SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

A PROJECT
on

TYPES OF TESTING

By

B.VENKATESH
[227Z1A0516]

III B.Tech I Semester CSE - A

2024-25
 SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING

INSTITUTE’s VISION AND MISSION

 VISION:
 To be a premier institution ensuring globally competent
and ethically strong professionals.
 MISSION:
 To provide higher education by refining the traditional
methods of teaching to make globally competent
professionals.
 To impart quality education by providing the state-of-
the-art infrastructure and innovative research
facilities.
 To practice and promote high standards of professional
ethics, transparency and accountability.

DEPARTMENT’s VISION AND MISSION

 VISION:
 To produce creative Electronics and Communication
engineering graduates with cutting edge technology and
Research to meet Industry and societal needs.
 MISSION:
 To provide innovative learning environment to enable the
students to face the challenges.
 To provide value-based education by promoting activities
addressing societal needs.
 To enable graduates to develop the skills to solve
complex problems in multidisciplinary activities.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT 1

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 2-7

1. Antenna Information 2
2. Design Equations 3
3. Applications 5
4. Advantages 7
5. Limitations 7

CHAPTER 2: IMPLEMENTATION 8-13

1. Antenna Design Parameters 8

2. Design Parameters 10
3. Frequency Of Operations 10
4. Measurements 11
5. Result 11

OUTCOMES 14
OUTCOMES OF Potter HORN antenna AT 2.4ghz 14

REFERENCE 15

APPENDIX 16
MATLAB script 16
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Pg No.

1.1 Inset-fed patch Antenna 2

2.1 Radiation pattern 3D 11
2.2 Impedance graph 12
2.3 S-parameter graph 12
2.4 Azimuth pattern 13
2.5 Elevation pattern 13

LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Pg No.

1.1 Applications of Inset-fed patch Anntenna at different Frequencies 6
2.1 Design parameters of Inset-fed patch antenna 8
2.2 Properties of Inset-fed patch Antenna 10
2.3 Parameters of Inset-fed patch Antenna 11
 Design of Inset-fed patch Antenna at 2.4 GHz

ABSTRACT

This study presents the design of an inset-fed patch antenna operating at the 2.4 GHz
frequency, commonly used in wireless communication systems such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and IoT
devices. The inset-fed patch antenna design is chosen for its simplicity, low profile, and ease of
integration into compact electronic systems. The antenna's structure consists of a rectangular patch
with a carefully placed inset feed to achieve efficient impedance matching and minimal return loss
at the 2.4 GHz operating frequency. The design is optimized using electromagnetic simulation
software to ensure good radiation characteristics, including broad bandwidth, stable radiation
pattern, and a reasonable gain value. Key design parameters such as patch dimensions, feed
position, and substrate material are analyzed and adjusted to enhance the antenna's overall
performance. The resulting antenna achieves a high degree of efficiency and is suitable for
integration in compact consumer electronics, wearable devices, and wireless sensor networks. This
paper emphasizes the benefits of inset-fed patch antennas in terms of low-cost, ease of fabrication,
and reliable performance, making them ideal for the growing demand for small, efficient antennas
operating within the 2.4 GHz band.

Department ECE, NNRSGI 1

 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 About Inset fed patch Antenna

An Inset Fed Patch Antenna is a type of microstrip antenna widely used in wireless
communication systems like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and GPS. It features a rectangular or
circular patch with an inset feed, which improves impedance matching and minimizes
return loss. Known for its compact size, low profile, and ease of integration, this antenna is
ideal for portable devices and IoT applications. The inset feed ensures efficient
performance, offering moderate gain and stable radiation patterns. Its simple design and
low-cost fabrication make it a popular choice in modern communication technologies.

Figure: 1.1 Inset fed patch Antenna

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1.2 Design Equations
Designing an Inset Fed Patch Antenna requires careful calculation of key parameters to
ensure efficient operation at the desired frequency. The key aspects include the operating
frequency, the wavelength, and the dimensions of the patch and feed.

Key Design Considerations for Inset Fed Patch Antenna: An Inset Fed Patch Antenna
consists of a rectangular or circular patch with a feed inset from the edge, which improves
impedance matching. The design process involves calculating the wavelength, patch
dimensions, feed position, and substrate characteristics.

1. Wavelength Calculation:

The wavelength (λ) is a fundamental parameter and is related to the operating frequency (f)
by the equation:

Where:

λ is the wavelength,

c is the speed of light in a vacuum (3×108 m/s),

f is the operating frequency.

