A MOTOR PRIMER

Part 4
Copyright Material IEEE
Paper No. PCIC2003-16

Bryan Oakes Gary Donner Steve Evon

Member IEEE Senior Member IEEE Member IEEE
Reliance Electric Shell - Los Angeles Refining Co Reliance Electric
101 Reliance Road 2101 E Pacific Coast Hwy 6040 Ponders Ct.
Kings Mountain, NC 28086 Wilmington, CA 90748 Greenville, SC 29615
USA USA USA

certain speed to develop a proper oil film. Properly installed

Abstract: In recent years much has been written about and maintained, journal bearings should have essentially
motors on Variable Speed Drives, high speed rigid shaft infinite life.
motors, impact of the American Petroleum Institutes (API)
Standard 541 and motor diagnostics. Most of these papers Hydrodynamic radial bearings are typically designed to be split
and articles assume that the reader has significant for ease of assembly, precision bored, and of the sleeve or
knowledge of motor theory and operation. However, this pad type, with steel or bronze backing and babbitted
assumption is overly optimistic, considering that only a few replaceable liners or pads.
colleges teach motor theory today and that application Fig. 1 - Hydrodynamic Oil Film Bearing
experience at motor user locations has been reduced in
recent years.

Index Terms – AC Induction Motors, Sleeve Bearings,

Lateral Critical Speed, Ambient Temperature, Altitude,
Starting, Amplification Factor

INTRODUCTION

This paper is the fourth in a series of papers where the

authors provide answers to “Frequently asked Questions”
that are routinely asked by working engineers in industry.
The authors will present motor theory and application
information with an extensive reference list that will help
working engineers increase their general understanding and
knowledge of motors. This series of papers also serves as a
valuable reference for those who apply and specify motors.
This paper focuses on sleeve bearing operation, lateral
critical speeds, ambient conditions and motor starting. The
first three papers in this series can be found in the IEEE
Conference Records and Transactions. Applications where a hydrodynamic film cannot be developed
due to speed or load conditions a hydrostatic bearing design
I. WHAT ARE SLEEVE BEARINGS? may be used. Hydrostatic journal bearings are a special type
of “sleeve bearing”. Hydrostatic bearings require the lubricant
The term “sleeve bearing” is typically used to describe pressure to be provided from an external source. The
hydrodynamic journal bearings. The basic purpose of a lubricant is supplied to the bearing under pressure and is
hydrodynamic journal bearing is to provide a near frictionless injected into the clearance between the rotating and
environment to support and guide a rotating shaft. In this type stationary elements to lift the rotating element from the
of bearing, the relative motion between the rotating shaft stationary bearing bore. The lubricant injection port is
“journal” and stationary bearing bore, with adequate situated in the gravity-loaded region of the bearing.
lubrication delivered by oil rings or forced lubrication, will Hydrostatic bearings can support very large loads even at
generate a film of lubricant (lubricant wedge) between the zero rotational speed, as there is always full film lubrication.
rotating and stationary elements of the bearing. A pressure This type of bearing has been limited to specialized
distribution is developed in this film that separates the applications such as very slow speed and reversing
rotating and stationary elements of the bearing. Starts and applications but is now finding its way into everyday usage.
stops will produce some wear, as the motor requires a

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 HYDRODYNAMIC vs. HYDROSTATIC wedge will lift and support the shaft, relocating the centerline
ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES slightly up and to one side into a normal attitude position in a
lower quadrant of the bearing.
The advantages of using a hydrodynamic bearing include the
following:
• Split for ease of inspection and replacement.
• Can be re-babbitted.
• Simple system.

The advantages of using a hydrostatic bearing include the

following:
• Split for ease of inspection and replacement.
• Can be re-babbitted.
• Can have high damping and stiffness parameters.
• Can operate at extremely low speed and through
reversals.

