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Unit-2
ECOSYSTEMS

Earth, the only known planet supporting life, has a thin, life-sustaining layer called the biosphere. The
sun provides the energy necessary for continuous interactions among various life forms. You’ve already
learned about the environment, including both external and internal factors affecting organisms. The
external environment consists of physical and living components, whose interactions form a relationship
system called an ecosystem.

This unit explores the structure, properties, and functioning of ecosystems, along with the factors
influencing them. It also covers ecosystem development and interactions like competition, parasitism,
and mutualism among living beings. Additionally, the unit highlights how we interact with other living
and non-living elements of the ecosystem.

Ecosystems actively maintain balance (homeostasis) by resisting disorder. For centuries, humans have
viewed the earth and its environment as unlimited resources. However, gradual changes have
significantly impacted the environment. This unit encourages you to use your knowledge and skills to
protect and manage the environment, ensuring its health for future generations.

An ecosystem is a defined area where living beings, including plants, animals, and humans, interact with
each other and with non-living components like water, air, and soil. These elements are interdependent
and work together to sustain life.

2.1 WHAT IS AN ECOSYSTEM?

An ecosystem is a defined area where living beings, including plants, animals, and humans, interact with
each other and with non-living components like water, air, and soil. These elements are interdependent
and work together to sustain life.

The word ecosystem, was coined by Prof Arthur Tamsely in 1935 . The prefix eco means environment .

Definition of Ecosystem

An ecosystem is a dynamic system where living organisms (biotic components) interact with non-living
elements (abiotic components) in a specific area. It involves energy flow, material cycling, and processes
like input, transfer, storage, and output of energy. Ecosystems vary in species, composition, and non-
living elements, and their study focuses on structure and function.
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Unit 2 Ecosystems

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Fig. 2.1: Schematic representation of an ecosystem. The dotted lines
represent the boundary of the system. The three major components
are the producers, the consumers, and the abiotic elements. The
arrows indicate interactions within the system and with the
enviroment. Energy does not cycle because all the energy of the
ecosystem is derived from the sun and it dissipates as heat.

2.1.1 Ecosystem Features

i) Ecosystems have structural and functional features:
ii) I. Structural Features
iii) These refer to the elements that make up an ecosystem, including living and non-
living components:
iv) A. Abiotic Components (Non-living):
v) Inorganic compounds (e.g., carbon, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, water).
vi) Organic compounds (e.g., proteins, carbohydrates, lipids) that connect abiotic and
biotic components.
vii) Climatic factors (e.g., temperature, moisture, light, topography).
viii) B. Biotic Components (Living):
ix) Producers (e.g., plants).
x) Consumers (e.g., primary, secondary, tertiary).
xi) Decomposers (e.g., saprotrophs).
xii) II. Functional Features
xiii) These include processes and interactions in the ecosystem:
xiv) Energy cycles.
xv) Food chains.
xvi) Biodiversity (interconnections between organisms).
xvii)Nutrient cycles (biogeochemical cycles).
xviii) Succession (gradual ecosystem changes).

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Ecosystems may vary in size from the smallest puddle of water or a terrestrial habitat, to a
landscape or large forest, a biome, or even the entire global biosphere or ecosphere (Fig 2.2).

Fig. 2.2 : Size of ecosystem in decreasing order: Biosphere, biome,

landscape, ecosystem, community, population, individual.

Largest Ecosystem: Biosphere

Biosphere is that part of the earth where life can exist. It is a narrow layer around the surface of the earth. If
you visualize the earth to be the size of an apple the biosphere would be as think as its skin.

The biosphere, or ecosphere, is the largest ecosystem on Earth, comprising land, water, and air where smaller
ecosystems function. It has three main parts:

Lithosphere (land)
Hydrosphere (water)
Atmosphere (air, extending up to 22.5 km)
Life thrives in areas where these components interact, enabling essential processes like photosynthesis and
respiration.
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Fig 2.3: Idealised scheme of a biosphere in relation to hydrosphere,

24 atmosphere and lithosphere.
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The biosphere extends from about 11,000 meters below the ocean's surface to about 9,000 meters above
sea level. The most populated areas are just above and below sea level, with abundant life found between
200 meters below the ocean and 6,000 meters above sea level.

Living organisms are unevenly distributed in the biosphere. Polar regions have few organisms, while
tropical rainforests have a rich variety of life. Nutrients necessary for life come from air, water, and soil,
and these nutrients are recycled continuously. The sun provides the energy needed for life in the
biosphere; without it, the biosphere would collapse.

The terrestrial part of the biosphere is divided into large regions called biomes, which are vast ecosystems
characterized by climate, vegetation, animal life, and soil type. Biomes span entire continents, and each
biome is unique. Climate, particularly temperature and precipitation, determines the boundaries of
biomes.

Aquatic systems are divided into distinct life zones, which are similar to biomes but not called biomes.
These zones differ in salinity, nutrients, water temperature, and sunlight penetration.

SAQ 1
i) An ecosystem is a natural unit of study, consisting of a community of organisms
(biotic components) and the non-living environmental factors (abiotic components).
Answer: ✔ (True)
Explanation: This is the correct definition of an ecosystem, which includes biotic and
abiotic components functioning together.

ii) All ecosystems have well-defined boundaries.

Answer: ✘ (False)
Explanation: Ecosystems do not always have well-defined boundaries; they often
overlap and interact with neighboring ecosystems.

iii) Ecosystems represent enormous contrast in size and complexity.

Answer: ✔ (True)
Explanation: Ecosystems can vary greatly, from small ponds to large forests or even
the biosphere, demonstrating significant differences in size and complexity.

iv) An ecosystem having autotrophs and heterotrophs but no decomposers could be

self-contained.
Answer: ✘ (False)
Explanation: Decomposers play a critical role in nutrient recycling; without them, an
ecosystem cannot be self-contained, as dead organic matter would accumulate.

v) Ecosystems are self-sustaining because they are well insulated from outside
influences.
Answer: ✘ (False)
Explanation: While ecosystems can be self-sustaining to some degree, they are not
completely insulated from outside influences, as they exchange energy and matter
with their surroundings. 25
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b) Arrange the following sub-components of an ecosystem:

energy, consumers, environment, inorganic elements,
decomposers,
primary producers and soil.
.................................
consumers
(Living Things) Biotic components .................................
Decomposers
Ecosystem .................................
.................................
Energy. soil
.................................
Enviornmeny, inorganic elements
Abiotic components .................................
(Non living things)

2.2 COMPONENTS OF THE ECOSYSTEM

An ecosystem is a subdivision of a biome, consisting of both biotic (living) and abiotic (non-
living) components and their interactions. For example:

The Thar Desert ecosystem (part of the desert biome) is characterized by arid conditions,
sandy terrain, succulent plants, and animals like lizards and snakes.

