Chapter 2 ; overview and methodology

2 .1 Introduction:
In this chapter, we define and elucidate the components and characteristics of the
distribution system. We delve into the electrical voltage levels and the standards
governing these systems. The chapter also addresses voltage stability and instability,
with a focus on the critical role of stability analysis in distribution networks.
Additionally, we explore power flow analysis using the backward/forward sweep
algorithm, explaining its methodology and significance in the planning and
optimization of distribution networks.

Overview of power Distribution systems .2 .2

Distribution systems are usually radial in nature for ease of operation. The radial
distribution system is fed from a single point, the substation, which simplifies the
design and operation of the system. Substation Power from central generating stations
via an interconnected transmission network. End users receive electrical power from
the substation via a radial distribution system (RDS), which is a passive grid, as there
are no internal power generation sources in the distribution network. High resistance
to reactance (R/X) ratio in distribution lines results a large voltage drops, low voltage
stabilization, and high power losses.
2. 2.1.Components of power distribution systems: []
The electrical distribution network consists of various components that work together
to transfer electrical power from substations to end consumers. These components
include:
 Substations: Contain transformers to convert voltage from high to low levels
and can be either main or secondary distribution stations.
 Power Lines: Transport electrical power from substations to consumers and
include overhead and underground lines.
 Switches and Circuit Breakers: Used to control power distribution,
disconnect electrical current when necessary, and facilitate maintenance and
fault repairs.
 Meters: Measure the amount of electrical power consumed by users, serving
as essential tools for billing and fee collection.
 Automatic Control Devices: Used to control the operation of power lines,
adjust voltage levels, and monitor the network's status.
 Protection and Control Systems: Used to protect the network and its
components from electrical incidents and to control the safe operation of
electrical devices.
  Smart Devices and Communication Systems: Used to collect, analyze, and
manage data from various network components efficiently, contributing to
improved system performance and increased efficiency.
Source: Gonen, Turan. "Electric Power Distribution System Engineering." CRC Press,
2018.

2. 3. Electrical voltage
Maintaining a constant and stable voltage in the network is essential to avoid
fluctuations and interruptions in the electrical current. Voltage plays a major role in
transmitting energy. Regulating the voltage at different points of the network can
control the flow of energy and ensure its equal and regular distribution to all areas
connected to the network.

2. 3.1.Voltage levels and standards

Voltage levels and standards vary between countries and regions, and depend on the
purposes for which they are used. Voltage standards are determined by international
and local bodies and standards to ensure compatibility and safety in the use of
electrical devices. Some of these bodies include: International Electro technical
Commission (IEC) and IEEE:
EC 60038 specifies nominal voltage ranges for electrical power systems for
frequencies up to 60 Hz
These voltage levels include:
 Low Voltage (LV): Typically ranging from 100 volts to 1,000 volts.
 Medium Voltage (MV): Ranging from 1 kilovolt (kV) to 72.5 kV.
 High Voltage (HV): Ranging from 72.5 kV to 230 kV.
 Extra High Voltage (EHV): Typically above 230 kV.

General guidance on voltage levels based on IEEE 141:

 Voltage levels in distribution systems should be selected based on the
specific requirements of the industrial plant, including the type of
equipment used, the magnitude of loads, and safety considerations.
 Typically, low voltage (LV) systems (below 1000 volts) are used for
distributing power within buildings and to individual equipment.
  Medium voltage (MV) systems (up to 72.5 kV) are commonly
employed for distributing power within the industrial plant and for
supplying power to larger equipment and machinery.

Here's some information about HTA in electrical distribution networks in Algeria []

In Algeria, the supply of industrial networks can be carried out, either:
 In HTB, which means that the voltage is greater than 50 kV, generally 60kV,
90 kV, 150kV or 220kV
 In HTA, which means that the voltage is between 1 kV and 50 kV, generally
10 kV, Or 30 kV.

2. 4. Voltage stability:
 Voltage stability is defined as the ability of the electrical power network to
maintain the voltage within allowable limits by power and voltage control:
When the load acceptance is increased, the load power will also increase.
Voltage instability occurs when the power system cannot maintain the voltage
between limits if a reactive power demand occurs in the loaded system [].

 Voltage collapse can be defined as "the ability of a power system to maintain

steady acceptable voltages at all buses in the power system under normal
operating conditions and after being subjected to a disturbance". The voltage
instability phenomenon is further defined as a progressive and uncontrollable
drop in the voltage level. There are many reasons that a power system enters
into a state of voltage instability; one of the most important of these reasons is
"the inability of a power system to meet the reactive power demand"[].