The disadvantages of using a hydrodynamic bearing include

the following:
• No interchangeability from brand to brand.
• No warning of impending failure unless bearing
temperatures and vibration are monitored.
• Not adequate for extremely low speed and reversing Fig. 2 - Oil Wedge Formation
applications.
• Generally not designed to handle radial loads. The hydrodynamic oil film bearing passes through three
lubrication conditions during starting and shutdown. The first
The disadvantages of using a hydrostatic bearing include the condition is known as boundary lubrication. Under boundary
following: conditions the bearing and shaft surfaces rub together with
• Requires high-pressure lube system. only a thin oil film separating the two. As the velocity of the
• Expensive. shaft increases mixed film lubrication develops where the
• Complex system. bearing supports part of the load on a boundary film where
the shaft is closest to the bearing. The remainder of the load
BASIC OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS is supported by hydrodynamic lubrication. Under
hydrodynamic lubrication a full film wedge develops that
There are five basic operating characteristics that need separates the shaft from the bearing. The full film carries the
consideration during the initial design of a bearing system. entire load of the rotating assembly with no metal to metal
These are: contact.

a. Minimum oil film thickness The initial boundary conditions are the driving components
b. Maximum bearing temperatures for selecting the bearing face material. The materials are
c. Speed range chosen so that under initial starting conditions or a shutdown
d. Loading there is no surface damage to the load carrying area of the
e. Stiffness and damping characteristics bearing or shaft. One of the more commonly used materials
for bearing liners is a tin-based babbitt. The softness of the
Depending on the operating speed of the motor one of these babbitt provides outstanding embeddability and resistance to
characteristics may play a more important role over the seizure. The property of embeddability relates to the ability of
others. the babbitt material to hold contaminants in the bearing thus
preventing damage to the rotating journal surface.
MINIMUM OIL FILM THICKNESS
The minimum oil film thickness is one operating characteristic
The magnitude of the minimum film thickness is one of prime that is predicted by calculation and is then limited to not fall
importance in the design and operation of a hydrodynamic oil below a certain value. The minimum film thickness depends
film bearing. A fully separating oil film is required for on the surface finish of the journal and the bearing, as the
satisfactory operation. film must be thick enough to eliminate contamination. The
recommended surface finish for a ground journal is 16 to 32
Hydrodynamic principles show the oils adhesion to the microinches. For ground journals the minimum thickness of
journal and its resistance to flow, is dragged by the rotation of this film can be estimated by the following relationship.
the journal so as to create a wedge-shaped film between the
journal and bearing bore surface. This shearing action sets
up the pressure in the oil film that supports the load within the
bearing clearances. In a horizontally split bearing the oil

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 ho = 0.00025 x D too may prevent the formation of an adequate oil film to
support the load. In these cases the hydrostatic bearing
Where: ho Minimum film thickness (in). design would be a more suitable bearing choice.
D Bearing Bore Diameter (in).

STIFFNESS AND DAMPING CHARACTERISTICS

MAXIMUM BEARING TEMPERATURES
Hydrodynamic oil film bearings can have a significant effect
The temperature of the bearing needs to be considered from of the machinery’s dynamic characteristics, as the oil film
two standpoints: acts as a complicated set of springs and dampers and is a
major factor in reducing vibration.
a. Maximum temperature of the lubrication
b. Maximum temperature of the bearing babbitt The hydrodynamic oil film bearing provides much more
damping and less stiffness than a rolling element bearing
The friction generated in an oil film bearing application is because of the lubricant present. More viscous and thicker
important because the higher the coefficient of friction the lubricant films provide higher damping properties and lower
higher the heat generation. Excessive heat reduces the oil stiffness. The damping properties of the lubricant provide an
life. Excessive heat may also result in expansion of the shaft, excellent medium for limiting vibration transmission. Vibration
housing or bearing. This expansion reduces the clearance measurements taken at the bearing housing will not
between the shaft and bearing, further increasing the represent the actual vibration on the rotating assembly within
operating temperature, resulting in premature bearing failure. its bearing clearances. The recommended practice to monitor
The friction developed within the oil film also affects the overall vibration conditions for this bearing type is to use
efficiency of the machine. The heat generated due to friction proximity probes. Proximity probes measure the relative
must be properly transferred from the bearing and dissipated motion between the shaft and the housing and provide a
into an oil sump. better picture of overall motor vibration performance.

