Topic 8: Vectors

TOPIC 8: VECTORS

8.1 Vectors in Three Dimensions

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lecture, students should be able to:

• determine the types of vectors
• perform addition and scalar multiplication of vectors.

8.1.1 Definition

Vectors may be represented by using directed line segments or arrows.

The magnitude of a vector is represented by its length and its direction is given by the
direction of the arrow.
The tail of the arrow is called the initial point of the vector and the head of the arrow
is called the terminal point.

A
a
→
This vector from O to A is written OA or OA (bold)
→
O or a or a (bold).

- If point A(x, y) is on plane (in two dimension), then vector

 x
OA = xi + y j =  
 y
- If point A(x, y, z) is in space ( in three dimension), then vector
 x
 
OA = xi + y j + zk =  y 
z
 

2. Length of vector is called magnitude vector,

OA = a = x 2 + y 2 (vector on plane)

OA = a = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 (vector in space)

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 Topic 8: Vectors

3. Position vector

Vector of a point relative to the origin is called position vector.

Example : position vector of point A is vector OA .

4. Free vector

Vector which is not related to a fixed position is called free vector.

y
 2
Example : u =  
 −3 
3

x
-3 -2 2
-3

5. Unit vector

Any vector of magnitude 1 unit is a unit vector.

The unit vector of a vector a is a vector whose magnitude is 1unit in the direction
of a The unit vector of a ,
 a
a =
a

 3
Example : Given v =   , find unit vector in direction of v .
 −4 

vˆ 3i − 4 j 3 4
Solution: vˆ = = = i− j
vˆ 32 + (−4) 2 5 5

 3   −4 
2 2
9 16 25
Prove: vˆ =   +   = + = = 1 , proven
5  5  25 25 25

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Notes Other examples of unit vector:

1 0
i =  , j =  (on plane)
0 1
1 0 0
     
i = 0, j =  1  , k =  0  (in space)
0 0 1
     

8.1.2 Geometry Representation

Vectors in Coordinate System

i) Vectors in plane

For the moment, we shall restrict the discussion to the vectors in 2-dimensional space
(the plane). Consider the Cartesian–xy plane consisting of an origin O and a pair of
perpendicular vectors.

P(x,y)

j
x
O i

Vector i and j have magnitude 1 and parallel to the x-axis and y-axis respectively.
They are also known as unit vectors.
A vector OP from the origin to the point P(x,y) is called the position vector and is
 x
written as OP =   = x i + yj
 y

Example:
y If A is the point with coordinate (3 , 4) ,

A(3 , 4) →
ON = 3 , so ON = 3i
3i + 4j →
NA = 4 , so NA = 4j
4j
→ → →
Therefore , OA = ON + NA = 3i + 4j
x
O 3i N ie. the position vector of A(3 , 4) is r = 3i + 4j

Similarly, the position vector of any point P(a , b) is ai + bj.

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ii) Vectors In 3-Dimensional Space

The Cartesian coordinate for space are often called rectangular coordinate.

This consist of a fixed point O, the origin, and three mutually perpendicular axes, Ox,
Oy and Oz. The axes are placed in such a way that they form a right-handed
set as shown in figure 3.1.
z

y Each pair of coordinate axes determines a plane called

O a coordinate plane. These are referred to as the xy-
plane, the xz-plane and the yz-plane.
x
Figure 3.1

z
P(1 , 2 , 3)
Any point P in space can be specified by an ordered
triple of numbers (a , b , c) where a , b and c are the
steps in the direction of x, y and z axes respectively,
1 y to P.
In figure 3.2, we have constructed the point P(1 , 2 , 3).
2
x
Figure 3.2

Vectors i, j and k are the unit vectors in the direction of x, y and z axes respectively.
.
z
P(1 , 2 , 3) If P(x , y , z) is any point in the space, then the position
3k vector of P is

→
y OP = xi + yj + zk
i O
In figure 3.3, the position vector of the point (1 , 2 , 3)
2j is i + 2j + 3k. Conversely, the point whose position
x vector is 2i – 4j + k has coordinates (2 , –4 , 1).
Figure 3.3

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8.1.3 Vectors Operations

Vectors in plane and vector in space have the same rules of addition, subtraction,
scalar multiplication and also the magnitude.