A pond ecosystem (from the freshwater biome) is a standing water body containing aquatic
plants and organisms.

In an ecosystem, populations are groups of interbreeding individuals of the same species

coexisting in space and time. Populations rarely exist in isolation because survival depends on
interactions with other species (e.g., squirrels depend on trees for shelter and fruits for food,
while plants rely on animals for pollination and seed dispersal).

A biotic community is an aggregation of populations of different species living together in a

particular area. These species interact mutually and benefit from each other and their
environment. For example:

A grassland community is dominated by grasses but also includes herbs, shrubs, trees, and
associated animals.
Biotic communities are often named after their dominant plant forms.
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Unit 2 Ecosystems
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2.2.1 Abiotic Components

The abiotic components of an ecosystem are the non-living, inorganic parts, such as air, water,
soil, and sunlight. While each factor can be studied individually, they all interact and influence one
another.

2.2.2 Biotic Components

The biological or biotic components of an ecosystem interact in an
abiotic background (Fig. 2.4) and include:
1. Producers/Autotrophs
Green plants, some bacteria, and algae are autotrophs, meaning they make their own food. Through
photosynthesis, they use sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water to produce food. Chemosynthetic
bacteria, however, use energy from chemicals instead of sunlight to create food through
chemosynthesis. These organisms are also known as producers

2. Consumers/ Heterotrophs

Organisms that cannot make their own food and depend on others are called heterotrophs or
consumers. Herbivores, like cows and rabbits, eat plants and are primary consumers.
Carnivores, like birds that eat grasshoppers, are secondary consumers. Predators like cats that
eat secondary consumers are tertiary consumers. Top carnivores, such as tigers and lions, are
not hunted by other animals.

3.
Decomposers or Saprotrophs or Reducers

When producers and consumers die, their bodies decompose. Microorganisms like bacteria and fungi,
called decomposers or saprotrophs, break down dead organic matter and recycle nutrients.
Decomposers are essential for maintaining the ecosystem's balance.

### Objective Questions and Answers

1. **What are autotrophs also known as?**

- A) Consumers
- B) Producers
- C) Decomposers
- D) Predators
**Answer:** B) Producers

2. **What is the primary method through which green plants produce their food?**
- A) Chemosynthesis
- B) Decomposition
- C) Photosynthesis
- D) Fermentation
**Answer:** C) Photosynthesis

3. **Which organisms perform chemosynthesis?**

- A) Green plants
- B) Herbivores
- C) Chemosynthetic bacteria
- D) Carnivores
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**Answer:** C) Chemosynthetic bacteria

4. **What is the role of decomposers in an ecosystem?**

- A) Produce food through sunlight
- B) Consume other organisms
- C) Break down dead organic matter
- D) Hunt other animals
**Answer:** C) Break down dead organic matter

5. **What is an example of a primary consumer?**

- A) Tiger
- B) Rabbit
- C) Grasshopper
- D) Bacteria
**Answer:** B) Rabbit

6. **Which group of organisms includes lions and tigers?**

- A) Primary consumers
- B) Top carnivores
- C) Decomposers
- D) Secondary consumers
**Answer:** B) Top carnivores

7. **What type of organisms are herbivores?**

- A) Autotrophs
- B) Secondary consumers
- C) Primary consumers
- D) Reducers
**Answer:** C) Primary consumers

8. **Which of the following is an example of a tertiary consumer?**

- A) Cat
- B) Rabbit
- C) Tiger
- D) Algae
**Answer:** A) Cat

9. **Which organisms are responsible for recycling nutrients in the ecosystem?**

- A) Producers
- B) Consumers
- C) Decomposers
- D) Herbivores
**Answer:** C) Decomposers

10. **What term is used for organisms that cannot produce their own food?**
- A) Autotrophs
- B) Heterotrophs
- C) Producers
- D) Photosynthesizers
**Answer:** B) Heterotrophs

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Block 1 An Introduction to Environment and Environmental Studies

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Fig. 2.4: Biotic factors are dependent on abiotic factors. Light and heat energy
from the sun are the main key components that biota depend on.
Biomass of producers is used by consumers who obtain energy by
ingesting food. The assimilated energy is used for various functions
of the body like respiration and movements. When the organism dies
the energy stored in tissues is used by the decomposers.

2.3 TROPHIC LEVELS

An ecosystem has different trophic levels, representing steps in the food chain or ecological pyramid.

Trophic Level I: Autotrophs (producers like green plants) create food using sunlight.
Trophic Level II: Herbivores (primary consumers) feed on producers.
Trophic Level III: Carnivores (secondary consumers) eat herbivores.
Trophic Level IV: Carnivores (tertiary consumers) eat secondary consumers.
Trophic Level V: Top carnivores (quaternary consumers) are predators not eaten by others.
Trophic levels show how energy flows through an ecosystem.

Energy flows through trophic levels in one direction, from producers to herbivores and then to carnivores.
At each level, some energy is lost as heat, reducing the energy available to higher levels. Because of this
energy loss, ecosystems usually have only 4–5 trophic levels, rarely exceeding six.
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Fig. 2.5: Trophic levels in a food chain in: i) a terrestrial and an ii) aquatic
environment.

SAQ 2
a) Examples of organisms at different trophic levels:

First Trophic Level (Producers): Grass, Algae

Second Trophic Level (Primary Consumers): Deer, Grasshopper
Third Trophic Level (Secondary Consumers): Frog, Sparrow

b) Example of an animal occupying different trophic levels:

The bear can occupy multiple trophic levels:

Primary Consumer: When it eats berries or plants.

Secondary Consumer: When it eats herbivores like fish or rodents.
Tertiary Consumer: When it preys on secondary consumers like birds or smaller
carnivores.

2.4.1 Food Chain

Each link in the
food chain can
also be called a
trophic level.
A food chain shows how energy and nutrients move through an
ecosystem in a sequence where one organism is eaten by the next.
It starts with producers and flows through consumers. The arrows
indicate the direction of energy transfer. Like trophic levels, food
chains typically have 4–5 steps due to energy loss at each level
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What does a food chain primarily represent?

