[ENG1013] Engineering Smart Systems

Week 7: Problem Sheet Solutions

In circuit analysis, there are often many valid ways to solve a problem, using one of the different techniques you
have learned or are about to learn. If your solution matches that presented here, but you have obtained it using
another method, that is perfectly fine, as long as the question doesn't specify ``using method x''. However, it should
be noted that all circuit analysis

In general, we will use the convention of considering current moving out of a node to be taken as positive, but you
should always state in each question what you are doing. Note that while this is usually just a matter of taste, (either
direction will work as long as you are consistent), we recommend doing it this way to reduce errors in formulating
your KCL equations.

Superposition
To recap, the principle of superposition says that in a “linear” circuit (or network), the current or voltage appearing
for a passive circuit element in “response” to multiple active elements is the sum of the responses caused by each of
the individual “active” elements.

For example, if there are two “active” elements in a circuit, then both elements contribute to some measured
quantity in the circuit. If we remove (set to zero) all but one active element, we can find the contribution to the
measured quantity from that single active element. The superposition principle means that we can add up all of
these single active element contributions to find the total measured quantity.

In practice, this is not greatly useful in efficiently circuit analysis in most cases, but we need be aware of this
principle, because it underpins many of the assumptions that are used in more complex circuit analysis techniques,
such as Nodal Analysis and Thevenin’s Theorem which we look at also in this week.

P2.94
In this problem, we are trying to find i “using superposition”. This means that we must find the individual
contributions to i from the voltage source (which we will call iv ) and the current source (which we will call ic ) and
add them together to find the total i .

We can start by removing (setting to zero, “zeroing”) the effect of the current source. This means replacing the
current source with an “open circuit” as shown below. It’s an open circuit because a current source of 0A has the
equivalent effect of an open circuit – no current moves between the two points.

Note that in this diagram, we are labelling the current through the 5Ω resistor as iv and not the original i , because
these are two entirely different (but related) circuits.

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We can then calculate iv (the contribution to the current i from only the voltage source) by using Ohm’s Law with
the equivalent resistance connected to the 30V source:

30V
iv = = 2A
10 + 5
Next, we set the voltage source to zero and find ic (the contribution to the current i from only the current source):

We can calculate ic by finding the voltage veq between the red and green nodes, and then using Ohm’s Law to find
ic through the 5Ω resistor. Since the 10Ω and 5Ω resistors share the red and green nodes at both ends, they are
connected in parallel and then can be replaced by an equivalent resistance:

10 5 10
Req = = 
10 + 5 3
The circuit can be redrawn as such:

Now, we can calculate the veq using Ohm’s Law and Req :

10
veq = 3A   = 10V
3
Taking the value of veq back to the previous circuit, we can calculate ic :

veq 10V
ic = = = 2A
5 5
Pro-tip: An alternative method to find ic ( = i5 ) would be to apply a “current divider” to the parallel 10Ω and 5Ω
resistors:

Rotherbranch
ibranch = itotal
Rtotal
10
i5 = 3A = 2A
10 + 5
Finally, we can find i from the original circuit as:

i = iv + ic = 4A

Page 2
P2.95
Let’s start by zeroing the voltage source first and finding the contribution to is from the current source and call this
ic , leaving us with the following circuit where the voltage source is replaced with a short circuit (remember that
setting V = 0 is the equivalent of having no voltage difference at either side of the source, in turn making this
equivalent to a short circuit):

Now take note of the trick we are going to use to find the current ic through the short circuit (you will use this
technique quite often later!). KCL is valid not only for nodes, but also for interconnects and arbitrary node
boundaries like “supernodes” that we see in Nodal Analysis.

We can define node boundaries as shown in the red and green circles above, and write KCL for these boundaries.