For any vectors

u1= a1i + b1j and u2 = a2i + b2j , and for any scalar k,
v 1 = a 1i + b 1j + c 1k and v 2 = a 2i + b 2j + c 2k , and for any scalar k,

(i) Equality of vectors;

u1 = u2 a1i + b1j = a2i + b2j, then a1= a2 and b1 = b2

v1 = v2 a 1i + b 1j + c 1k = a 2i + b 2j + c 2k, then a1= a2 , b1 = b2

and c 1 = c 2

(ii) Vector addition and subtraction;

u 1 + u 2 = (a 1 + a 2)i + (b 1 + b 2)j
u 1 – u 2 = (a 1 – a 2)i + (b 1 – b 2)j

v 1 + v 2 = (a 1 + a 2)i + (b 1 + b 2)j + (c 1 + c 2)k

v 1 – v 2 = (a 1 – a 2)i + (b 1 – b 2)j + (c 1 – c 2)k

(iii) scalar multiplication

ku1 = k(a1i + b1j ) = (ka1)i + (kb1)j

kv 1 = k(a 1i + b 1j + c 1k )= ka 1i + kb 1j + kc 1k

(iv) Magnitude

u1 = a1i + b1 j = a12 + b12

v 1 = a1i + b1 j + c1k = a1 + b1 + c1
2 2 2

(v) Unit vector

 u a2i + b2 j
Unit vector of u2 = a2i + b2j denoted by u2 = 2 =
u2 a22 + b22

 v a2i + b2 j + c2k
Unit vector of v 2 = a 2i + b 2j + c 2k denoted by v2 = 2 =
v2 a22 + b22 + c2 2

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(vi) Vector between two points

If A( x1 , y1 ) and B( x2 , y2 ) are two points in a plane, then the vector from A

to B is
AB = OB − OA = ( x2 i + y2 j) − ( x1i + y1 j) = ( x2 − x1 )i + ( y2 − y1 ) j

→
Example: Find AB where A is the point (3 , –1) and B is the point (–2 , 3).

Solution:

→ → →
AB = AO + OB
→ →
= – OA + OB
→ →
= OB – OA
= (–2i + 3j) – (3i – j)
= –5i + 4j

Example 8.1
Find the magnitude of v = 3i + 4j .

Solution

v = 32 + 42
v 4j = 25
= 5

3i

Example 8.2
If u = 2i – 5j and v = 4i + 3j , find u + v and u – v .

Solution
u + v = (2i – 5j) + (4i + 3j) = (2 + 4)i + (–5 + 3)j
= 6i – 2j

u – v = (2i – 5j) – (4i + 3j) = (2 – 4)i + (–5 – 3)j

= –2i – 8j

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Example 8.3
If u = 2i – 5j and v = 4i + 3j , find 3u +2v.

Solution

3u + 2v = 3(2i – 5j) + 2(4i + 3j)

= (6i – 15j) + (8i + 6j)
= 14i – 9j

Example 8.4

Find 2a – b where a = i + j + k and b = –i + 3j – 2k.

Solution

2a – b = 2(i + j + k) – (–i + 3j – 2k)

= 3i – j + 4k

2a – b= 3i – j + 4k 

= 32 + (−1)2 + 42
= 26

Example 8.5

Find a unit vector u in the direction of the vector from A(1 , 0 , 1) to

B(3 , 2 , 0). Hence, find a vector 6 units long in that direction.

Solution
→ → → →
AB = OB – OA  AB  = 22 + 22 + (−1)2
= (3i + 2j) – (i + k) = 9
= 2i + 2j – k = 3
→
AB 2i + 2 j − k 2 2 1
u= = = i+ j– k
→ 3 3 3 3
AB
→
AB 2 2 1 
The vector is 6 = 6  i + j − k  = 4i + 4j – 2k
→ 3 3 3 
AB

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 Topic 8: Vectors

Example 8.6

P and Q are the mid-points of AB and AC respectively. If

AB = 2 x and AC = 2 y, Show by using a vector method, that PQ is parallel to BC
and find the ratio PQ:BC.
C