A) The life cycle of an organism

B) The nutrient and energy flow in an ecosystem
C) The decomposition of organic matter
D) The reproduction process of organisms
Answer: B) The nutrient and energy flow in an ecosystem
In a food chain, what do the arrows indicate?

A) The type of organisms

B) The direction of energy transfer
C) The amount of energy available
D) The life span of an organism
Answer: B) The direction of energy transfer
What type of organisms does a food chain typically start with?

A) Consumers
B) Decomposers
C) Producers
D) Predators
Answer: C) Producers
Why do food chains generally have 4–5 steps?

A) Limited species diversity

B) Energy loss at each trophic level
C) Lack of producers
D) Predator dominance
Answer: B) Energy loss at each trophic level
Which of the following is NOT a type of food chain?

A) Grazing food chain

B) Detritus food chain
C) Parasitic food chain
D) Carnivorous food chain
Answer: D) Carnivorous food chain
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In which type of food chain does energy primarily flow from plants to
herbivores?

A) Grazing food chain

B) Detritus food chain
C) Parasitic food chain
D) Predatory food chain
Answer: A) Grazing food chain
What distinguishes a detritus food chain from a grazing food chain?

A) Involves decomposed organic matter as the energy source

B) Starts with autotrophs like plants
C) Contains only herbivores
D) Excludes decomposers
Answer: A) Involves decomposed organic matter as the energy
source
Which type of food chain involves smaller organisms feeding on
larger hosts?

A) Grazing food chain

B) Detritus food chain
C) Parasitic food chain
D) Predatory food chain
Answer: C) Parasitic food chain
What happens to energy as it moves through the food chain?

A) It increases at each level

B) It remains constant
C) It decreases due to energy loss
D) It is completely lost after the second level
Answer: C) It decreases due to energy loss
Which trophic level in a food chain is usually the primary consumer?

A) First trophic level

B) Second trophic level
C) Third trophic level
D) Fourth trophic level
Answer: B) Second trophic level
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2.4.2 Types of Food Chains

In nature, three main types of food chains have been distinguished:

Block 1 An Introduction to Environment and Environmental Studies

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.
i) Grazing Food Chain: In this food chain, herbivores (primary
consumers) feed on plants or plant parts. It starts with green
plants as producers. For example:
ii) Green plants → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Hawk
iii) This shows the flow of energy from plants to herbivores and
then to carnivores.

Fig. 2.6: A grazing food chain designated as follows: Grass→

grasshopper → frog → snake→ eagle.

In a community of iv) Detritus Food Chain: This food chain starts with dead organic
organisms in a matter (detritus) from decaying plants and animals.
shallow area of the Detritivores (decomposers) break it down, and energy flows
sea, about 30% of
the total energy from them to secondary feeders, herbivores, and finally
flows via detritus predators. An example is:
chains. In a forest
with a large v) Dead leaves → Earthworms → Birds → Fox
biomass of plants
and a relatively vi) This chain shows how energy from decaying matter is recycled
small biomass of in the ecosystem.
animals, even a
larger portion of
energy flow may be

Fig. 2.7: A detritus food chain designated as follows-dead decaying

organisms (plants and animals) → earthworm → mole.
vii) Parasitic Food Chain: This type of food chain starts with green
plants, then goes to the plant or the herbivores on which the
parasitic organisms feed. This parasitic food chain ends with
parasitic organisms which unlike predators do not kill the host.
An example of such a food chain is given below. (Fig. 2.8):

Fig. 2.8: A parasitic food chain designated as follows-zebra→nematode→bacteria.

In nature the food chains are interconnected at various points and
together take the form of a food web.
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How many main types of food chains are distinguished in nature?

A) Two

B) Three

C) Four

D) Five

Answer: B) Three

Which type of food chain starts with green plants or autotrophs?

A) Detritus food chain

B) Parasitic food chain

C) Grazing food chain

D) Decomposer food chain

Answer: C) Grazing food chain

What is the primary energy source for the detritus food chain?

A) Living plants

B) Decomposed organic matter

C) Herbivores

D) Carnivores

Answer: B) Decomposed organic matter

In which type of food chain do parasites obtain energy from their hosts?

A) Grazing food chain

B) Detritus food chain

C) Parasitic food chain

D) Carnivore food chain

Answer: C) Parasitic food chain

What is the major characteristic of a grazing food chain?

A) Begins with decomposers

B) Involves energy transfer from plants to herbivores

C) Involves small organisms feeding on large hosts

D) Recycles nutrients to the soil

Answer: B) Involves energy transfer from plants to herbivores

Which type of food chain includes decomposers like fungi and bacteria?
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A) Grazing food chain

B) Detritus food chain

C) Parasitic food chain

D) Producer food chain

Answer: B) Detritus food chain

Which type of food chain is most directly involved in nutrient recycling?

A) Grazing food chain

B) Detritus food chain

C) Parasitic food chain

D) Predatory food chain

Answer: B) Detritus food chain

Which food chain involves organisms feeding on decomposed organic material?

A) Grazing food chain

B) Detritus food chain

C) Parasitic food chain

D) Autotrophic food chain

Answer: B) Detritus food chain

In a parasitic food chain, energy flows from:

A) Herbivores to carnivores

B) Hosts to parasites

C) Decomposed matter to fungi

D) Producers to top predators

Answer: B) Hosts to parasites

Which type of food chain is likely to be shorter due to energy loss?

A) Grazing food chain

B) Detritus food chain

C) Parasitic food chain

D) None of the above

Answer: C) Parasitic food chain

Matter cycles through ecosystems, while energy flows in a one-way path. Matter is recycled through processes
like the water cycle, carbon cycle, and nitrogen cycle, ensuring its availability. Energy, however, enters
ecosystems as solar energy and flows through producers, consumers, and decomposers. It does not recycle, so
ecosystems need a constant input of energy from the sun to maintain their structure and function

Ecosystems are "open systems" that rely on a constant inflow of solar energy. Without the sun, the Earth's
biosphere would collapse. Producers (autotrophs) use solar energy to create food, which supports all other
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organisms. Energy flows from the sun, through organisms, and eventually into outer space.

Energy flow in ecosystems is linked to nutrient cycling. Essential nutrients like carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and minerals like calcium and potassium, along with compounds
like water and phosphates, circulate through living organisms. Continuous energy flow and
nutrient cycling are crucial for ecosystem functioning.

The sun is the primary

energy source for
ecosystems. About 30%
of solar radiation is
reflected by the Earth’s
atmosphere, while 70% is
absorbed. Of this, 19% is
absorbed by the
atmosphere, and the rest
by the Earth.