2.4.1 Voltage collapse:

Voltage collapse is an instability phenomenon that occurs in
transmission or distribution systems when they operate under heavy
load conditions. in which the voltage decreases monotonically
leading the system to be blackout. While in normal operating
conditions, small loads increase causes a small voltage drop but if
the entire network or a particular node is over a certain critical load
level; further loads increase causes a fast decrease of the voltage
which suddenly leads the system to the collapse[].

2. 5. Review of relevant studies and research

 In the article (Al.WCharcaforte. M) Under the title (Voltage Stability
Analysis of Radial Distribution Networks with Distributed Generation
[ ]), the voltage stability index (SI) has been proposed to identify the node
 most sensitive to voltage collapse. This study is carried out in Load Modeling
(constant power, constant current, constant impedance) In the 69 bus radial
distribution network. This research presented an artificial bee colony
algorithm to optimally place DG in the distribution system radius to improve
voltage stability. Using the voltage stability index, it is possible to calculate a
stability index voltage at each node and determine the node where the value of
the voltage stability index is the minimum and the maximum sensitivity to
voltage breakdown
 In the article (Soheil Derafshi Beigvand et Hamdi Abdi et Sri Niwas Singh)
under the title (Voltage stability analysis in radial smart distribution grids
[ ]) , Two VSIs are proposed based on SG infrastructures to evaluate voltage
stability for radial network 41bus , Where the proposed VSIs were tested on
sample distribution system taking into account load models and scenarios
different.
 In the article (Vericherla N Malleswari et K. Chandra Sekhar) under the title
(Impact Analysis of Distributed Generation on Voltage Stability in Radial
Distribution Systems [ ]), The effectiveness of the proposed algorithm for
determining the optimal location and sizing problem of DG was analyzed by
obtaining simulation results on 12-bus radial distribution systems, and by
improving the real power loss and AVDI simultaneously using basic PSO,
improved IPSO, and PSO-TVAC. The effect of distribution generation is
analyzed using different stability measures voltage: PSI, LSI, and VSI. The
simulation results were performed on standard radial distribution systems and
the results showed the possibility of improving voltage stability in radial
distribution systems

2. 6. Power flow of distribution network

Studying energy flow is useful for planning and future expansion of energy systems,
as well as determining the best operation of existing systems. The main information
obtained from studying the flow power is the value of the voltage difference and
phase angle at each station, the active power and the inactive power that flow in each
line.
The technique that we will use to study the flow of energy in the network is the BFS
method (back/forward scan).
2.6.1. Distribution line modeling:
2. 6.1.1 Load modeling
In distribution systems, voltages vary widely along system feeders as there are fewer
voltage control devices. Therefore, to determine the load status of all branches of
radial distribution networks. The real and reactive power loads of node ‘i’ is given as:

( )
2
¿ |V ( i)|
PL ( i )=α c 1 × PL0 ( i ) +c 2× ℜ(IL 0 ( i ) ×V ( i ))+ c 3 × ℜ( ¿ ) (2.12)
ZL0 (i )
 QL ( i )=α ¿ (2.13)

S(i)=PL ( i ) +1 j ×QL ( i ) (2.14)

When:
PL0 (i): active power in nominal case at bus i
QL0 (i): reactive power in nominal case at bus i
IL0 (i): constant currant load in nominal case at bus i
V (i): voltage brunch
ZL0 (i): Impedance in nominal case at bus i
Static load models are typically categorized as follows:
Constant power load model (constant P): A static load model where the power does
not vary with changes in voltage magnitude. It is also known as constant MVA load
model. For constant power load c1=d1=1, c2=c3=d2=d3=0.
Constant current load model (constant I): A static load model where the power
varies directly with voltage magnitude. For constant current load c2=d2=1,
c1=c3=d1=d3=0.

( ) ( )
S
¿
PL0 + J QL0 ¿
IL 0 ( i )= = (2.15)
V0 V0

Constant impedance load model (constant Z): A static load model where the power
varies with the square of the voltage magnitude. For constant impedance load
c3=d3=1, c1=c2=d1=d2=0.
2
|V 0|
ZL0= (2.16)
(PL0+ J QL 0)¿

Composite load modeling: A composition of 40% constant power, 30% of constant

current and 30% of constant impedance loads are considered.

2. 6.2. The backward/forward sweep method (BFS method (

The backward/forward sweep (BFS) is among the most successful power flow
methods for radial networks, This method consists of two steps: back scanning and
front scanning, In the backward scan, the current is calculated using Kirchhoff's law
for the current from the node furthest from the source node, and in the forward scan,
the voltage downstream from the source node is calculated.
2. 6.2.1 Construction of the BIBC matrix:
The load currents at the bus bars are obtained using the following equation:

k
Ii =
( Pi + jQi
Vi
k
) *
(2.1)

The currents crossing the branches are calculated by applying Krishoff's law to the
distribution network
A simple distribution network consisting of 7 bus bars and 6 branches is shown in
Figure (2.1) as an example to facilitate the explanation of the method of determining
the BIBC matrix.