For example, at 2.4 GHz, the wavelength can be calculated as:

Thus, the wavelength for a 2.4 GHz signal is 12.5 cm.

2. Patch Length:

The length of the patch (Lpatch) is approximately half of the wavelength (λ/2) for resonant
operation. This can be calculated as:

as:

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 For 2.4 GHz, the length of the patch is:

Thus, the vertical segment should be 3.125 cm long.

3. Patch Width:

The width of the patch (Wpatch) can be calculated for a rectangular patch antenna to
achieve a reasonable impedance match, typically using:

Where:

ϵr is the relative permittivity (dielectric constant) of the substrate.

For a common substrate with ϵr=4.4 at 2.4 GHz, the width is:

4. Inset Feed Position:

The inset feed position (Lfeed) is a crucial factor for impedance matching. The optimal
feed position is determined by:

Typically, the feed is placed at a distance from the edge of the patch to ensure the
antenna’s impedance matches the feed line (usually 50 Ω). Adjusting the inset feed
position fine-tunes the impedance matching.

5. Impedance Matching:

For a rectangular patch antenna, impedance matching is critical for maximum power
transfer. The typical initial impedance for a patch antenna is approximately:

Z≈50Ω

Summary of Design Equations:

Wavelength: λ=c/f

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 Patch Length: Lpatch= λ/2

Patch Width: Wpatch= c/2fϵr

Inset Feed Position: Lfeed≈Lpatch/2

Impedance Matching: Z≈50 ΩZ

Bandwidth: BW=f0/Q

By carefully adjusting these parameters, an Inset Fed Patch Antenna can be designed to
operate efficiently at a specific frequency, such as 2.4 GHz, with good impedance
matching and desired bandwidth characteristics.

1.3 Applications

The Inset Fed Patch Antenna is a versatile and widely used antenna design, known for its
compact size, ease of integration, and efficient performance in various wireless
communication applications. Due to its low profile, ease of fabrication, and reliable
radiation characteristics, the Inset Fed Patch Antenna is utilized across multiple frequency
bands, particularly in systems requiring high performance in limited space. Below are
some of the key applications of the Inset Fed Patch Antenna:

Key Applications of Inset Fed Patch Antennas:

Wireless Communication Systems: The Inset Fed Patch Antenna is commonly used in
wireless communication systems such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and Zigbee. Its compact design
and efficient performance make it ideal for integration into consumer electronics,
providing reliable data transfer over short to medium ranges. This is particularly beneficial
in devices like smartphones, tablets, and laptops.

IoT (Internet of Things) Devices: Due to its small size and low-cost fabrication, the Inset
Fed Patch Antenna is ideal for IoT applications, where space is often limited, and a
reliable, cost-effective antenna solution is required. It is used in a variety of IoT devices,
such as smart home sensors, wearables, and environmental monitoring systems.

GPS (Global Positioning System): The Inset Fed Patch Antenna is widely employed in
GPS systems due to its ability to provide a stable radiation pattern and reasonable gain in
the relevant frequency bands. Its low profile makes it suitable for integration into portable
devices like handheld GPS units, automotive navigation systems, and drones.

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Applications of Inset Fed Patch Antennas at Different Frequencies:
Table: 1.1 Applications of Inset fed patch Antenna at different Frequencies

Frequency Range Application Area Specific Applications

Wi-Fi (2.4 GHz), Bluetooth, Zigbee, RFID, LPWAN

Low Frequency (1 GHz - 3 GHz) Wireless Communication
(Low Power Networks)

IoT and Consumer

Smart sensors, wearables, smart home devices
Electronics

GPS Handheld GPS, automotive navigation, drones

4G/5G base stations, wireless routers, mobile

Medium Frequency (3 GHz - 6 GHz) Mobile Networks
hotspots

Satellite ground stations, uplinks/downlinks,

Satellite Communication
portable systems

Microwave
Point-to-point links, satellite backhaul systems
Communication

Satellite
High Frequency (6 GHz - 30 GHz) Satellite Internet, mobile satellite communication
Communications

Airborne radar, automotive radar, surveillance

Radar Systems
radar

High-bandwidth communication, long-range data

Microwave Systems
transfer

Very High Frequency (VHF) & Ultra Radar & Air Traffic Target tracking, air traffic management, airport
High Frequency (UHF) Control radar

Satellite Communication Deep space probes, satellite ground stations

Communication for satellite networks, emergency

Wireless Communication
systems

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1.3 Advantages
The Inset Fed Patch Antenna is a popular antenna design due to its compact structure, ease of
integration, and effective performance across various communication applications. The design
features an inset feed point, which provides benefits like improved impedance matching and a
more controlled radiation pattern. Below are the key advantages of the Inset Fed Patch Antenna:

Compact Design: The low profile makes it ideal for applications with space constraints, such as
portable devices and wireless networks.