What is the primary energy source for ecosystems?

A) The Moon
B) The Earth
C) The Sun
D) Fossil fuels
Answer: C) The Sun
What percentage of solar radiation is reflected by the Earth’s
atmosphere?
A) 10%
B) 30%
C) 50%
D) 70%
Answer: B) 30%
What percentage of solar radiation is absorbed by the Earth and
its atmosphere combined?
A) 19%
B) 30%
C) 50%
D) 70%
Answer: D) 70%
What percentage of solar radiation is absorbed by the Earth’s
atmosphere?
A) 30%
B) 19%
C) 51%
D) 70%
Answer: B) 19%
What happens to the remaining solar radiation that is not
absorbed by the atmosphere?
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A) It is absorbed by the Earth

B) It is converted into wind energy
C) It is reflected into space
D) It is stored in the atmosphere
Answer: A) It is absorbed by the Earth
What percentage of solar radiation is absorbed directly by the
Earth?
A) 19%
B) 30%
C) 51%
D) 70%
Answer: C) 51%
Which of the following best describes the role of the sun in
ecosystems?
A) Secondary energy source
B) Primary energy source
C) Heat storage system
D) Nutrient provider
Answer: B) Primary energy source
What is the total percentage of solar radiation that does not
reach the Earth’s surface?
A) 19%
B) 30%
C) 51%
D) 70%
Answer: B) 30%
Which layer absorbs 19% of the incoming solar radiation?
A) Earth’s crust
B) Earth’s core
C) Earth’s atmosphere
D) Ocean layer
Answer: C) Earth’s atmosphere
What happens to the solar radiation absorbed by the Earth?
A) It is reflected back into space
B) It powers ecosystems and heats the surface
C) It is stored in the atmosphere
D) It creates tidal energy
Answer: B) It powers ecosystems and heats the surface
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.AQ 3
1) Explain the statement? ‘‘The ultimate source of energy for our
planet is the sun.’’
The sun is the primary source of energy for life on Earth.
Plants capture solar energy through photosynthesis to
produce food, forming the base of the food chain. This energy
flows to other organisms when they consume plants or
animals. The sun also powers natural cycles like the water
cycle and climate systems, making life on Earth possible.

2.4 NUTRIENT CYCLES

i) . The living world relies on energy flow and nutrient cycling in ecosystems. Energy is
eventually lost as heat, but nutrients are recycled indefinitely. Nutrients needed in large
amounts are macronutrients, while those needed in small amounts are micronutrients.
Elements like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus make up 97% of the
mass of living organisms. Around 15–25 other elements are essential for health and
survival. These elements move between living and non-living components in circular
patterns, known as biogeochemical cycles. These cycles are of two types:
ii) Gaseous Cycle - Reservoirs are in the atmosphere or hydrosphere.
iii) Sedimentary Cycle - Reservoirs are in the Earth's crust
Gaseous Cycles

The water cycle (hydrologic cycle) is essential for life and supports the cycling of other
elements. Water makes up about 70% of an organism's body weight and acts as a solvent and
transport medium.

Although 75% of the Earth's surface is covered with water, 97% is in the oceans, and less than
1% is fresh water in rivers, lakes, and aquifers, which is vital for life.

The cycle connects the ocean, land, and atmosphere. Water evaporates from oceans, moves to
the atmosphere, and returns to land and oceans as precipitation (rain or snow). On land, it flows
back to the oceans through rivers, streams, and groundwater or returns to the atmosphere via
evaporation and plant transpiration.
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This continuous cycle, driven by solar energy, keeps about 0.004% of Earth's water actively
moving, while the rest is frozen in glaciers and ice.

Fig. 2.9: The water or hydrological cycle depicting the major pathway of
32 water movement through the ecosystem.

---------------------------

Life as you know depends on this continuous water cycle but human
activities are damaging the environment by polluting the
atmosphere to such an extent that the rainfall patterns are getting
altered, leading to prolonged drought periods extending over years
in countries such as those of Africa, while causing devastating floods
in countries such as the US and India.
The Carbon Cycle
Carbon is a minor constituent of the atmosphere as compared to
oxygen and nitrogen. However, as you are well aware carbon is the
element that anchors all organic substances from coal and oil to
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid: the compound that carries genetic
information). Without carbon life could not exist as it is vital for the
production of carbohydrates (organic matter) through
photosynthesis by plants that use the inorganic carbon dioxide and
water in the presence of solar energy and in this process release
oxygen in the atmosphere. Carbon is a building block of all living
organisms. It is a component of proteins that are the building block
of life and lipids that form the plasma membrane of all plants and
animals. Carbon is also a part of the ocean, air, and even rocks.
Because the Earth is a dynamic place, carbon does not stay still and
is on the move.
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The carbon in the carbon cycle (Fig. 2.10) may be either ‘organic’
or ‘inorganic’. The majority of the inorganic carbon exists as
carbon dioxide, carbonate and hydrogen carbonate. The carbon
found in organic compounds is included in both the abiotic and
biotic parts of the ecosystem and is found in living or dead

organisms, fossil fuels, small deposits in

Fig. 2.10: a) Atmospheric carbon is fixed by plants in their biomass and gets transferred plants to the
animals feeding on them, and so further moves up the food chain. Respiration, digestion,
and metabolism of plants and animals result in some transfer of carbon back to the
atmosphere. Some carbon also moves to the lithosphere when these living organism die or
when wood and leaves decay or when animals excrete. Some of the living beings buried
millons of years ago have been converted into fossil fuel. Mining and burning of fossil fuels
cause this carbon to move from the lithosphere to the atmosphere. Some of this
atmospheric carbon gets dissolved in the ocean and thus, completes the cyele; b) A
generalized global carbon cycle in which estimated volumes are given in Gigatonnes of
CO2 (a gigaton is equal to one billion metric to

rocks, dissolved in water or dispersed in the atmosphere. There is a continuous two-way flow of
carbon between the organic and inorganic forms whereby there is a continuous exchange of
carbon dioxide between the atmosphere and organisms on one hand, and between the
atmosphere and the sea, on the other. The carbon cycle is based on carbon dioxide gas (CO2). In
terrestrial ecosystems, CO2 is removed from the atmosphere, and in aquatic ecosystems CO 2 it
is removed from water.

The oceans contain about 50 times more CO 2 than the atmosphere

and act as a major carbon-storage sink and so play a crucial role in
the global carbon cycle. Marine species remove some carbon
dioxide during photosynthesis.