KCL at "nodes” v1 and v2 , with current out of the node taken as positive:

KCL@V1:
v1 − 0V v −v
0A = + ic + 1 2
5 5
0V = v1 + (5)ic + 0
v1 = −(5)ic

KCL@V2:
v2 − 0V v2 − v1
0A = −1A + + − ic
10 5
0V = −10V + v2 + 0 − 10ic
v2 = (10)ic + 10V

Due to the short circuit:

v1 = v2

Substituting v1 = v2 :

(15)ic = −10 V
ic = −0.667A

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Now, let’s consider the circuit with the current source set to zero so we can find the contribution to is from the
voltage source and call this iv :

We can use a very similar technique as we did to find ic , using KCL at the nodes v1 and v2 :

KCL@V1:
v1 − 0V v1 − v2
0A = + + iv
5 5
0V = v1 + v1 − v2 + (5)iv
v2 = 2v1 + (5)iv

KCL@V2:
v 2 − 0V v2 − v1
0A = + − iv
10 5
(10)iv = v2 + 2v2 − 2v1
(10)iv = 3v2 − 2v1

We have three unknown variables ( v1 , v2 and iv ) and only two equations, so we need another equation to be able
to solve these simultaneously. This can be found by applying KVL across the 10V source:

KVL@10V:
v1 − v2 = 10V

This is because the voltage at the +ve terminal of a voltage source subtract the voltage at the -ve terminal is equal to
the value of the voltage source. This can be rearranged as v1 = 10V + v2 and the substituted back into the two
previous equations:

v2 = 2(10V + v2 ) + (5)iv
0V = 20V + v2 + (5)iv
v2 = −(5)iv − 20V

(10)iv = 3v2 − 2(10V + v2 )

0V = v2 − 20V − (10)iv
v2 = 20V + 10iv

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Equating v2 from both equations leads to an equation that we can solve to find iv :

20 + (10)iv = −(5)iv − 20V

(15)iv = −40V
iv = −2.667A

Finally, by superposition, is = iv + ic , we can now calculate that is = −3.333A .

It is worth noting at this point that there is a disadvantage to superposition in that while you get to solve a `simpler'
circuit in each case, you have to analyse the whole circuit for every source present, and this may not be any easier
than just using Nodal Analysis in the first place (as in this case, we could have performed one round of Nodal
Analysis, which would have been slightly but not much more complicated). By practising your circuit analysis skills,
you will get better at choosing the more efficient method for each case you meet.

Nodal Analysis
The entire objective of Nodal Analysis is to find the values of the voltages at all the nodes/interconnects/locations in
the circuit. Once you have found these voltages, you are then able to determine (in conjunction with KCL) ANY
voltage or current throughout the circuit.

The method to find these voltages is to write “Nodal Equations” for each node.

• If a node does not have a voltage source connected to it, then typically, this involves writing a KCL equation
for the node:

Remember: to write an expression for the current iR through a resistor R relative to the voltages at either
end of it v1 and v2 , we use Ohm’s Law:

 v −v 
iR =  1 2 
 R 
The direction of current you are trying to find dictates which voltage goes first in the numerator of the
equation. The equation above means the current iR moves from v1 towards v2 through the resistance R .

NOTE: this only works for resistors! If you try to use this for anything that is not a resistor, you will be
incorrect and demonstrate that you do not understand the concepts. For current sources, the value of the
current source tells you what the current is (obviously).

• If there are voltage sources connected to the node that you are trying to find the voltage for, then you need
to either write the current through the voltage source as a new variable, use a supernode (which we will see
later), or if it is connected to a known voltage, then we don’t need to write KCL at all, as we already know the
node voltage.

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P2.48
Using the definition of ground provided in the circuit diagram, and using the notation of current exiting the node as
positive, we can write nodal equations for nodes v1 and v2 below.

KCL@V1 gives:

v1 - 0V v1 - v2
0A = −1A + +
20 10
0V = −20V + v1 + 2v1 − 2v2 (1)
20V = 3v1 − 2v2

KCL@V2 gives:

v2 - 0V v2 - v1
0A = −2A + +
5 10
0V = −20V + 2v2 + v2 − v1 (2)
20V = −v1 + 3v2

Performing the operation of adding equation (1) + 3 × (2) gives:

80V = 7v2
v2 = 11.43V

Substituting this back into equation (2) and solving for v1 gives:

20A = −v1 + 3(11.43V)

v1 = 14.29V

We were asked to find value of i1 , the current through the 10 resistor which can be written as:

v1 − v2
i1 =
10
14.29V − 11.43V
=
10
= 0.286A
P2.49
This is the same circuit as P2.95, but we will use Nodal Analysis to find the value of iS directly. In this circuit, we have
a voltage source between two nodes, with unknown voltages at either end of the voltage source. Ordinarily, this
would be annoying, as we can’t write a KCL equation for the nodes v1 or v2 connected to the voltage source without
introducing a new variable, but in this case, is is already defined and is what we need to find, so let’s just do it the
“long” way!