Q
y

A P B
( )
x
Ans: PQ = y − x, BC = 2 y − x , PQ : BC = 1: 2
Solution

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Example 8.7

If the position vector of point A is a = 3i – 2j and the position vector of point B is

b = 2i + 5j, find
(i) AB Ans : 5 2
(ii) the position vector of a point P which divides AB internally in the ratio 1 : 3.
11 1
Ans : i − j
4 4
Solution

8.1.4 Direction Cosine Of A Vector

→
Consider the vector OP where P is the point (a , b , c).
→ →
z Then OP = ai + bj + ck and  OP  = a 2 + b2 + c 2
P(a , b , c)
→
If OP makes angles of  ,  and  with the x, y and z-
 c axis respectively, then cos  , cos  and cos  are
 known as direction cosines , that are
O  y
a b c
b a cos  = , cos  = , cos  =
→ → →
OP OP OP

x where cos 2 + cos 2 + cos 2 = 1.

→
 OP a b c
Notice that the unit vector OP = = i+ j+ k
→ → → →
OP OP OP OP

= cos  i + cos  j + cos  k

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Example 8.8
→
Find the direction cosine of the vector OP where P is the point (3 , -6 , 2).

Solution
→
OP = 3i – 6j + 2k
→
OP = 32 + (−6)2 + 22 = 49 = 7
→ 3 −6 2
Therefore OP has direction cosines , , .
7 7 7
a b c
cos  = , cos  = , cos  =
→ → →
OP OP OP
3 −6 2
= = =
7 7 7

Try this!

Show that a vector u = x1 i + y1 j + z1 k with direction cosines (cos , cos  , cos  ) can
be written as u = u( cos  i + cos  j + cos  k) .

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 Topic 8: Vectors

Example 8.9

Given the vectors a = 3i + 2j + k, b = mi – j + nk and c = 5i +(m-1)j + 3k, where m

and n are constants. If a + b = c, find the numerical values of m and n, and hence, find
a unit vector in the direction of vector b. Obtain also a vector of magnitude 6 units in
the direction of vector b.

Solution

a + b = (3i + 2 j + k ) + (mi − j + nk )
= (m + 3)i + j + (1 + n)k
If a + b = c, then
(m + 3)i + j + (n + 1)k = 5i + (m − 1) j + 3k
Hence, m + 3 = 5 and n + 1 = 3
m = 2 and n=2

therefore b = 2i − j + 2k
and b = 22 + (−1)2 + 22
=3
Hence, a unit vector in the direction of b is
b 2i − j + 2k
= =
b 3
2 1 2
= i− j+ k
3 3 3
Therefore, a vector of magnitude 6 units in the direction of vector b
2 1 2 
= 6 i − j + k 
3 3 3 
= 4i − 2 j + 4k

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 Topic 8: Vectors

Example 8.10

(a) The points A, B and C have position vectors

3i − j + 5k , 7i + j + 3k and − 5i + 9 j − k respectively. P is the mid-point of AB
and Q is the mid point of BC , find the length and direction cosines of the line
PQ .
(b) A, B and C are the points (2, -1, 5) (1, -2, 1) and (3, 1, -2) respectively. P and Q
are the mid-points of AC and CB respectively. Show that PQ is parallel to AB .

Solution
(a) Let a = 3i − j + 5k , b = 7i + j + 3k , c = −5i + 9 j − k
a+b
OP =
2
 3 + 7 −1 + 1 5 + 3 
= , , 
 2 2 2 
= 5i + 4k
b+c
and OQ =
2
 7 − 5 1 + 9 3 −1 
= , , 
 2 2 2 
=i+5j +k
Now PQ = OQ − OP
= (i + 5 j + k ) − (5i + 4k )
= −4i + 5 j − 3k
Length of PQ = (−4) 2 + 52 + (−3) 2
= 50 = 5 2
4 5 3
 direction cos ines of PQ are : − , ,−
5 2 5 2 5 2
2 2 2 3 2
=− , ,−
5 2 10

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 Topic 8: Vectors

(b) Let OA = a = 2i − j + 5k , OB = b = i − 2 j + k and OC = c = 3i + j − 2k

a+c
Now OP =
2
 2 + 3 −1 + 1 5 − 2 
= , , 
 2 2 2 
1 5 3
= (5i + 3k ) = i + 0 j + k
2 2 2
b+c
Now, OQ =
2
 1 + 3 −2 + 1 1 − 2 
= , , 
 2 2 2 
1
( )
= 4i − j − k = 2i − j − k
2
1
2
1
2

AB = OB − OA
= ( i − 2 j + k ) − (2i − j + 5k )
= −i − j − 4k
PQ = OQ − OP
 1 1  5 3 
=  2i − j − k  −  i + 0 j + k 
 2 2  2 2 
1 1
= − i − j − 2k
2 2
1
= (−i − j − 4k )
2
1
= AB
2
Since PQ = k AB where k is constant, therefore PQ and AB are parallel.