Carbon from the atmospheric pool moves to green plants, and

then to animals and finally, from them directly to the atmosphere
by process of respiration at various trophic levels in the food
chain, or to bacteria, fungi and other micro-organisms that return
it to atmosphere through decomposition of excretory wastes and
bodies of organisms when they die. Carbon cycle regulates
atmospheric CO2 level to 0.032% despite photosynthetic uptake.
In the normal course carbon is returned to the environment
about as fast as it is removed. The carbon cycle ensures that the
CO2in the atmosphere is present at acceptable levels. This in turn
moderates the temperature for life to exist. If the carbon cycle
removes too much carbon, the atmosphere will become cool and
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if too much carbon is added to the atmosphere, the atmosphere

will get warmer.

Global Carbon Cycle

Some carbon however enters a long term cycle referred to as

‘‘Global Carbon cycle’’ in which carbon accumulates in the form of
organic matter in the peaty layers of bogs and moorlands or as
insoluble carbonates (for example the insoluble calcium carbonate
((CaCO3) of various sea shells) in bottom sediments of aquatic
systems. This sedimentary carbon eventually turns into
sedimentary rocks such as lime stone and dolomite. In deep oceans
such carbon can remain buried for millions of years till geological
movement may lift these rocks above sea level. These rocks may
be exposed to erosion, releasing their carbon dioxide, carbonates
and bicarbonates into streams and rivers. Hard water has usually
flowed through lime stone at some point, picking up carbonates
which they accumulate as ‘fur’ in kettles when the water is boiled.
Fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural gas are also part of
the carbon cycle which may release their carbon compounds after
several years. These fossil fuels are organic compounds that were
buried before they could be decomposed and were subsequently
transformed by time and geological processes into solid or liquid
hydrocarbon fuels. When fossil fuels are burned the carbon stored
in them is released back into the atmosphere as CO 2 (2.10 b). The
current global cycle shows an increased concentration of CO 2 in the
atmosphere.
The resulting climate change phenomenon is at the
forefront of the environmental problems faced by the world
at present.
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Unit 2 Ecosystems
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The Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen is an essential constituent of protein which is a building
block of all living tissue. It constitutes nearly 16% by weight of all the
proteins.
There is an inexhaustible supply of nitrogen in the atmosphere but
the elemental form cannot be used directly by most of the living
organisms. Nitrogen needs to be ‘fixed’, that is, converted to
ammonia, nitrites or nitrates, before it can be taken up by plants.
Nitrogen fixation on earth is accomplished in three different ways:
(i) by certain free-living bacteria and bluegreen algae (e.g.
Anabaena, Spirulina), and symbiotic bacteria (e.g.
Rhizobium); (ii) by human being using industrial processes (fertilizer
factories) and (iii) to a limited extent by atmospheric phenomena
such as thunder and lighting.
As you can see from Fig. 2.11, nitrogen at any time is tied up in Volcanoes are also
different ‘compartments’ or ‘pools’  the atmosphere, soil and important sources
water, and living organisms. The periodic thunderstorms convert the of nitrogen. They
gaseous nitrogen in the atmosphere to ammonia and nitrates which have been emitting
small quantities of
eventually reach the earth’s surface through precipitation and then
nitrogen for
into the soil to be utilized by plants. centuries and
More important, however, are certain microorganisms capable of contribute
fixing atmospheric nitrogen into ammonium ions (NH +). These significantly to the
4
nitrogen reservoir of
include free living nitrifying bacteria (e.g. aerobic Azotobacter and
anaerobic Clostridium) and symbiotic nitrifying bacteria living in
association with root nodules present in leguminous plants (e.g.
Rhizobium) as well as blue green algae (eg.
Anabaena, Spirulina). Ammonium ions can be directly taken up as a
source of nitrogen by some plants, or are oxidized to nitrites or
nitrates by two groups of specialised bacteria: Nitrosomonas
bacteria which promotes transformation of ammonia into nitrite.
Nitrite is then further transformed into nitrate by the bacteria
Nitrobacter.

Fig. 2.11: A schematic nitrogen cycle showing the flow of nitrogen

through the land environment. Presence of bacteria is a key
 23

elements in the cycle as it provides different forms of nitrogen

compounds that can be assimilated by higher organisms.
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The nitrates synthesised by bacteria in the soil are taken up by
The symbiotic plants and converted into amino acids, which are the building blocks
bacteria capable of of proteins. These then go through higher trophic levels of the
fixing atmospheric ecosystem. During excretion and upon the death of all organisms
nitrogen live in the nitrogen is returned to the soil in the form of ammonia. In the soil as
root nodules of well as oceans there are special denitrifying bacteria (e.g.
leguminous plants
Pseudomonas), which convert the nitrates/nitrites to elemental
like beans, peas,
nitrogen. This nitrogen escapes into the atmosphere, thus
alfalfa etc. In
agricultural completing the cycle.
ecosystem legumes Nitrogen has become a pollutant (in the form of nitrogen dioxide
of approximately
and nitric oxide) because of human intrusion into the natural cycle
200 species are the
and this can disrupt the balance of nitrogen in the air.
pre- eminent
nitrogen fixers. In
non-agricultural 2.4.1 Sedimentary Cycles
systems some
Phosphorus, calcium and magnesium circulate by means of the
12,000 species
sedimentary cycle. Sulphur is to some extent intermediate, since
ranging from
cyanobacteria to two of its compounds hydrogen sulphide (H 2S) and sulphur dioxide
(SO2), add a gaseous component to its normally sedimentary cycle.
The element involved in the sedimentary cycle normally does not
cycle through the atmosphere but follows a basic pattern of flow
through erosion, sedimentation, mountain building, volcanic activity
and biological transport through the excreta of marine birds.
The sulphur cycle is a good example for illustrating the linkage
between air, water and the earth’s crust, and hence, a brief account
of this cycle is given.
Sulphur Cycle
The sulphur cycle is mostly sedimentary except for a short gaseous
phase. (Fig.2.12.).The large sulphur reservoir, as mentioned before,
is in the soil and sediments where it is locked in organic (coal, oil
and peat) and inorganic (pyrite rock and sulphur rock) deposits in
the form of sulphates, sulphides and organic sulphur. It is released
by weathering of rocks, erosional runoff and decomposition by
bacteria and fungi of organic matter and is carried to terrestrial and
aquatic ecosystems in salt solution. Sulphur is found in gaseous
forms like hydrogen sulphide and sulphur dioxide in small quantities
in the atmosphere, which is thus a small reservoir. Sulphur enters
the atmosphere from several sources like volcanic eruptions,
combustion of fossil fuels, from surface of ocean and from gases
released by decomposition.
Atmospheric hydrogen sulphide also gets oxidised into sulphur
dioxide (SO2). Atmospheric SO2 is carried back to the earth after
being dissolved in rainwater as weak sulphuric acid (H 2SO4). Uptake
of sulphur by plants is in the form of sulphates (SO -2) which are
4
incorporated into sulphur bearing amino acids in
the proteins of autotroph tissues through a series of metabolic
processes. The sulphur then passes into the grazing food chain.
Sulphur bound in living organism is carried back to the soil, to the
bottom of ponds and lakes and seas through excretion and
decomposition of dead organic material. Under aerobic(in presence
 25

of oxygen) conditions fungi like Aspergillus and Neurospora and under

anaerobic conditions(without oxygen) bacteria like Escherichia and
Proteus are largely responsible for the decomposition of proteins.