KCL@V1 gives:

v1 - 0V v1 - v2
0A = is + + (3)
5 5
KCL@V2 gives:

v2 - v1 v2 - 0V
0A = −is + + + (−1A) (4)
5 10

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We have three unknowns and only two equations. In cases with a voltage source, we are always able to find one
more equation using KVL across the voltage source (by definition, the voltage across the source is the voltage at the
+ve terminal subtract the voltage at the -ve terminal):

v1 − v2 = 10V (5)

We can add equations (3) and (4) together to eliminate is (and multiply through by 10Ω) to give:

v1 - 0V v1 - v2 v2 - v1 v2 - 0V
0A = + + + + (−1A)
5 5 5 10
0V = 2v1 + 2v1 − 2v2 + 2v2 − 2v1 + v2 − 10V (6)
10V = 2v1 + v2

Adding equation (5) + (6) gives:

3v1 = 20V, therefore:

v1 = 6.667V
v2 = −3.333V

To calculate is , we can substitute v1 and v2 back into (3) or (4):

v1 − 0V v1 − v2
0A = + + is
5 5
−(5)is = 2v1 − v2
2(6.667V) − (−3.333V)
is =
−(5)
= −3.333A
Which we note is consistent with the answer for P2.95 (phew, that’s a relief!).

P2.56
Note: Don’t be intimidated by the dependent current source – it’s still just a current source with a value of 0.5ix .
Taking two KCLs at v1 and v2 , with currents flowing out of a node as positive:

v1 − 0V v1 − v2
0A = −1A + +
10 5
0V = −10V + v1 + 2(v1 − v2 ) (7)
10V = 3v1 − 2v2

v2 − 0V
0A = −ix + 0.5ix +
20 (8)
0V = −(10)ix + v2

We also need an equation relating ix and v1 and v2 , which we can find using Ohm’s Law through the 5Ω resistor, as
that is where ix is defined. Carefully noting that ix is moving from v1 to v2 , we can write this as:

v1 − v2
ix =
5

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Substituting this into the KCL equation into (8):

 v −v 
0V = −(10)  1 2  + v2
 5 
= −2(v1 − v2 ) + v2 (9)
= −2v1 + 3v2

We can then perform the equation operation: 2 × (7) + 3 × (9) to get:

20V = 5v2
v2 = 4V

Substituting this back into either (7) or (9) gives:

10V + 2v2 10V + 8V

v1 = = = 6V
3 3
Finally, substituting v1 and v2 into the equation for ix gives:

v1 − v2 6V − 4V
ix = = = 0.4A
5 5

P2.58
To solve this circuit, we will use Nodal Analysis to first find the node voltages. The power through the 8 resistor
can easily be found once v1 and v2 have been calculated, since we can then find the voltage across and current
through it.

Since there is a voltage source with the node voltage at both ends being unknown values, if we want to use KCL at v1
or v2 , we would need to introduce a current variable through the source, much like we did in P2.49 (for is ). We can
instead do this in a single step using KCL on a supernode around the voltage source, defined in red below:

of it between the nodes v1 and v2 means that they act as a supernode, so a supernode equation is used. However,
as it is a dependent source, the super node equation also depends on ix .

This means we have 3 unknowns, and so need three equations. We can get these from (i) KCL from the supernode
which includes the dependent voltage source, v1 and v2 , (ii) the supernode equation and (iii) Ohm's law across the
10 resistor. Taking currents flowing out from nodes as positive, KCL at the supernode gives:
v1 − 0V v1 − v2 v2 − v1 v2 − 0V
0 = (−5A) + + + + + (−3A)
10 8 8 20
v v
8A = 1 + 2 (10)
10 20
160V = 2v1 + v2

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From KVL, the supernode equation is (Note the units of a are Ohms):

v1 − v2 = (5)ix (11)

We still need 1 more equation as we have three unknowns, which we can find using Ohm's Law equation for the 10
 resistor:
v1 − 0V
ix =
10 (12)
v1 = (10)ix

We can then perform the equation operation: 2(11) - (12) to eliminate ix to get:

v1 − 2v2 = 0V
v1 = 2v2

Substituting into equation (10) gives:

160V = 2(2v2 ) + v2
= 5v2
 v2 = 32V and v1 = 64V

We do not need the value of ix for this question, but if you are curious, it is: ix = 6.4A .