Figure (2.1): A simple distribution network

The network branch currents can be expressed as a function of load currents as

follows:
B1 = I2 + I3 + I4 + I5 + I6 + I7
B2 = I3 + I4 + I5+I6 +I7
B3 = I4 + I5 (2.2)
B4 = I5
B5 = I6+I7
B6=I7
Therefore, the relationship between bus load currents and branch currents (2.2)

It can be written in matrix form as follows:

[ ] [ ][ ]
B1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I2
B2 0 1 1 1 1 1 I3
B3 0 0 1 1 0 0 I4
= (2.3)
B4 0 0 0 1 0 0 I5
B5 0 0 0 0 1 1 I6
B6 0 0 0 0 0 1 I7

In general, equation (2.3) can be written as follows:

[B]= [BIBC] [I] (2.4)

Where BIBC is the matrix of currents injected into the bus bars and is an upper
triangular matrix
Contains values 0 and 1 only. The BIBC matrix can be formed according to the
following algorithm:
1 For a distribution network of m branches and n bus, the dimensions of the
BIBC matrix are m × (n − 1)
2 If branch Bk is located between bus and bus j, copy the column of ith set of bars of
the BIBC matrix in the column of j th bus and write 1 to the position of the kème
element th line (branch) and the jème th column (bus).
3 Repeat the second operation until all the branches are included in the BIBC matrix
[3] Node voltage can be expressed as a function of branch currents، line parameters،
and the reference voltage at the source station. Their relationship between branch
currents and node voltages, as obtained by the equation (2.5) and (2.6)

[ ][ ][ ][ ]
V1 V2 Z 12 0 0 0 0 0 B1
V1 V3 Z 12 Z 23 0 0 0 0 B2
V 1 − V 4 = Z 12 Z 23 Z 34 0 0 0 B3
(2.5)
V1 V5 Z 12 Z 23 Z 34 Z 45 0 0 B4
V1 V6 Z 12 Z 23 Z 34 Z 45 Z 56 0 B5
V1 V7 Z 12 Z 23 0 0 Z 36 Z67 B6

[∆𝑉] = [𝐵𝐶𝐵𝑉][𝐵]
Where BCBV (in English Branch Current Bus Voltage) is the matrix which represents
the relationship

Between the branch currents and the node voltages, 𝑖 =2, 3… 6 is the voltage of the
Node « i », and is the line impedance between node « i »and node «m». Matrices
BIBC and BCBV are developed according to the topological structure of the network
Distribution. By combining equations (2.4) and (2.6), the relationship between these
two matrices can [15]:

( ]𝐼[ ]𝐵𝐼𝐵𝐶[ ]𝐵𝐶𝐵𝑉[ = ]𝑉∆[

)2.7

2.6.3. Losses of active and reactive power

The active power losses at the level of a branch (i) of figure (2.1) are written as
Follows:
2
Ploss , i=Ri . Bi (2.8)
The total active power losses in the network can be determined by adding
Losses of all branches
Nbr
PT ,loss=∑ P loss ,i(2.9)
i =1

The reactive power losses at the level of a branch (i) are written as follows
2
Qloss , i=Xi . Bi (2.10)

The total reactive power losses in the network can be determined by Adding up the
losses of all branches
Nbr
QT ,loss=∑ Q loss ,i (2.11)
i =1

2. 6.4. BFS algorithm

Step 1: Read network data
Step 2: Determination of power

Step 3: Determination of the matrix [𝐵𝐼𝐵𝐶]

Step 4: Initialize the voltage of all bus bars to the reference bus bar voltageV0i=V1
i=1, 2….n [V] = [V0]
Step 5: Saved the vector [Va] = [V]
Step 6: Calculate the injected currents [𝐼] by the relation I I = ( )
Si
Vi
*

Step 7: Calculate the currents crossing the branches [B]by [B] = [BIBC] [I]
Step 8: Calculate the new voltages (modules and phases) at the level of all the sets of
bars by [V] = [V0]-[BIBC]’ [Zd] [B] where [Zd] diagonal matrix of the impedances of
the Network elements Zd jj =R j +i X jj =1….m

Step 9: Once the convergence test is verified ΔV=max (|[𝑉] − [𝑉𝑎]|) ≤ 𝜖, the values
voltages from the last iteration are retained, Otherwise return to step 5
Step 10: Calculate network losses.