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Unit 2 Ecosystems
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Fig. 2.12: The sulphur cycle, showing the two reservoirs namely,
sedimentary and gaseous.

You should bear in mind that the nutrient cycles discussed here are
only a few of the many cycles present in the ecosystem. You should
also be aware that these cycles usually do not operate in
independently but interact with each other at some point or the
other.

SAQ 4
a) Choose the correct answer.
Which of the following contribute to the carbon cycling?
i) Respiration
ii) Photosynthesis
iii) Fossil fuel combustion
iv) All of the above
Correct Answer: iv) All of the above

b) Tick mark the correct answer.

The main reservoir of nitrogen in the biosphere is the:
i) Atmosphere
ii) Rocks
iii) Oceans
iv) Organisms
Correct Answer: i) Atmosphere
c) True or False Statements
i) The water cycle is driven by solar energy.
Answer: True (T)
ii) The carbon in the carbon cycle may be either organic or inorganic.
Answer: True (T)
iii) The oceans contain about 50 times less carbon dioxide than the atmosphere.
 27

Answer: False (F) (The oceans contain about 50 times more carbon dioxide than the atmosphere.)
iv) Sulphur, phosphorus, and calcium cycles are completely sedimentary.
Answer: False (F) (Sulphur also has a gaseous component.)

v) Plants take up sulphur in the form of sulphur dioxide.

Answer: False (F) (Plants take up sulphur in the form of sulfate ions

What is a nutrient cycle?

Answer:
A nutrient cycle is the movement and exchange of organic and inorganic matter back into the production of
living matter. It describes how nutrients are recycled in the ecosystem, such as through the carbon, nitrogen,
phosphorus, and water cycles.

2. What are the two main types of nutrient cycles?

Answer:

Gaseous cycles: Involve the atmosphere as the primary reservoir (e.g., carbon and nitrogen cycles).
Sedimentary cycles: Involve the Earth's crust as the primary reservoir (e.g., phosphorus and sulfur cycles)

3. What is the significance of nutrient cycles in ecosystems?

Answer:
Ensure the availability of essential nutrients for organisms.
Help maintain ecosystem stability and balance.
Promote energy flow and the recycling of organic matter.

4. What is the primary reservoir in the carbon cycle?

Answer:
The primary reservoir is the atmosphere, where carbon is stored in the form of carbon dioxide (CO₂).

5. What processes are involved in the carbon cycle?

Answer:

Photosynthesis
Respiration
Decomposition
Combustion of fossil fuels
Oceanic absorption and release

6. What is nitrogen fixation?

Answer:
Nitrogen fixation is the process by which atmospheric nitrogen (N₂) is converted into ammonia (NH₃) or other
forms usable by plants. This is done by nitrogen-fixing bacteria, such as Rhizobium, and through industrial
processes.

7. Why is the nitrogen cycle important?

Answer:

Nitrogen is a key component of amino acids, proteins, and DNA.

It supports plant growth and soil fertility.

8. What are the steps in the nitrogen cycle?

Answer:

Nitrogen fixation
Nitrification
Assimilation
 28

Ammonification
Denitrification

9. What is the role of decomposers in the phosphorus cycle?

Answer:
Decomposers break down dead organisms and release phosphorus back into the soil or water, making it
available for plants.

10. How is the phosphorus cycle different from the carbon and nitrogen cycles?
Answer:

The phosphorus cycle does not involve the atmosphere.

It is a sedimentary cycle where phosphorus is primarily stored in rocks and released through weathering.

11. What is eutrophication, and how is it related to the nutrient cycle?

Answer:
Eutrophication is the excessive enrichment of water bodies with nutrients, particularly nitrogen and
phosphorus, leading to algal blooms and oxygen depletion. It disrupts aquatic ecosystems and is often caused
by nutrient runoff.

A community is also called a biotic community. “A biotic community is

defined as a group of interacting populations living in a given area”. A
biotic community represents the living part of an ecosystem and
functions as a dynamic unit with trophic levels and energy flow and
nutrient cycling system as described earlier.

Biotic communities exhibit progressive change as part of their

normal development. The orderly process of change or replacement
of some inhabitants or species of the community in an area, through
time is known as community development or more traditionally as
ecological succession. The time scale for ecological succession can
be decades (for example, after a wildfire), or even millions of years
after a mass extinction.

2.4.2 Types of Ecological Succession

Ecological changes are fairly predictable and orderly. Within an
ecological community, the species composition will change over
time as some species become more prominent while others may
fade out of existence. As the community develops over time,
vegetation grows taller, and the community becomes more
established. This final stage of succession is quite stable and the
community in this is called the climax community.
Ecological succession includes (1) primary and (2) secondary
succession

2.4.3 Primary Succession

Primary succession is initiated when a new area that has never
previously supported an ecological community is colonized by plants
and animals. This could be on newly exposed rock surfaces from
landslides or lava flows.
Although
succession ends Primary succession thus, occurs where no community exists before,
with the such as rocky outcropping, newly formed deltas, sand dunes,
establishment of a emerging volcanic islands and lava flows. An example, which can be
climax community, used as a model showing development of primary succession, is the
this does not mean
 29

invasion and colonisation of bare rock as on a recently created

volcanic island.
Primary succession first begins by the entry of lichens which can
invade and colonise bare rocks, once they enter by various methods
of dispersal. Lichens get a foot hold on the bare rocks by means of
their tenacious, water-seeking fungal component and form the first
community, very appropriately often called the pioneer community.
(Fig. 2.13). Lichens are soil builders, producing weak acids that very
gradually erode the rock surface. As organic products and sand
38 particle accumulate in tiny fissures of the rocks, mosses, larger plants,
such

Unit 2 Ecosystems
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as grasses also get an opportunity to establish themselves and Seral stage (Sere)
begin a new seral stage. In time lichens that made the penetration or seral
of plant roots possible are no longer able to compete for light, water community is the
intermediate
and minerals and are succeeded by larger and more nutrient community stage
demanding plants such as shrubs and finally trees. (Fig. 2.13) in succession in an
ecosystem which
is progressing
towards its climax

Fig. 2.13: Stages of primary succession in a terrestrial community. The

orderly series of species replacement during succession can
be seen in this sequence — from a bare exposed rock to a fir-
birch-spruce community. Pioneer species of lichens and
mosses begin the soil-building process, followed by the
invasion of increasingly larger plants until a more stable long-
lived, climax forest community forms.