Now that we have the voltages of the nodes on either side of the 8 resistor, the power delivered to the resistor
can be simply calculated:

V8 (64V − 32V) 2

P = V8 I8 = V8 =
R 8
= 128W
M7.1
This question looks quite different than the previous ones that we have worked through, and therefore could be
quite intimidating. When you are faced with new circuits (and problems) that you are unfamiliar with, you often
need to go back to the fundamental concepts. In this case, let’s look at the problem through the process of Nodal
Analysis:

1. Identify the nodes (make one a “reference node”)

2. Write “nodal equations” for each node
a. For voltage sources:
i. If one end is connected to a known voltage, you can
work out the node voltage directly
ii. If not, use a Supernode
b. Use KCL for resistors (with Ohm’s law) and
current sources in terms of node voltages
3. Solve the nodal equations simultaneously
4. Use Ohm’s law and KCL to find any required
currents

Firstly, step 1 is to identify the nodes in the circuit, which I have highlighted below in different colours. Once this is
done, step 2 is to write nodal equations for each of the nodes. In this question, all the nodes are actually connected
to voltage sources, and furthermore, all the voltage sources are actually connected to known voltages! So we
actually can apply rule 2.(a).(i) and write the unknown voltages at each of the nodes directly!

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For example, the node V2 is connected via wire to 9V, so V2 = 9V. Then the green node (V1) must be 0.7V lower than
V2 (because the 0.7V source means that the voltage at the +ve terminal is 0.7V higher than the voltage at the -ve
terminal), making this 8.3V.

Next, the voltage at the blue node must be 0.2V greater than the voltage at the -ve terminal of the 0.2V source (the
left purple node), which is connected to ground and hence must be 0V. This makes the voltage at the blue node
0.2V. Finally, the voltage at the orange node must be 0.7V greater than the voltage at the left purple node (due to
the 0.7V voltage source), so this must be 0.7V.

Now, it turns out we do not need to perform step 3 in this case, because we were able to find the node voltages by
inspection, which is great!

The final step is now to use Ohm’s Law and KCL to find the required current iC. We note that iC can be found by
finding the value of iB, as the dependent source indicates that iC = 99iB so this in turn means we need to find iB.

If we are trying to find the current through a resistor, we can use Ohm’s Law, but in this case iB is the current through
the top 0.7V voltage source, so we cannot do this. Instead, we need to use KCL at a node where iB is entering or
leaving. Our options are then either to apply KCL at V1 or V2 (taking current exiting the node as positive):

KCL@V1:

(V1 − 9V) (V1 − 0.2V)

0= + + (−iB )
10k  2k 
KCL@V2:

0 = iB + 99iB − iE

It turns out that the KCL equation at V2 would then require us to find another linearly independent equation dealing
with iE, which we don’t have, so instead, we can just solve the first KCL equation knowing that V1 = 8.3V :

(8.3V − 9V) (8.3V − 0.2V)

0= + + (−iB )
10k  2k 
iB = 3.98mA

Thus:

iC = 99iB = 394.02mA

See, the question is actual quite simple if you can apply the Nodal Analysis principles!

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Thevenin and Norton Equivalence
P2.80
To compute the Thevenin or Norton equivalent circuit, we need to calculate two of the three quantities Voc , I sc , Rth
and use them to find the third quantity via the relationship: Voc = I sc  Rth .

As a refresher:

• Voc is defined as the “voltage measured across the two terminals that we are trying to find the Thevenin
equivalent circuit”.
• I sc is defined as the “current measured through a short circuit connected between the two terminals that
we are trying to find the Thevenin equivalent circuit”.
• Rth is the Thevenin equivalent resistance, either found directly (in special cases), or using Ohm’s Law as: Rth

Once we have these values, we can easily formulate the Thevenin (below left) and Norton equivalents (below right):

Note that if you ever see a Thevenin equivalent connected to a circuit, that you can always replace it with a Norton
equivalent (and vice versa) based on the calculated value of I sc or Voc from Rth and the other quantity.