The highest temperature region is along the axial centerline

of the bearing offset slightly from the load line. API-541 limits
the total overall bearing temperature to 93°C. Built in
temperature sensors are recommended to monitor babbitt
temperatures under all operating conditions. API-670 states
the resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) should be
installed. The detector tips should be mounted within the
bearing backing material and be positioned as near to the
center of the bearing as possible to obtain the most accurate
measurements. A detector mounted near the outside edge of
the bearing does not provide a true representation of the
overall bearing temperature during operating conditions.

Fig. 4 - TEFC Motor with Proximity Probes Mounted 45

degrees from Vertical

II. WHAT IS A LATERAL CRITICAL SPEED?

Fig. 3 - RTD Location within Bearing
Rotors have natural frequencies of vibration. When the rotor
is spun at this frequency, it begins to flex and go into a
OPERATING SPEED AND LOAD condition of resonance. These rotor resonances occur at
what’s called lateral critical speeds. A significant number of
Hydrodynamic bearings rely on the creation of a pressurized motors are designed to operate above their first bending
film of oil sufficient to carry the load of the bearing with the oil lateral critical speed (Fig. 5) especially with the gaining
film being generated by the motion of the rotating assembly popularity of variable frequency drive machines. There are
within the bearing. In some applications motors operating on other instances where (due to low base support stiffness)
reciprocating and variable frequency drive conditions may machines are operating with a lateral critical speed near
operate at very slow speeds. Under these conditions due to operating speed.
very low rotational speeds an adequate oil film cannot be
developed and maintained. If the bearing loading is high this

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The definition of a lateral critical speed differs between that III. WHAT IS AMPLIFICATION FACTOR?
defined for induction motors and the one defined for pumps.
The primary specification for induction motors in the Amplification factor is the measure of a rotor bearing
petroleum industry API-541 defines a lateral critical speed as system’s vibration sensitivity to unbalance when operated
a speed corresponding to resonant frequencies of the within the vicinity of a lateral critical speed. The amplification
complete rotor, bearings, and bearing support system. The factor is measured by the ratio of the vibration amplitude at a
basic identification of critical speeds is made from the natural resonance to the amplitude at speeds above the resonance.
frequencies of the system and of the forcing phenomena. If Amplification factors greater than ten indicate that rotor peak
the frequency of any harmonic component of a periodic vibration will be approximately ten times higher than the
forcing phenomenon is equal to or approximates the vibration level above the resonance. An amplification factor
frequency of any mode of rotor vibration, a condition of less than five indicates the system is not sensitive to
resonance may exist. If a resonance condition exists at a unbalance when operating near a critical speed. The effect of
finite speed, that speed is called a critical speed. API-541 the amplification factor on rotor response near the associated
requires that such a frequency response be removed from critical is presented in Figure 7.
running speed by at least 15%.
A method for determining the amplification factor of a
machine is to use the amplitude part of a 1x-filtered Bode
plot. The Bode plot shown in Figure 7, is a graph of 1x
amplitude versus speed and phase versus speed.

Fig. 5 - First Mode - Bending Mode

Pump manufactures have adopted the definition of a lateral

critical speed defined in API-684. Here a lateral critical speed
is defined as a shaft rotational speed that corresponds to a
non-critically damped (amplification factor greater than 2.5)
rotor system resonance frequency, see Figures 6 and 7. The
frequency and amplitude are determined through damped
unbalance response analysis and testing.

Fig. 7 - Bode Plot

API-541 has established vibration limits for a rotating assembly

passing through a critical speed during an overspeed
coastdown with a defined unbalance weight attached to the
rotating assembly. API-541 states that the machine shall be
run to 120 percent of its rated speed with the unbalance
weights attached and then allowed to coast to rest. The shaft
vibration relative to the bearing housing shall be observed.
Machines with a defined 15% separation margin shall meet the
following criteria:
Fig. 6 Evaluating Amplification Factors from Speed-
Amplitude Plots