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 Topic 8: Vectors

8.2 The Scalar Product

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lecture, students should be able to:

• find the scalar product
• use the properties of scalar product
• find the angle between two vectors
• find the direction cosine for non-zero vector

8.2.1 Definition

The scalar product of two vectors is a = a1i + a2j + a3k and b = b1i + b2j + b3k is the
operation which is written a . b and defined

a . b = a  b cos  ,  is angle between a and b.

Prove

A
→ →
a b–a let OA = a and OB = b
→ → →
  AB = AO + OB
O B = –a + b
b = b–a

By the cosine rule,

2 2 2
AB = OA + OB − 2 OA OB cos 
b – a 2 = a 2 + b  2 – 2 a  b cos 
(b – a) . (b – a) = a . a + b . b – 2 a  b cos 
b.b–b.a–a.b+a.a = a . a + b . b – 2 a  b cos 
–2a.b = – 2 a  b cos 
 a . b = a  b cos  (proven)

a .b
Thus, the angle between a and b is  = cos –1 a b

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 Topic 8: Vectors

8.2.2 Algebraic properties of the scalar product for any vector a, b and c
with m is scalar.

1) a . a =  a 2
2) a . b = b . a (commutative law)
3) a . (b + c) = a . b + a . c (distributive law)
4) m (a . b) = (ma) . b = (a . b) m
5) a . b = a b if and only if a and b parallel in the same direction.
a . b = – a b if and only if a and b parallel in opposite direction.
6) a . b = 0 if and only if a is perpendicular to b

Proof (5)

If vectors a and b parallel , the angle between a and b are 00 or 1800.

So , a . b = a b cos 0o = a b  = 0o
b a

or, a . b = a b cos 180o = – a b  = 180o

b a

Proof (6)
If vectors a and b are perpendicular the angle between a and b is 90o so,
a . b = a b cos 90o = 0
b
a

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 Topic 8: Vectors

Example 8.11

(a) Find the angle between a and b if a =3i – j, b = –4i + 6j

(b) Evaluate cos  if  is the angle between a = 3i + 2 j − 2k , b = 2i + 2 j + 3k

Solution

a .b
(a)  = cos-1
a b
 
 (3i − j).(−4i + 6 j) 
= cos-1  2 2 2 2 
 3 + ( −1) ( −4) + 6 
 (3)(−4) + (−1)(6) 
= cos-1  
 10 52 
 −9 
= cos-1  130 
 
= cos-1(–0.789)
= 142.130 = 2.48 radian

a .b (3i + 2 j − 2k ).(2i + 2 j + 3k )
(b) cos  = =
a b 3i + 2 j − 2k 2i + 2 j + 3k
6+4−6
=
3 + 2 + (−2) 2 . 22 + 22 + 32
2 2

4
=
17

The scalar product between a and b is also defined

a . b = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3

Proof

Known that i, j, and k are perpendicular and the angle of two vectors is zero if its
parallel. So,
a . b = (a1i + a2j + a3k) . ( b1i + b2j + b3k )
= a1b1( i . i ) + a1b2( i . j ) + a1b3(i . k) + a2b1( j . i) + a2b2(j . j ) + a2b3(j . k)
+ a3b1(k . i ) + a3b2(k . j) + a3b3(k . k )
known that,

i . i = j . j = k . k = 1 and j . i = j . k = k . j = k . i = i . k = 0 ,

 a . b = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3 (proven)

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 Topic 8: Vectors

Example 8.12

Find the scalar product of p and q if

a) p = (2i – j) and q = (3i + 4k) b) p = (3j – 2k) and q = (i + 2j – 7k )

Solution

a) p . q = (2i – j) . (3i + 4k) = (2i – j + 0k) . (3i + 0j + 4k)

= (2)(3) + (–1)(0) + (0)(4)
=6

b) p . q = (3j – 2k) . (i + 2j – 7k)

= (0i +3j – 2k) . (i + 2j – 7k)
= (0)(1) + (3)(2) +(–2)(–7)
= 6 +14 = 20

Example 8.13

Given that a = 3i + tj – 2k , b = (1 – t)i – 3j + 4k , find t if a is perpendicular to b.