Let’s start by finding Voc , using Nodal Analysis, because Nodal Analysis Solves Everything (NASE)! The first step is to
identify the nodes, make one of them a reference node and label them. In this case, we chose the green node as the
ground node, primarily because it has the (equal) most branches attached to it, and giving it a value of 0V makes it
easy for us to find the node voltage v2 via the 10V source.

Next we write nodal equations. For v2 , which is connected to a voltage source that has a known voltage connected
to it (0V at the -ve side), this is trivial:

v2 = 10V

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Since there are no voltage sources connected to v1 , it is simple to use KCL and v2 = 10V without the need to
introduce any new current variables to find v1 :

v1 − v2 v1 − 0V
0A = + + (−1A)
10 5
v − 10V v1
1A = 1 +
10 5
20V = 3v1
v1 = 6.67V

Now, since we know all the node voltages, we can determine the value of Voc , by recognising that Voc is the voltage
at the +ve terminal ( = v1 ) of the Voc measurement subtract the voltage at the -ve terminal (= 0V) of the
measurement:

Voc = v1 − 0V = 6.67V

We’re halfway there! Now we need to calculate I sc …

To calculate I sc , be definition, we need to introduce a short circuit (wire) between the output terminals and
calculate the current that moves through it as shown in the circuit below. Again, because NASE, let’s apply Nodal
Analysis.

There are a few interesting things of note in this case (that almost always apply when trying to find I sc ). Firstly, the
reference node (0V) is now connected (via the short circuit we introduced to find I sc ) to v1 , so v1 = 0V . The node
v2 can again be found to be 10V, as it is still connected to the 10V source which is still connected to 0V. With this in
mind, we can label the node voltages as shown below.

Page 12
Now, the method to find I sc involves a trick we can use to defining node boundaries. If we draw a boundary around
the top three interconnects as shown above in the blue rectangle and call this a node (which is a perfectly legitimate
thing to do), we can use KCL to find I sc :

0V − 10V 0V − 0V
0A = + − 1A + I sc
10 5
0V = −10V − 10V + 10 I sc
I sc = 2A

Now, Rth can be found as:

Rth = Voc / I sc
6.67V
=
2A
= 3.33
There is a special shortcut for finding Rth only in the case where there are no DEPENDENT sources in the circuit. DO
NOT USE THIS OTHERWISE. If you do this when there are dependent sources, you demonstrate that you do not
understand the concept and will be marked wrong. This is “expert” knowledge which is only useful once you know
when and how to apply it.

To do this, we 'zero' all independent sources, which means to change the values of the sources to 0. In the case of a
current source, this is equivalent to an open circuit, in the case of a voltage source, this id equivalent to a short
circuit. Then we calculate the equivalent resistance looking into the two terminals.

In this circuit, we replace the 10V source with a short circuit, and the 1A source with an open circuit:

It should be clear that the 10Ω and 5Ω resistors are in parallel because they share the same nodes at both ends, so
we can then calculate:

10  5
Rth = 5 ||10 = = 3.33
10 + 5
Which is the same result as we obtained earlier from finding Voc and I sc .

We can now use Voc , I sc and Rth to draw the Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits, shown below, on the left and
right respectively:

Page 13
P2.84
Okay, let’s do this! The question asks us to find the Thevenin and Norton equivalents relative to terminals a and b ,
so we need to correctly label Voc in the circuit diagram and perform nodal analysis on the circuit to find it, because
NASE!

Again, we have made the bottom node our reference node, so we can say that it is at 0V. By inspection, we can also
determine that v1 = 12V because the -ve terminal of the 12V source is connected to 0V, making the +ve terminal
12V.

Now, we only need to find v2 , which we can do using KCL:

v2 - 0V v2 -12V
0A = + + 1A
16 48
0V = 3v2 + v2 − 12V + 48V
4v2 = −36V
v2 = −9V

By inspection, we can see that Voc = v2 − 0V , so:

Voc = −9V

Note: Do not be afraid of values which are negative, or zero, it does not mean they are incorrect!