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The shaft displacement relative to the bearing housing at any Due to the various requirements for a particular design or
speed within the operating speed range or separation-margin enclosure it is not always feasible to mount proximity probes
limits shall not exceed the smaller of the following value or 55 inboard of the bearing. It is however, important to recognize
percent of the shaft-to-bearing and seal diametrical running that motor designs do vary regarding the location of the
clearances: proximity probes and that it is important to fully understand
the vibration data being presented for that particular design.
Ds = 1.5*(12000 / N)1/2

Where: Ds shaft displacement, (mils peak to peak). IV. WHAT EFFECT DOES HIGH AMBIENT
N operating speed nearest the resonant speed of TEMPERATURES AND HIGH ALTITUDES HAVE ON
concern (rpm). THE SIZE OF A MOTOR AND THE OPERATION OF A
MOTOR?
API-684 utilizes the amplification factor as a basis for
pass/fail criteria for an unbalanced coastdown test. NEMA defines the Ambient Temperature as “the temperature
surrounding the cooling medium, such as gas or liquid, which
AF = NC1 / (N2-N1) comes into contact with the heated parts of the apparatus”.
NEMA also defines the rated maximum ambient of a motor to
Where: AF Amplification Factor be 40°C, unless otherwise specified.
NC1 Rotor 1st Critical, Center Frequency (rpm)
N2 - N1 Peak Width at the Half Power Point Motors name plated with a 40°C maximum ambient
temperature should successfully operate from -25°C to 40°C.
The actual proximity probe locations relative to the The majority of industrial motors have a rated maximum
displacement of the rotating assembly may provide ambient of 40°C, however motors with ambient temperatures
inadequate information regarding the true resonance greater than 40°C are less common.
amplitude response.
When the ambient temperature exceeds 40°C, a motor rated
Depending on the probe location within the bearing housing for the peak ambient temperature should be purchased.
the measured amplitudes or amplification factor may or may High ambient temperatures impact the operation of a motor
not meet the specified requirements. How can this be? The in several ways.
bearing acts as a node point with shaft deflection at the node
point being zero. If the proximity probes are mounted inboard Elevated ambient temperatures directly impact the total stator
of the bearing the deflection value will be greater than probes and rotor temperatures. The total temperature of the stator
mounted outboard of the bearing. An inboard mounted probe and rotor will increase at a rate greater than the increase in
would therefore have greater amplitude. If the proximity ambient. Since the resistance of stator windings and rotor
probes are measured outboard of the bearing the amplitudes bars increase with temperature. The increased resistance
2
will be lower as the shaft has passed through a point of zero causes higher stator and rotor I R losses, which increase the
deflection at the node point within the bearing. Figure 8 motor temperature rise.
shows the deflection of a rotating assembly going through the
first mode of bending. The deflection inboard of the bearing is For example, an 800 hp, TEFC motor with a rated speed of
greater in amplitude than the deflection outboard of the 1789 rpm has a full load efficiency of 96.1%. The motor
bearing. temperature rise by resistance is 78°C with 5990 watts of
2 2
stator I R losses and 3620 watts of rotor I R losses.
Increasing the ambient temperature from 40°C to 50°C
increases the stator I2R losses by 180 watts and the rotor I2R
losses by 110 watts. The temperature rise of the motor
increases 2°C. The total stator temperature increases from
118°C to 130°C for an ambient change from 40°C to 50°C.
The efficiency of the motor drops 0.1% to 96.0% at rated
load.

Note that the temperature of the motor increased an

additional 12°C and that the efficiency of the motor
decreased. The total temperature of the motor in the above
example would be acceptable with the 50°C ambient, if the
above motor has a NEMA class F (155°C) insulation system.
However, higher ambient temperature affects more than the
motor insulation system. The bearing temperature must also
be considered when dealing with a high ambient
temperature.