Solution
a.b=0
a . b = (3i + tj – 2k) . ((1 – t)i – 3j + 4k)
= 3 (1 – t) + (t) (– 3) + (–2) (4)
= 3 – 3t – 3t – 8
= –5 – 6t
5
–5 – 6t = 0 t= –
6

Example 8.14

Simplify
a) (a – b) . (a + b) b) (a + b) . c – (a + c) . b

Solution

a) (a – b) . (a + b) = a . a – a . b + b . a – b . b
= a2 – b2
= a −b
2 2

b) (a + b) . c – (a + c) . b = a . c + b . c – (a . b + c . b)
= a.c+b.c–a.b– c.b
= a.c–a.b
= a . (c – b)

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 Topic 8: Vectors

Example 8.15
1
The angle between vectors a = i+  j + 2k and b = 2i + 3j + k is cos-1 .
Find  .
84
Solution

a .b
 = cos-1
a b
 (i + j + 2k ).(2i + 3j + k ) 
-1  
= cos  2 2 2 2 2 
 1 +  + 4 2 + 3 +1 
 2 + 3 + 2 
-1
 
= cos  2 
 5 +  14 
 4 + 3 
-1  
= cos  2
 70 + 14 
1  4 + 3 
  1
,
since  = cos −1
84  70 + 142 
=
 84
70 + 14 = (4 + 3 ) 84
2

square both sides

70 + 14 2 = 84(16 + 24 + 9 2 )
53 2 + 144 + 91 = 0
(53 + 91)( + 1) = 0
91
 = −1 or  = − = −1.72
53
check : only  = −1 satisfy, so the answer is  = −1

Example 8.16

Find the possible values of y if the angle between 2i + 3j and 3i + yj is 45°.

3
Ans : y = only
5
Solution

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 Topic 8: Vectors

Example 8.17

Given three vectors u = 10i-5j + 5k, v = 3i + 2j +  k and w = -30i + 15 j +  k.

Find

(i)  if u and v are perpendicular. Ans :  = −4

(ii)  if u is parallel to w. Ans :  = −15

Solution

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 Topic 8: Vectors

Example 8.18

(a) Given three vectors a = xi + 4j, b= -2i + yj and c = 2i + 2j. If a + c

perpendicular to b – c and a .b = 12, determine the values of x and y.

Ans : x = −2, y = 2

(b) Three points A, B and C have positon vectors 2i + j + k, 3i – j + 3k and

i + 3j + pk respectively. Find the value of p such that A, B and C are collinear.
Hence, find the ratio of CB : AB.

Ans: p = -1, CB : AB = 2 : 1
Solution

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 Topic 8: Vectors

Example 8.19

Given the points P(1, 2, 3), Q(2, -1, 1) and R(-1, -3, 2). By using scalar product of
1
vectors, prove that cos PQR = − .
14
Solution

Example 8.20

The position vectors of P and Q with respect to origin are 2i + 3j and -3i + 4j
respectively. If R is the variable point given by OR = OP +  PQ. Find

7
(i) the value of  for which OR is perpendicular to PQ. Ans:  =
26

1 7
(ii) the value of  for which OR = PQ Ans:  = 0,
2 13

Solution

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 Topic 8: Vectors

8.3 Vector Product (also known as cross product)

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lecture, students should be able to:

• find the vector product
• use the properties of vector product
• find the area of parallelogram

8.3.1 Definition

If  is the angle between vector a and b, then

 a  b = a b sin 
a  b = absin  n


where n is a unit vector normal in the direction of a  b (perpendicular ) to a and
b.
 ab
that is n=
ab

To determine the direction of a  b , use the right hand, where the fingers turn from
a to b and the thumb finger points in the direction of a  b .

b ba
a  b = -b×a
ab
-a
-b×a a

-b

ba

We have a  b = - b  a = -( b  a)

Parallel Vectors

If a and b are parallel vectors, then the angle between a and b,  = 0 and sin  = 0 .