Okay, now let’s find I sc , by redrawing the circuit below with the short circuit between a and b :

Applying Nodal Analysis again, we can conclude that the voltage at the yellow node is 12V. The voltage at the node
formerly highlighted in red (now with boundary defined in the blue rectangle) must be 0V, because it is connected
(via the new short circuit introduced to find I sc ) to the green reference node.
Page 14
We can now use KCL at the node defined by the blue rectangle to find I sc :

0V - 0V 0V -12V
0A = + + 1A + I sc
16 48
0V = −12V + 48V + (48) I sc
(48) I sc = −36V
I sc = −0.75A

Now, we can calculate the value of Rth :

Rth = Voc / I sc
−9V
=
−0.75A
= 12
For completeness, let’s calculate Rth using the shortcut method, but only because there are no dependent sources
in the circuit. We can redraw the original circuit with the independent voltage and current source set to zero, as
shown below.

By identifying the green and red nodes, it should be apparent that the 48Ω and 16Ω resistors are in parallel because
they share the red and green nodes at both ends. What’s more interesting is that the 7Ω resistor has both ends
connected to the same (green) node. This means that the resistor has been “shorted” out, and has no effect on the
equivalent resistance of the circuit, so:

4816
Rth = 48 ||16 =
48 + 16
= 12
Which is consistent with the value we found from Voc and I sc . The Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits are thus:

Page 15
P2.88
Let's start by finding Voc , the voltage measured across the two terminals, using Nodal Analysis, because NASE. The
nodes have been highlighted and assigned labels as per usual. Note that we have simply written 15V as the node
voltage for the yellow node, by inspection that it is connected to the 15V source that is in turn connected to the
green node that we have designated as our reference node of 0V.

For nodes v1 and v2 which do not have voltage sources connected to them, we can write KCL equations:

KCL@v1:

v1 − 15V v −v
0A = + 0.5ix + 1 2
5 10
0V = 2v1 − 30V + (5)ix + v1 − v2 (13)
30V = 3v1 − v2 + (5)ix

KCL@v2:

v2 − v1 v2 − 0V
0A = +
10 1 0
0V = v2 − v1 + v2 (14)
0V = −v1 + 2v2

We need one more equation, since we have the three unknowns of v1 , v2 and ix , which we can find using Ohm’s
Law for the 5Ω resistor where ix is measured:

15V − v1
ix =
5 (15)
15V = v1 + (5)ix

You can then solve (13), (14) and (15) using a variety of methods including matrix inversion:
−1
 3 −1 5   v1  30   v1   3 −1 5  30  10 
 −1 2 0  v  =  0  →  v  =  −1 2 0   0  =  5 
  2    2      
 1 0 5   ix  15   ix   1 0 5  15   1 

Performing “Gaussian elimination” or “Gauss-Jordan” elimination on the augmented matrix:

 3 −1 5 30 
 
 −1 2 0 0
 1 0 5 15 

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Or substitution by equation operation: (13) – (15) giving:

15V = 2v1 − v2 (16)

Which could then be used with operation: (14) + 2 × (15) to give:

0V = −v1 + 2v2
15V = 2v1 − v2
30V = 3v1
v1 = 10V

Note: some calculators can solve simultaneous linear equations if you input the augmented matrix! You might
want to look into this. No matter which method you choose, the node voltages should work out to v1 = 10V ,
v2 = 5V and ix = 1A . Since Voc = v2 − 0V :

Voc = 5V

Now let's find I sc , the current through a short circuit between terminals a and b .

As with previous questions, the short circuit from a to b makes the node voltage at v2 = 0V , which has already
been annotated the diagram. We first need to find v1 , and note that this value is probably going to be different to
the value of v1 we found when we were working out Voc . A reminder that this is because the circuits we use to find
Voc and I sc are entirely different circuits, so don’t carry over the value between the two, they are not necessarily
the same!