2. 7. Voltage stability index

Voltage stability indicators play an important role in detecting and determining the
operating status of the power system. In addition, they help predict potential change in
the future and evaluation of overall progress in the long term[7],Also, VSIs play a
vital role in determining the best size and location for distributed generations (DG)
[8] and FACTS devices [9] by specifying the
Weakest bus and the weakest line. Voltage stability indices (VSI) can be used in three
modes
A distribution networks consists of N number of nodes. Normally, a number of
branches are series connected to form a radial feeder I n low voltage distribution

branch and node i is sending end node [sending end voltage V(i)∠δ (i)] and node
system. Let any branch line is bjj where i and (i +1) are respectively two nodes of the

(i+1) is receiving end node [Voltage, V(i +1)∠δ (i +1)]. Therefore, power
flow direction is from node i to node (i+1). The load flow from node (i+1) is
{P (i +1) + jQ(i +1)}. The impedance of the branch bjj is R (i) + jX (i). If line shunt
admittances are neglected, the current flowing through the line is given by,

|v (i)|∠δ (i ) −V (i+ 1)∠ δ (i+1)

)2.17( I ( i )=
R (i)+ jX (i)

The complex power is written as

S (i +1) = P (i +1) + jQ (i +1) = V (i +1) I *(i)
P ( i+1 )− jQ (i+1) P ( i+1 )− jQ(i+1)
I ( i )= = (2.18)
v∗(i+1) |V (i+1)|∠−δ(i+1)
From (17) and (18)
P ( i+1 )− jQ(i+1) |v (i)|∠ δ ( i )−V (i+1)∠ δ (i+1)
=
v∗(i+ 1) R(i)+ jX (i)
(2.19)

[R (i) P(i+1)+ X (i)Q(i+1)]+ j[ X (i)P(i+1)−R(i)Q (i+1)]=¿

|v (i)||V (i+1)|[cos (δ (i)−δ(i+1))+ jsin(δ (i)−δ (i+1))]−|V (i+1)|2

(2.20)
Generally in radial distribution system, the voltage angle is negligibly small. So
δ (i ) −δ ( i+1 )Hence,

cos ( δ ( i )−δ (i+1 ) ) ≅ 1∧sin ( δ ( i )−δ ( i+1 ) ) ≅ 0(2.21)

Therefore, from (2.20),

V ( i ) V ( i+ 1 )−¿V2( i+1 )=[ R ( i ) P ( i+1 ) + X ( i ) Q ( i+ 1 ) ] + ¿

j [X (i) P(i+ 1)−R (i)Q(i+1)] (2.22)

Equating the real and imaginary parts from (2.22), we get,

R (i) 2 R (i)
v ( i+1 )− V (i ) V ( i+1 ) +¿
X (i) X (i)

[ ]
2
R ( i)
P ( i+1 ) − X ( i ) +2 R ( i ) Q ( i+ 1 )=0 (2.23)
X (i)

The equation (2.23) is quadratic in nature and to have real roots, the discriminate must
be greater than or equal to zero. Hence, from (2.23), we have
R (i) 2 R (i)
v ( i+1 )− V (i ) V ( i+1 ) +¿
X (i) X (i)

[ ]
2
R ( i)
P ( i+1 ) − X ( i ) +2 R ( i ) Q ( i+ 1 ) ≥ 0
X (i)

2
4 Q ( i+1 ) [R ( i ) + X ( i ) ]
Or, ≤1 (2.24)
X (i)[V 2 ( i )+ 8 R ( i ) Q ( i+1 ) ]

Indicator (VSI) and to maintain stability, the condition should be VSI ≤ 1. If the magnitude of VSI
exceeds unity, then the corresponding radial distribution line is very much unstable.

Hence,
 2
4 Q ( i+1 ) [R ( i ) + X ( i ) ]
VSI = ≤1
X (i)[V 2 ( i )+ 8 R ( i ) Q ( i+1 ) ]

2. 8. Conclusion;
This chapter emphasizes the importance of understanding and analyzing power
distribution systems comprehensively and accurately. It illustrates that distribution
systems rely on a radial structure and encompass multiple components working
together to ensure efficient and stable power transmission. It is crucial to maintain
stable voltage levels and avoid sudden instabilities to achieve reliable performance
and efficiency in power transmission. The chapter highlights the significance of
analyzing distribution and predicting changes in electrical flows using techniques
such as the backward/forward sweep algorithm to enhance the design and operation of
distribution networks. In conclusion, this chapter helps readers grasp the importance
of key elements and challenges related to power distribution and how to effectively
address them.