We then obtain from a  b = absin  n = 0 ( i.e. a  b = 0)
Therefore i  i = j  j = k  k = 0

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 Topic 8: Vectors

Perpendicular Vectors

If a and b are perpendicular vectors, then the angle between a and b

 = 90 and sin  = 1

We then obtain from a  b = absin  n
  ab
= ab n with n =
ab
Thus a b = a b
Figure below illustrates this case whereby all three vectors a, b and a  b are
mutually perpendicular.
ab

a
Consider the special case of the three mutually perpendicular unit vectors i, j and k

k -i

-j j
i
-k

Moving in an ‘anticlockwise direction’, we obtain

ij=k,jk=i,ki=j

When moving in an ‘clockwise direction’, we obtain

j  i = –k, k  j = –i , i  k = –j

The vector product of a = a 1i + a 2j + a 3k and b = b 1i + b 2j + b 3k is defined in

terms of the expansion of the symbolic determinant ;
a  b = (a 1i + a 2j + a 3k )  (b 1i + b 2j + b 3k)
= ( a 1 b 1 )(i  i)+ (a 1 b 2 )(i  j) + (a 1 b 3 )(i  k) +
(a 2 b 1)( j  i ) + (a 2 b 2 )( j  j) + (a 2 b 3)( j  k )+
(a 3 b 1 )(k  i )+ (a 3 b 2)( k  j ) + (a 3 b 3 )( k  k)

Since i  i = j  j = k  k = 0, and i  j = k , j  k = i , k  i = j , j  i = –k,

k  j = –i , i  k = –j
then a  b = a 1 b 2 k - a 1 b 3 j - a 2 b 1 k + a 2 b 3 i + a 3 b 1 j - a 3 b 2 i
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 Topic 8: Vectors

= (a 2 b 3 – a 3 b 2)i – (a 1 b 3 – a 3 b 1)j + (a 1 b 2 – a 2 b 1)k

a a3 a a a a
= 2 i– 1 3 j+ 1 2 k
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2

This result can be written in determinant form as

i j k
a  b = a1 a 2 a 3
b1 b2 b3

Example 8.21

Find a  b if
a) a = 2i +3j – 2k and b = 4i – 2j + 3k b) a = 2i - j and b = 2j + 5k
ans: −5i − 10 j + 4k
Solution
a)
i j k
ab = 2 3 −2
4 −2 3
3 −2 2 −2 2 3
= i– j+ k
−2 3 4 3 4 −2

= (9 – 4)i -(6 + 8)j + (–4 –12)k

= 5i - 14j – 16k

b)

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 Topic 8: Vectors

8.3.2 Properties of cross product

If a and b is a vector , m is a scalar , then

1. a  a = 0
2. a  b = – b  a
3. a  b  = b  a 
4. m(a  b) = m a  b = a  mb
5. a  (b + c) = (a  b) + (a  c)
6. If  is the angle between a and b , then length of a  b is
a  b  = a b sin θ
7. a  b = 0 if a and b are parallel
8. a  b = a b  if a and b are perpendicular

Example 8.22

Given a = i + 2j + 3k and b = –i + 3j – k.
a) Find a  b and b × a Ans : −11i − 2 j + 5k , 11i + 2 j − 5k
b) Prove that a  b and b × a are vectors which perpendicular to the vector a.

Solution

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 Topic 8: Vectors

Example 8.23

Find all vectors of length 11 unit which are perpendicular to both

a = i + 2j – k and b = i – 3k.

Solution

Firstly find a vector that perpendicular to a and b. (i.e a  b)

i j k
a  b = 1 2 − 1 = –6i + 2j – 2k
1 0 −3
 a  b = (−6) 2 + 22 + (−2) 2 = 44

Let c = k (a  b) where k is constant, is a vector which perpendicular to a and b and

also its length is 11 .