We can write the KCL equation for v1 :

v1 − 15V v − 0V
0A = + 0.5ix + 1
5 10
0V = 2v1 − 30V + (5)ix + v1 (17)
30V = 3v1 + (5)ix

We need another equation to solve this, so we used the equation for ix through the 5Ω resistor:

15V − v1
ix =
5 (18)
15V = v1 + (5)ix

Now, we can solve this simultaneous using the equation operation: (17) – (18) to get:

15V = 2v1
v1 = 7.5V

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Finally, now that we know the value of v1 we can use KCL at the top right node circled in blue to find I sc :

0V − 7.5V 0V − 0V
0A = + + I sc
10 10
0V = −7.5V + (10) I sc
I sc = 0.75A

This in turn allows use to find Rth :

Rth = Voc / I sc
5V
=
0.75A
= 6.67
The Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits are hence:

Now, in case you were wondering, this circuit contains a dependent current source, which cannot be zeroed to
allow Rth to be calculated directly via the shortcut method. To illustrate what would happen if you attempted to
do this, let’s set the current and voltage sources to zero, giving the circuit below:

There are three nodes in this circuit, and by inspection, we should be able to see that the 5Ω and top 10Ω resistors
are in series (they are joined end to end, and any current that moves through one must move through the other) and
are equivalent to a 15Ω resistor. This 15Ω is then in parallel with the right 10Ω resistor, so would then calculate:

1510
Rth = 15 ||10 =
15 + 10
= 6
This is not the same as the value we found using Rth = Voc / I sc , which always gives the correct value for Rth .

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M7.2
This circuit looks confusing, but don’t let that fool you. The same steps to find the Thevenin equivalent circuit apply,
which hopefully you are getting quite familiar with by now!

Let’s consider the circuit with condition (i) (switch open) first. With the switch open, the
circuit looks like to the right, with the ground terminal disconnected from the circuit.

To find Voc , we can use KVL:

5V = Voc + VR1 + VR 2

Now, given i = 0A (because of the open circuit between A and B), Ohm’s Law means that
VR1 and VR 2 are both equal to zero. Thus the KVL equation above becomes:

Voc = 5V

Next to find I sc , we connect a short circuit between A and B and calculate the current through
it using Ohm’s Law. This is shown in the circuit to the right and works out as:

5V − 0V
I sc =
R1 + R2

Thus the Thevenin resistance can be calculated as:

Rth = Voc / I sc
5V
= 5V /
R1 + R2
= R1 + R2

The Thevenin equivalent of circuit (a) with the switch open would thus be:

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Now, let’s see what happens when the switch is closed in condition (ii), with the the circuit
shown to the right. In this case, the closed switch means that 0V is connected to the node
between R1 and R2 . In a similar way to the previous question, we use KVL to find Voc :

0V = Voc + VR1

Again, we note that the current through R1 is 0A, so this means that VR1 = 0 , which when
substituted into the equation above, gives:

Voc = 0V

This is interesting, because with the switch closed, the 5V source has no effect on the circuit
below the green node. By KCL we can see that all the current through R2 moves through to
the ground terminal through the green node.

Now, let’s find I sc . We connect a short circuit between A and B and attempt to calculate the
current through this short circuit, using Ohm’s Law for R1 , the green node and the ground node
at the bottom:

0V − 0V 0V
I sc = =
R1 R1

If we then try to calculate Rt h , things start to get a little strange:

Rth = Voc / I sc
0V
= 0V /
R1
= R1

From a mathematical point of view, this calculation is highly questionable (division by zero, eek!). We wouldn’t want
to place confidence in this, so how then, should we calculate R1 ?

In this case, we can instead use the shortcut method to find R1 – setting the independent
sources to zero and finding the equivalent resistance. Consider the circuit to the right where
we have set the 5V voltage source to 0V.

From this diagram, it is not immediately obvious how we find the equivalent resistance Rth …

The key here is to realise that all the green (0V) nodes are actually connected together. With
this in mind, we could redraw the circuit to make this more clear, shown below.

Now, it should be much more obvious that the equivalent resistance between terminals A (red) and B (green) is
actually just Rth = R1 , with R2 being shorted out and having no effect on Rth .

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This in turn means that the Thevenin equivalent circuit between terminals A and B when the switch is closed is as
shown below.

So to summarise, the equivalent circuits between terminals A and B are shown below with the switch open (left) and
closed (right).

Switch open Switch closed

This circuit will be used in your project to control a microchip called the 555 timer. The 555 timer has a switch that
connects a location to ground (just like the switch in the original circuit) depending on certain conditions, and this in
turn changes the Thevenin equivalent circuit that is connected to a capacitor between terminals A and B, leading to
some interesting and very useful circuit behaviour.

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