Fig 8 - Deflection of Rotating Assembly through First Mode. Using the same 800 hp, TEFC motor in the previous
example, the impact on bearing temperature can be

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considered. If the motor is a sleeve bearing motor, the The impact on ambient temperature will vary by motor
bearing rise is 40°C at rated load. With a 40°C ambient the design, enclosure and load. If ambient temperatures above
total bearing temperature is 80°C. If the ambient is increased 40°C are required the motor manufacture should be
to 50°C, the bearing total temperature will be 90°C. The consulted. Low ambient temperatures must also be
temperature rise is now at the recommended alarm considered. Ambient temperatures below -25°C may require
temperature for the bearing and within 5°C of the special frame material such as ductile iron and bearing
recommended trip temperature. consideration such as sump heaters or special grease.
Table 1 lists the usual recommended winding and bearing
temperatures along with alarm and trip temperatures.
TABLE 1
Stator Winding Class F Insulation Class H Insulation

Maximum running total temperature 155°C 175°C

Alarm total temperature 160°C 180°C
Trip total temperature 170°C 190°C

Sleeve Bearing – Oil Lubricated Bearing Oil

Typical running total temperature 80°C 60°C
Alarm total temperature 90°C 70°C
Trip total temperature 95°C 75°C

Anti-Friction Bearing – Grease Lubricated Bearing Grease

Typical running total temperature 90°C 80°C
Alarm total temperature 110°C 100°C
Trip total temperature 120°C 110°C

Altitude will also affect the performance of a motor. The

temperature rises defined on motor nameplates are for Motor rise at sea level (TRSL) = 78°C
operation in altitudes of 1000 meters (3300 feet) or less TRA = TRSL / [1 – (Alt-3300)/33000]
unless otherwise noted. When motors are installed at TRA = 78°C / [1 – (8000-3300)/33000
altitudes greater than 1000 meters (3300 feet) special TRA = 91°C
consideration must be given to insure the maximum
winding and bearing temperatures are not exceeded. To calculate the required temperature at sea level to meet
an 80°C rise at 8000 feet, the calculation is as follows.
The thinner air at higher altitudes reduces the heat transfer
of motor losses to the surrounding ambient air. Therefore, TRSL = TRA [1 – (Alt-3300)/33000]
motors operating in higher altitudes have increased TRSL = 80°C [1 – (8000-3300)/33000]
temperature stator and bearing temperature rises. The TRSL = 68°C
impact of altitude on stator temperature rise can be
calculated as follows: The motor temperature rise at sea level should be 68°C or
less to maintain an 80°C rise at 8000 feet. A larger motor
For altitude in meters: would be required to meet the 80°C rise requirement at
TRSL = TRA [1 – (Alt-1000)/10000] 8000 feet. Often higher altitudes have lower ambient
TRA = TRSL / [1 – (Alt-1000)/10000] temperatures. If the ambient temperature at 8000 feet can
be lowered to 25°C from 40°C, the standard 800-hp motor
For altitude in feet: could be applied at 8000 feet.
TRSL = TRA [1 – (Alt-3300)/33000]
TRA = TRSL / [1 – (Alt-3300)/33000] The total temperature of an 80°C motor with a 40°C
ambient is 120°C. If the motor at 8000 feet with the 91°C
rise is applied with a 25°C maximum ambient the total
Where: temperature will not exceed 116°C. The motor temperature
TRSL temperature rise of motor in degree C at sea level. remains within the 120°C total temperature for a class B
TRA desired temperature rise in degree C at altitude. rise.
Alt altitude above sea level in meter (feet) at which
the machine is to be operated. Bearing temperature rises should also be addressed when
considering high altitude applications. The same rise
An example of the calculation for altitude is as follows: If calculation applies to the bearing temperatures. While
the same 800 hp, TEFC motor used in the previous bearing temperature rises are not stated on the motor
example was applied to an application at 8000 feet, the nameplate, it is important to be sure the issue is
motor calculated winding temperature rise would be as addressed. High altitudes will increase bearing
follows: temperature rises and may cause safe temperatures to be

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exceeded. Motor manufactures should always be advised supply is of concern since large transient torques can occur
of special altitude conditions when purchasing a motor. during the reclosure of the power.