Good Impedance Matching: The inset feed configuration provides better impedance matching,
reducing the need for external matching components.

Efficient Radiation: Provides stable radiation patterns, which are ideal for both omnidirectional
and directional applications.

Wideband Operation: The antenna offers a reasonable bandwidth, suitable for use in multi-
frequency wireless communication systems like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and cellular networks.

Low Cost and Easy Fabrication: The design is simple and cost-effective to manufacture, making
it suitable for mass production.

Versatility: The antenna can be easily scaled for use across various frequency bands (e.g., 2.4
GHz, 5 GHz) and integrated into a wide range of devices.

1.4 Limitations
While the Inset Fed Patch Antenna offers numerous advantages, there are certain limitations that
should be considered when selecting it for a particular application:

Narrower Bandwidth Compared to Other Designs: Although the antenna offers reasonable
bandwidth, it is still narrower than some other designs like monopoles or dipoles, limiting its use
in applications requiring extremely broad frequency coverage.

Limited Gain: The antenna typically provides moderate gain, which may not be sufficient for
long-range or high-gain applications.

Surface Wave Losses: In some cases, the antenna can suffer from surface wave losses, which can
affect performance, especially in large array configurations.

Polarization Sensitivity: The antenna's polarization may not be ideal for all applications,
particularly when cross-polarization is needed.

Orientation Sensitivity: Its radiation pattern is dependent on orientation, which may require
careful placement in some devices or systems.

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 CHAPTER 2
IMPLEMENTATION OF ANTENNA

2.1 Antenna Design Parameters

The design of an Inset Fed Patch Antenna involves several critical parameters that influence its
performance, radiation pattern, bandwidth, and efficiency. The inset feed configuration allows for
better impedance matching, which enhances performance in various communication applications.
Below are the primary design parameters:

Patch Dimensions: The rectangular or circular patch dimensions determine the resonant
frequency and bandwidth of the antenna. The size of the patch is typically related to the
wavelength of the operating frequency.

Feed Position: The inset feed is positioned slightly inside the patch, which helps achieve a better
impedance match. The position of the feed point affects the antenna’s impedance, gain, and
radiation pattern.

Table 2.1: Design Parameters of Inset fed patch antenna

Practical Considerations for Inset fed patch Antennas:

Size and Form Factor: The size of the patch is inversely related to the operating frequency.
Higher frequencies require smaller patch sizes, making the antenna more compact for high-
frequency applications.
Bandwidth: The bandwidth of the Inset Fed Patch Antenna is typically narrow but can be
increased by adjusting the patch dimensions or substrate material. For wideband applications,
multiple resonant modes may be used.
Impedance Matching: The inset feed configuration is designed to provide a better impedance
match (typically 50Ω) between the feed and the antenna, reducing reflections and improving
efficiency.
Material and Construction: The choice of substrate material (such as FR4, Rogers RT/duroid)
affects the antenna's performance, including its efficiency, bandwidth, and durability. The
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 construction must be precise to ensure minimal signal losses.
Radiation Pattern: The radiation pattern is generally broadside with the patch oriented parallel
to the ground plane. The feed position can influence the pattern's shape and directivity.
Power Handling: The power handling capability of the antenna depends on the materials used
for the patch and the feed system. Higher power applications may require thicker conductors or
special materials to prevent heating or damage.
Cost and Manufacturing Complexity: Inset fed patch antennas are generally easy to
manufacture, especially when integrated into PCB-based systems. However, the complexity of
the design may increase with the addition of advanced features like multi-frequency operation or
specialized radiation patterns.
Simulation and Testing: As with all antenna designs, simulations (using tools like CST, HFSS,
or FEKO) are critical in verifying performance and optimizing design parameters before physical
implementation.

