INTRODUCTION

Brief Explanation:-

Traditional black and white photography utilized a chemical process that has been observed
since ancient times that of the photo-sensitivity of silver (Ag) compounds. This ability was harnessed
by the19th century photography pioneers by coating silver halides (molecules of Ag and halide
gases) in an emulsion of gelatine onto a glass or plastic backer .

The process of making traditional film has not changed much from the basic chemical reactions
discovered in the 1800’s.Inially, elemental silver is reacted with nitric acid to form silver nitrate.
Complete and balance the reaction below:

Ag (s) + HNO3 → AgNO3 + H2

The silver nitrate is then converted to the silver halide(usually bromide) by fuming the film with
potassium bromide .Complete and balance the next reaction:

AgNO₃ + KBr → AgBr + KNO₃ Note:

Silver bromide (AgBr) is insoluble in water and forms a precipitate, which is crucial in the formation
of photographic film . The AgBr is an ionic compound, so the film now is ready for exposure and the
creating of the intended image. Stored within a light sealed container, the Ag Br film is a uniform
darkish yellow.

The light exposure occurs when an opening allows light to enter the dark container and strike the
film. These “storage” containers that subsequently allow light exposure are more commonly
referred to as cameras.

History:-

The history of black and white photography is closely tied to chemical advancements. Originating in
the early 19thcentury, pioneers like Joseph Nicéphore Niépce and Louis Daguerre experimented with
light-sensitive materials.
 Silver halides ,compounds of silver and halogens ,played a crucial role as they darkened when
exposed to light, forming the basis for early photographic processes like the Daguerreotype.
Advancements in wet-plate collodion photography improved image quality, but the breakthrough
came with dry-plate emulsions, enabling portable cameras and longer exposures.

The chemistry of development also progressed, with hydroquinone and metal identified as powerful
reducing agents. The history of black and white photography showcases the fusion of art and science
through exploration and experimentation with chemical reactions.

Positive/Negative Effects:-

The intersection of chemistry and black and white photography has yielded both remarkable
achievements and environmental concerns. On the positive side, the understanding and
manipulation of chemical processes has led to significant advancements in photographic technology.

The development of light-sensitive silver halides, for instance, formed the bed rock of early
photography. Subsequent innovations in developing agents, fixers, and toners have refined the art of
capturing and preserving images. Chemistry has also contributed to the creation of specialized films
for diverse photographic applications, from high-contrast portraits to landscape photography .

However, the photographic process also has its drawbacks . The use of hazardous chemicals ,
particularly in the darkroom environment, poses risks to human health and the environment . Silver
nitrate, for example, is toxic.

Improper disposal of photographic waste can contaminate waste .In conclusion, while chemistry has
been instrumental in the development of black and white photography, it is essential to balance the
benefits with the environmental costs. Sustainable practices and responsible disposal of chemicals

are crucial to mitigate the negative impacts and ensure the long-term viability of this art form

THEORY
Photographic Film and Paper:-
Photographic paper and film consist of a gelatine emulsion with silver halides grains layers
onto either paper or film base. The halides that are often used are chlorine, bromine and
iodine, although bromine is most common.
The silver halide grains are crystalline structures of silver ions and halide ions in a lattice
structure .Even though the grains are held together by chemical bonds and are very stable, there is
some movement allowed of atoms and electrons throughout the structure.
Electronically, there are different energy levels in the grain: the valance band and conduction band.
Electrons in the valence band are localised around the atom to which they belong. Those in the
conduction band are localised around the atom to which they belong. Those in the conducti
on band are free to move through the grain. When photons from light come through the grain.

When photons from light come into contact with a grain, an electron is ejected from the valence band of
the halide into the conducting band of the crystal. This electron will then combine with a
moving silver ion forming atomic silver. The place where thus occurs is the latent image centre .When
three or four of these events occur at the same location, an aggregate or clump of silver
metal is produced. Three or four atoms are necessary for the latent image centre to be.

Each grain has thousands of silver ions, so there are thousands of chances for this to happen .The
latent image is invisible to the eye, but after further development, the atomic silver will create dark
areas due to its colour. The latent centre serves as a catalyst for the development in the dark room.
The formation of silver metal is logarithmically proportional to the intensity of light. Therefore places
where more light hits appear darker on the film. In creating the print, light shown through the
negative, so areas that were originally dark then receive less light and appears brighter
Developers:-

The developer consists typically of one or more developing agents, a preservative (such as sodium
sulphite) to prevent oxidation by the air, an alkali (such as sodium carbonate) to activate the
developers and a restrainer to ensure that the developer acts only on exposed silver halide crystals.

A developer’s main characteristics are activity, development speed and effect of film gradation, grain
less and sharpness. Developers may be prepared on the basis of published formulas or brought as
ready-mixed powders or concentrates for dilution with water .The developer is allowed to act for a
specific me to build up the image to the required density and contrast. This depends on the
developer, the temperature, the degree of agitation and the film-as indicated by recommendations
from film and developer manufacturer
EXPERIMENT

Aim:-

The primary aim of a chemistry experiment in black and white photography is to understand the
underlying chemical processes involved in creating a photographic image .More specifically, it seeks
to:

Explore the role of different chemicals in the development, fixing, and toning processes.
Investigate the impact of various factors such as temperature, me, and concentration on
the final image. Understand the relationship between light, silver halides, and the formation of
the latent image.Develop a deeper appreciation for the art and science of photography.

Procedure:-

In the first section of this experiment you will determinate of optimum conditions for developing a
contact print using a light bulb for exposure and a standard, already-prepared developer. Two
factors are important in determining the optimum conditions.

The first is the amount of light hitting the photographic paper. This depends on the intensity of the
light, the length of the exposure and the distance of the light from the paper. The greater the
amount of light hitting the paper, the darker the print since more silver halide grains are exposed.
This assumes all other conditions are held constant .The directions for the first part are listed in
Section 1.

In the second section of the experiment you will prepare a developer by weighing out and mixing
the necessary chemicals. You will then use the conditions determined in the first part to prepare a
contact print with your own developer. Most photographic developers have several components in
common. These are:

1. a reducing agent - to reduce the exposed silver halide grains to metallic silver,

2. a preservative - to prevent reaction of the reducing agent with oxygen from the air,

3. an activator - to activate the reducing agent

4. a restrainer - to increase the contrast between light and dark areas in the print.

In your developer the chemicals will be:-

1.metol, the reducing agent.

2.sodium sulfite (Na2SO3), the preservative.

3.sodium carbonate (Na2CO3•H2O), the activator

4.sodium bromide (NaBr), the restrainer