2.4.4 Secondary Succession

Secondary succession occurs when a community in an area is
drastically disturbed leading to its destruction which results in a
new community moving into that area. Secondary succession is Secondary
succession in
more common than primary succession and is often the result of
grassland
natural disasters such as fires, floods, and winds, as well as human communities is
interference such as logging and tree-cutting. much faster, taking
20 to 40 years to
In secondary succession the basic features are similar to those of develop while on
primary succession, but the seres occur at a more rapid pace. This the other hand,
is because the soil is already formed and available. Secondary fragile disturbed
tundra may require
succession is said to occur when the surface is completely or largely
many hundreds of
denuded of vegetation but has already been influenced by living
organisms and has an organic component. In such areas seeds,
 30

spores and plant propagates, such as rhizomes may be present in

the ground and thus influence the succession.

2.5 ECOSYSTEM AND HUMAN

INTERVENTION
As you are aware, humans can and do change natural communities.
We are often guilty of accidentally or deliberately altering the
complex and myriad factors that maintain the delicate equilibrium of
ecosystems. Today,
approximately 40 per cent of the earth’s photosynthetic productivity is used or 39
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.
influenced by human activities. Often in order to correct the wrongs of
the past intervention we tend to undertake well-intended but
uninformed measures.
However, our efforts falter or fail because of lack of basic
information. All this shows that we have still not learnt to live in
harmony with the ecosystems of which we are a part. Our
technology has far outpaced our basic knowledge and
understanding of the environment. As we turn to the scientific
community for answers and solutions, ecologists will play an
increasingly important role in changing the ways in which we
interact with the natural world. Each of us will also have to be aware
about the consequences of disturbing the delicate balances of
ecosystems and should make efforts not to be a contributor to
damaging or degrading the ecosystems.

What is a biotic community?

A biotic community is defined as a group of interacting populations living in a given area. It
represents the living part of an ecosystem and functions as a dynamic unit with trophic levels,
energy flow, and nutrient cycling systems.

2. What is ecological succession?

Ecological succession is the orderly process of change or replacement of some inhabitants or
species in a community over time. It can occur over decades (e.g., after a wildfire) or millions
of years (e.g., after a mass extinction).

3. What are the two types of ecological succession?

Primary Succession: Occurs in areas where no community existed before, such as bare rocks or
volcanic islands.
Secondary Succession: Happens in areas where an existing community is drastically disturbed
but soil and organic matter are already present.

4. What are pioneer species? Provide an example.

Pioneer species are the first organisms to colonize a barren area during primary succession.
They help initiate soil formation and pave the way for other species.
Example: Lichens and mosses on bare rocks.

5. How does primary succession progress on bare rocks?

Step 1: Lichens colonize the rocks and produce weak acids, breaking down the rock surface.
Step 2: Organic products and sand accumulate, allowing mosses to establish.
Step 3: Grasses, shrubs, and larger plants invade as the soil becomes enriched.
Step 4: The succession culminates in a climax community, such as a stable forest.

6. How is secondary succession different from primary succession?

Primary succession: Starts in areas without soil or organic material.
Secondary succession: Occurs in areas where soil and organic matter are already present,
allowing for faster progression.
 32

7. What human activities disturb ecosystems?

Examples include deforestation, logging, tree-cutting, pollution, urbanization, and agricultural
expansion.

8. What percentage of the Earth's photosynthetic productivity is influenced by human

activities?
Approximately 40%.

9. Why do human interventions in ecosystems often fail?

Human interventions fail because of a lack of basic understanding of ecosystems and their
delicate balances. Technology often outpaces environmental knowledge.

10. Why is it important to live in harmony with ecosystems?

Living in harmony with ecosystems helps maintain the delicate balance of natural
communities, prevents environmental degradation, and ensures sustainability for future
generations.

11. Who will play a crucial role in helping humans interact better with the environment?
Ecologists will play an increasingly important role in changing the ways humans interact with
the natural world.

12. What are the main features of secondary succession?

Occurs in areas that are disturbed but still have soil and organic material.
Progresses more rapidly than primary succession.
Influenced by seeds, spores, and propagates already present in the soil.

SAQ 4
In the following statements choose the appropriate word from the
alternatives given in the parenthesis.
i) In an ecosystem succession that occurs after a
fire is (primary/secondary) succession.
ii) The first plants to grow in a new ecosystem is
termed as (new/pioneer) species.
iii) Lichens contribute to primary succession by
(decomposing organic matter from animals and
plants/breaking down the rock to form soil).
iv) Natural disasters such as hurricanes and volcanic emissions

are linked to (primary/secondary) succession.

 33

In an ecosystem, succession that occurs after a fire is (secondary) succession.

ii) The first plants to grow in a new ecosystem are termed as (pioneer) species.
iii) Lichens contribute to primary succession by (breaking down the rock to form soil).
iv) Natural disasters such as hurricanes and volcanic emissions are linked to (primary)
succession.

