns over the challenges faced by journalists in the country. The PCI has
expressed concerns over the safety of journalists and called for better protections.

● Implementation of Recommendations: While the PCI continues to issue recommendations

on various issues, the extent to which these are adopted by the government or the media
industry varies. Many recommendations, especially those involving regulation of digital
media or protections for journalists, have not been fully implemented.
● Calls for Reform: There have been ongoing discussions about reforming the PCI to give it
more authority and to make its recommendations binding. However, no major reforms have
been enacted so far.