Inset-fed patchAntenna Properties:

1. Basic Inset Fed Patch Antenna:
o Frequency Range: Typically 1 GHz to 10 GHz (depending on design)
o Gain: Typically 5 to 8 dB
o Bandwidth: Narrowband or wideband depending on the substrate and patch
dimensions
o Impedance: Typically 50Ω
o Size: Patch dimensions based on wavelength, with height dependent on frequency
o Polarization: Linear polarization (vertical or horizontal)
2. Multi-Band Inset Fed Patch Antenna:
o Frequency Range: 1 GHz to 6 GHz (for multi-band applications)
o Gain: 5 to 8 dB
o Impedance: 50Ω
o Size: Patch dimensions adjusted for multiple resonant frequencies
o Polarization: Linear polarization with potential for dual-polarization

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2.2 DesignParameters

Summary of Key Parameters for 2.4 GHz:

Table 2.2: Properties of Inset-fed patch angular antenna

2.3 Frequency of Operations

Frequency of Operation for 2.4GHz

Calculate the Wavelength at 2.4 GHz

The wavelength ( ) of an electromagnetic wave is related to its frequency (f) by the equation:

c
λ= f
where:

- = speed of light in vacuum

= 3 × 108 m/s
- f = frequency in Hz (in this case, f = 2.4 GHz = 2.4 × 109 Hz
Now, substituting the 3 × 108
values: λ =

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 2.4 × 109= 0.125 m
= 12.5 cm

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2.4 Measurements
The measurements for an Inset fed patch Antenna are crucial for its proper design and
performance. These measurements depend on the frequency of operation (2.4 GHz in this case),
and key design parameters ensure the antenna meets the required specifications. Here’s a table
summarizing the measurements and parameters for the Inset-fed patch Antenna at 2.4 GHz:

Table 2.3: Parameters of Inset-fed patch antenna

2.5 Result
The result of Inset-fed patch antenna are:
i) Gain: The gain of Inset-fed patch antenna at 2.4 GHz is:

Max Gain: 6.77 dBi

Min Gain: -31.6 dBi

Figure : 2.1 Radiation pattern 3D

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 ii) Impedance: The Inset-fed patch antenna impedance at 2.4GHz generally ranges
from around 67Ω to 110Ω for typical sizes , but careful design adjustments can
achieve a 50Ω impedance match to standard RF transmission lines.
Impedance
200

150

100

50
Impedance (ohms)

0
Resistance
Reactance
-50

-100

-150

-200

-250
4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 5
Frequency (GHz)

Figure : 2.2 Impedance graph

• S-parameters:An Inset-fed patch antenna typically operates as a broadband

antenna. Its S-parameters are frequency-dependent and vary across the bandwidth it
is designed for. Here’s what we need to understand regarding the S- parameters for
an equiangular spiral antenna at a frequency like 2.4 GHz:

0
dB(S )
11
-1

-2

-3
Magnitude (dB)

-4

-5

-6

-7

-8

-9
4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 5
Frequency (GHz)
Figure : 2.3 S-Parameter graph

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 • Azimuth: The azimuth pattern of an Inset-fed patch antenna is a key characteristic
that describes how the antenna radiates energy in different directions, particularly in
the horizontal plane (azimuthal direction).

Figure : 2.4 Azimuth

• Elevation: The elevation pattern of an Inset-fed patch antenna describes how the
antenna radiates energy in the vertical plane (from the horizon upwards). For an antenna
operating at 2.4 GHz, the elevation pattern is a critical characteristic, as it informs how the
antenna's radiation is distributed in the vertical direction.

Figure : 2.5 elevation

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 OUTCOMES

Outcomes for an Inset-fed patch Antenna at 2.4 GHz:

1. Wideband Performance: Provides stable performance across the 2.4 GHz ISM band, supporting a
variety of wireless communication systems including Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and IoT applications.
2. Omnidirectional Radiation: Delivers an omnidirectional radiation pattern in the azimuth plane,
ensuring consistent coverage in all horizontal directions, with moderate gain of 5–7 dBi.
3. Moderate Vertical Gain: Offers vertical gain ranging from 5 to 7 dBi with a beamwidth of
approximately 60°–90°, providing a broad vertical coverage for various communication scenarios.
4. Linear Polarization: Operates with linear polarization, providing stable and reliable transmission,
ideal for point-to-multipoint communication.
5. Low Back and Side Lobes: Demonstrates efficient radiation with minimal back and side lobes,
ensuring focused energy in the desired direction and reducing interference.
6. High Efficiency: Features good impedance matching (50Ω) and low losses across the 2.4 GHz band,
ensuring optimal energy transmission.
7. Compact Design: The compact size makes it suitable for portable devices, Wi-Fi routers, and access
points, making it highly versatile for integration in consumer electronics and IoT devices.
8. Trade-off: Balances between moderate gain and compact size, making it ideal for short to medium-
range communication applications.
Simulation Outcomes for Inset Fed Patch Antenna at 2.4 GHz (using CST or HFSS):
1. Impedance:
o Resistive Impedance: 50 Ω (optimized for maximum power transfer)
o Reactive Impedance: Low (ensuring minimal loss)
2. S-Parameter:
o Magnitude: −20 dB at 2.4 GHz (indicating excellent return loss and impedance matching)
3. Radiation Pattern (3D):
o Maximum Radiation: 6–7 dBi at 2.4 GHz
o Minimum Radiation: −10 dBi (back lobe)
o Azimuth Coverage: [−180°, 180°] (full horizontal coverage)
o Elevation Coverage: [−60°, 60°] (providing good vertical coverage)
These outcomes demonstrate the high performance of the Inset Fed Patch Antenna at 2.4 GHz, with excellent
impedance matching, effective radiation pattern, and high efficiency, making it ideal for modern wireless
communication applications.

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 REFERENCE

1. "Antenna Theory: Analysis and Design" by Constantine A. Balanis

 Description: A comprehensive textbook that explores the principles of antenna theory,
including the design of microstrip patch antennas. It covers various types of antennas, their
radiation characteristics, and the methods for analyzing them.
 Relevance: Provides a detailed understanding of the design, characteristics, and performance
of patch antennas, with a focus on microstrip and inset-fed designs.
 Link: Antenna Theory: Analysis and Design
2. "Microstrip Antennas: The Analysis and Design of Microstrip Antennas and Arrays" by
David M. Pozar
 Description: This book offers a thorough analysis of microstrip antennas, including patch
antennas, and discusses various feeding techniques such as inset feeding. It also explores
antenna array configurations.
 Relevance: Provides in-depth insights into inset-fed patch antenna design and its
applications, as well as detailed analysis of impedance matching and radiation patterns.
 Link: Microstrip Antennas: The Analysis and Design
3. "Practical Antenna Design for Wireless Products" by Michael B. P. Pritchard
 Description: This book focuses on practical antenna designs for wireless products, including
the design of patch antennas. It provides hands-on guidance on the design process and
optimization.
 Relevance: A practical reference for designing patch antennas with inset feeding for wireless
communication systems, including performance metrics and simulations.
 Link: Practical Antenna Design for Wireless Products

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 APPENDIX

Matlab Exported Script

% Create a patchMicrostripInsetfed antenna backed with reflector
% Generated by MATLAB(R) 9.13 and Antenna Toolbox 5.3.
% Generated on: 03-Oct-2024 11:05:29

%% Antenna Properties

antennaObject = design(reflector('Exciter', patchMicrostripInsetfed), 4500*1e6);

antennaObject.Exciter.Length = 0.03;
antennaObject.Exciter.Width = 0.029;
antennaObject.Exciter.Height = 0.00127;
antennaObject.Exciter.Substrate.Thickness = 0.00127;
antennaObject.Exciter.FeedOffset = [-0.03, 0];
antennaObject.Exciter.StripLineWidth = 0.001;
antennaObject.Exciter.NotchLength = 0.008;
antennaObject.Exciter.NotchWidth = 0.003;
antennaObject.Exciter.GroundPlaneLength = 0.06;
antennaObject.Exciter.GroundPlaneWidth = 0.06;
antennaObject.Substrate.Thickness = 0.01467;
antennaObject.GroundPlaneLength = 0.063;
antennaObject.GroundPlaneWidth = 0.063;
antennaObject.Spacing = 0.01467;
% Show
figure;
show(antennaObject)

%% Antenna Analysis
% Define plot frequency
plotFrequency = 2.4*1e9;
% Define frequency range
freqRange = (4050:45:4950)*1e6;
% Reference Impedance
refImpedance = 50;
% impedance
figure;
impedance(antennaObject, freqRange)
% sparameter
figure;
s = sparameters(antennaObject, freqRange, refImpedance);
rfplot(s)
% pattern
figure;
pattern(antennaObject, plotFrequency)
% azimuth
figure;
patternAzimuth(antennaObject, plotFrequency, 0, 'Azimuth', 0:5:360)
% elevation
figure;
patternElevation(antennaObject, plotFrequency,0,'Elevation',0:5:360)
% current
figure;
current(antennaObject, plotFrequency)

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