2.6 SUMMARY
 Environment is the sum total of living and non-living
components that surround and influence an organism. Living
components are called biotic components while non-living
components are called abiotic components.
 The biosphere is that region of water, earth and atmosphere
where life systems exist. Within the biosphere there are several
major regions containing specific types of ecosystems. The
major terrestrial regions are called biomes, which are
characterised by their dominant vegetation. The other portion of
the biosphere is the aquatic zone.
 An ecosystem is the simplest entity that can sustain life. At its
most basic, an ecosystem is formed of a variety of individual
organisms, micro organisms, plants and animals which interact
with each other and with their physical environment. It sustains
two processes, the cycling of chemical elements and flow of
energy. It is a self-regulatory system based on feedback
information given by its living and non-living components.
 Ecosystems are considered functional units of nature having no
specific
40 size or limits.
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Unit 2 Ecosystems
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 The abiotic components of the ecosystem consist of physical
factors such as light, temperature, rainfall, water and nutrients.
The biotic component of the ecosystem consists of autotrophs
or producers, and heterotrophs or consumers, and
decomposers. These organisms belong to different trophic
levels. Trophic levels tell us how far the organism is removed
from the producers in its level of nourishment and which
organisms share the same general source of nutrition.
 Three main types of food chain can be distinguished namely
grazing, parasitic and detritus food chains. Several intersecting
food chains form a food web, which depicts the pattern of food
consumption in an ecosystem.
 The nutrients in an ecosystem are continuously cycled and
recycled. Nutrients essential to organisms are distributed in
various chemical forms in air (atmosphere), soil or rock
(lithosphere), water (hydrosphere) and living beings. Over time,
elements move from one sphere to another by means of
biogeochemical cycles. Key cycles described in the unit are
water, carbon, nitrogen and sulphur. Soil microorganisms and
organisms present in the roots of leguminous plants play a key
role in cycling of elements, particularly nitrogen and sulphur.
 Ecosystem succession occurs when a series of communities
(each community is called a seres) replace one another. Each
community changes the environment to make conditions
favourable for a subsequent community and unfavourable for
itself till the climax community is established.
 Ecological succession includes (1) primary and (2)
secondary succession
 Primary succession is initiated when a new area that has never
previously supported an ecological community is colonized by
plants and animals called the pioneer community.
 Secondary succession occurs when a community in an area is
drastically disturbed leading to its destruction which results in a
new community moving into that area.
 The final stage of succession is quite stable and is called
the climax community.

2.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Give one to two words for the definitions given below:
i) The basic, functional, self sustaining unit of biosphere,
consisting of all living and non living components of a
particular area that interact and exchange materials with
each other.
ii) The entire region of the surface of the earth comprising of
atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere where organisms
can live.
 35

iii) Non-living components like air, water, soil, light, organic and
inorganic compounds in the ecosystem. 41
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iv) The sequential process of eating and being eaten in an
ecosystem which also involves with this the transfer of
energy from one trophic level to another.
v) The process of change in the species structure of an
ecological community over time in which the time scale
can be in decades.
2. In your food chain give three for each of the following:
i) Who are the producer? ..........................................
ii) Who are the consumers? ......................................
iii) Who are the herbivore ?............................................
iv) Who are the carnivores? .......................................
v) Who are the decomposers? ..................................
vi) Who are the autotroph? ..........................................
vii) Who are the heterotrophs? ....................................
viii) Who are the predators? ........................................
3. Tick the correct answer from the following:
a) A producer is :
I. at the start of a food chain
II. at the bottom of the ecological pyramid
III. an autotroph
IV. all of these
b) A detritus food chain begins:
I. always in the ocean
II. with a producer
III. with decaying organic matter
IV. with air pollution
c) Natural disasters such as hurricanes and floods are linked to:
i) old field succession
ii) primary succession
iii) secondary succession
iv) climax succession
d) Top consumers for obtaining energy eat
I. herbivores
II. carnivores
III. omnivores
IV. all of the above
4. What are the two types of biogeochemical cycles and what are
their
42 distinguishing features?
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Unit 2 Ecosystems
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5. Describe three pathways whereby atmospheric nitrogen is
converted into fixed forms that are usable by plants, and two
pathways whereby fixed nitrogen is returned to the
atmosphere.

2.8 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions
1. a) (i) 3

(ii) X

(iii) 3

(iv) X

(v) X

b) (i) biotic components-primary producers, consumers, decomposers.

(ii) abiotic components-energy, environment, inorganic

elements and soil.

2. a) wheat, corn (first trophic

level) goat, rat (second

trophic level) lion, cat

(third trophic level)

b) Hint: e.g., Grizzly bear,1

Second trophic level (herbivore) like squirrel as it eats

tubers and various other plant products; third trophic level
(carnivore) like bear as it eats animals like squirrel which is
a herbivore; fourth trophic level (top carnivore) like
mountain lions as it eats animals like grizzly bear which are
carnivores.

3. In an ecosystem the producers utilise solar energy and store it

in the food they prepare which are mainly carbohydrates. The
plant tissues that
have the stored solar energy in them serve as a source of
energy for the herbivores. And the herbivores pass on the
energy to the carnivores and so on and so forth. Thus the
ultimate source of energy for our planet on the whole can be
considered to be the sun.

4. a) (iv)

b) (i)

c) (i) T; (ii) T; (iii) F; (iv) F; (v) F.

5. (i) secondary succession;

(ii) pioneer;
 38

(iii) breaking down the rock to form soil;

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Block 1 An Introduction to Environment and Environmental Studies

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.
(iv) secondary succession.

Terminal Questions
1. i) Ecosystem
ii) Biosphere
iii) Abiotic factors components
iv) Food chain
v) Ecological succession.
2. You can give your own answers.
3. a) (iv); b) (iii); c) (ii); d) (iv)
4. a) Gaseous cycles where the primary reservoir is the
atmosphere as far as living organisms are concerned,
examples carbon and nitrogen.
b) Sedimentary cycles where the principle reservoir lies in the
earth’s crust and is released into the ecosystem by,
weathering, mining and erosion. Examples are phosphorus
and sulphur.
5. Atmospheric nitrogen is fixed (i) into ammonium by biological
fixation through nitrogen fixing bacteria and blue green algae,
(ii) by lightning as photochemical fixation into nitrates, (iii) by
industrial fixation in the form of nitrate and ammonium
fertilisers.
Nitrogen is returned to the atmosphere through the process of
denitrification of nitrates and as oxides of nitrogen in
automobile exhaust and industrial combustion.

2.9 FURTHER READING

1. Botkin, D. B. & Keler, E.A. 8th Ed. (2011) Environmental Science,
Earth as a Living Planet, New Delhi: Wiley India Pvt. Ltd.

2. Chiras, D. D. (2016) Environmental Science - A framework for

decision making Burlington, M.A.: Jones and Barlet Learning.

3. Kormondy, E. J. (1969) Concepts of Ecology, Englewood Cliffs :

Prentice Hall.

4. Odum, E.P. 3rd Ed. (1971) Fundamentals of Ecology, USA:

W.B. Saunders.

5. Smith, R. L. and Smith, T.M., 9th Ed. (2015) Elements of

Ecology, Pearson.
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44