Induction motors transient torque peaks, which occur under

V. HOW OFTEN CAN A MOTOR BE RESTARTED AND normal starting conditions, can be up to 5 times rated
WHAT CONSIDERATIONS SHOULD BE TAKEN torque. Motors are designed to handle normal starting
INTO ACCOUNT? transient toques. However, the fast reconnection of a
motor onto a power supply after a short power interruption
NEMA MG-1 Part 12.54.and Part 20.12.1 defines the can generate transient torque peaks up to 20 times rated
number of starts for an AC induction motor as: torque.

a. Two starts in succession, coasting to rest between Two types of reclosures are defined by NEMA MG-1 Part
starts, with the motor initially at ambient 20. They are as follows:
temperature.
a. Slow transfer – Delay the reconnection until one and
b. One start with the motor initially at a temperature half-open circuit time constants or more has elapsed.
not exceeding its rated load operating
temperature. b. Fast transfer – The reconnection occurs in less than
one and a half-open circuit time constants.
In both starting conditions the load inertia must be equal to
or less than the value listed by NEMA MG-1 for the rated It is recommended that the slow transfer method be used to
horsepower and speed of the motor. During the limit the possible damage that may occur to motor and/or
accelerating period, the connected load torque must be driven equipment. When a fast transfer is desired a study
equal to or less than a torque that varies as the square of of the electromechanical interactions of the motor, the
the speed and is equal to 100 percent rated-load torque at driven equipment and the power system should be
rated speed. For special purpose or large motors, the completed.
same number of starts applies providing the inertia of the
load, the load torque during acceleration, the applied The open circuit time constant of a motor is the time
voltage, and the method of starting are those for which the required for the stator voltage to decay to 37% of the
motor was designed. original voltage after power is removed from stator
terminals. The open circuit time constant can be provided
The number of times a motor is started should be kept to a from the motor manufacture. When motor equivalent circuit
minimum. The number of starts affects the life of a motor. data is available the open circuit time constant (T0do) can
Excessive starts or high numbers of successive starts may be calculated as follows:
lead to premature motor failure.
T0do = (Xm + X2)/2pf r2
Some applications require starting that exceeds the values
listed in NEMA MG-1. In these cases the motor Where:
manufacture should be consulted before ordering the
motor. Often design changes can be made to Xm Magnetizing reactance per phase.
accommodate special starting conditions or cycles. X2 Rotor leakage reactance per phase at rated
NEMA MG-1 does not define the amount of time before the current.
starting cycle can be repeated. The amount of time f Rated frequency, hertz
between cycles depends on the motor design, starting and r2 Rotor resistance per phase at rated speed and
load conditions. However, the following is a good guideline operating temperature.
for most motor applications:

a. 45 minutes with the motor shutdown (sitting idle) CONCLUSION

before re-start.
The specification of a highly engineered motor requires the
b. 15 minutes with the motor running without load before expertise of rotating equipment engineers in evaluating
shut down and re-start. issues relating to the long-term successful performance of
motors. The topics discussed in this paper attempts to
c. 30 minutes with the motor running at rated load before provide the user with the basic knowledge of items that
shut down and re-start. should be carefully considered when the motor
specification process is initiated.
Induction motors are occasionally exposed to operating
conditions that temporarily disconnect the motor from its
electrical power supply. The motor is usually reconnected
at a later time ranging from a few cycles to several minutes.
The amount of time before reconnection to the power

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1] 3rd Edition of API-541, 1995.

[2] 1st Edition of API-684, 1996.

[3] 2nd Edition of API-670, 1986.

[4] Machinery Diagnostics Course Reference Book, Bently

Nevada, 1992.

[5] Victor Wowk, Machinery Vibration Measurements and

Analysis, McGraw Hill, New York, 1991.

[6} Robert O. Parmley, P.E., Illustrated Sourcebook of

Mechanical Components, McGraw Hill, New York, 2000.

[7] Gary Donner, William Subler and Steve Evon “Motor

Primer Part 1” in IEEE Transactions and Conference
Records.

[8] Robert L. Mott, P.E., Machine Elements in Mechanical

Design, Bell & Howell Company, Columbus, Ohio, 1985.

[9] Motion System Design Handbook, Penton Publishing,

Cleveland, Ohio, 2001.

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