Therefore, the required vectors of the form k (–6i + 2j – 2k) , and its length is
c = k  a  b = k . 44 = 11

k 44 = 11
1 1
k = or –
2 2
1
 required vector is either (–6i + 2j – 2k) = –3i + j – k
2
1
or – (–6i + 2j – 2k) = 3i – j + k.
2

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 Topic 8: Vectors

Example 8.24

Find a unit vector of the normal to the plane containing points A( 1 , -1 , 2 ) ,

B( 3 , 1 , 0 ) and C( -1 , 2 , -3 )

Solution

B →
AB = 2i + 2j – 2k
A →
AC = –2i + 3j – 5k
C

→ →
Now n is perpendicular to both AB and AC

Thus
→ →
n = AB x AC

i j k
= 2 2 − 2 = –4i + 14j + 10k .
−2 3 −5

n = ( −4)2 + 142 + 102 = 312 = 2 78

So, the unit vector of the normal ,

 n
n=
n
− 4i + 14 j + 10k
=
2 78
−2 7 5
= i+ j+ k
78 78 78

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 Topic 8: Vectors

Example 8.25

Given vectors u = 2i – j + 2k and v = pi + qk.

If u × v = i + sk. Determine the values of p, q and s.
Hence, compute the sine of angle between u and v.
1
Ans : p = q = s = −1,
3
Solution

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 Topic 8: Vectors

Example 8.26

The position vectors of points P and Q , relative to the origin, are 2i + 2j – k and
4i + 2j – 2k respectively. Calculate the sine of angle POQ. Hence, find the
perpendicular distance from P to the line OQ.
30
Ans : , 0.9129 unit
18
Solution

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 Topic 8: Vectors

8.3.3 Area of a Parallelogram and Triangle

The area of a parallelogram formed by the vectors a and b is given by

Area of parallelogram = a  b 

Prove:
B a
C
b h

O A
a
Refer to figure above:
The area of the parallelogram form by vectors a and b
= a .h
= a . b sin  (where h = b sin  )
= a b (proof )
1
Therefore the area of the triangle OAB = of the parallelogram
2
1
= ab
2
B

O A
a

Example 8.27

Three points A(2, 3, 5), B(-2, 5, 7) and C(4, 0, 5) are the vertices of the triangle ABC.
By using vector method fine the area of the triangle.
Ans: 5.39 unit 2
Solution

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 Topic 8: Vectors

8.4 Application of Vectors in Geometry

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lecture, students should be able to:

• find the equation of straight line in vector, parametric and Cartesian form
• find the angle between two straight lines
• find the equation of a plane in vector and Cartesian form
• find the angle between two planes
• find the angle between a line and a plane
• find the point of intersection between a line and a plane.

8.4.1 Equation of Lines in Space

Equation of Lines

A line in space is a straight line which continues indefinitely in both directions and
contains a continuous infinite set of points.

R(x, y, z)
v
A(x1, y1, z1)

a
O
Suppose that R(x , y , z) is a point which move on a line containing a fixed point
A(x1, y1, z1) . If v = ai + bj + ck is a direction vector of the line, it is clear that a line
consists precisely of those points for which
r the vector AR is parallel to v, that is
→
AR = tv for some scalar t
→ →
OR – OA = tv
→ →
OR = OA + tv
or r = a + tv (1)
where r is position vectors of all moving points on the line.
In terms of components, it can be written as

xi + yj + zk = (x1i + y1j + z1k) + t (ai + bj + ck) (1)

So that x = x1 + ta
y = y1 + tb (2)
z = z1 + tc

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 Topic 8: Vectors

Isolating t in each of these equations gives

x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= = (3)
a b c

So there are three ways of expressing the line in space:

(1) is the vector equation of the line,
(2) are the parametric equations of the line,
(3) are the Cartesian equations of the line.

Summary
If a straight line passes through A(x1, y1, z1) and parallel to ai + bj + ck ,

• Its vector equation is r = (x1i + y1j + z1k) + t (ai + bj + ck)

• Its parametric equations are x = x1 + ta

y = y1 + tb
z = z1 + tc
t is called the parameter and can take any real value.

x - x1 y - y1 z - z1
• Its Cartesian equations are = = .
a b c

Example 8.28

Find the vector equation, the parametric equations and the Cartesian equations of the
line through (1, –2, 3) in the direction 4i + 5j – 6k

Solution

The vector equation is r = (i – 2j + 3k) + t (4i +5j – 6k).

The parametric equations are x = 1 + 4t , y = –2 + 5t , z = 3 – 6t.

x −1 y+2 z −3
The Cartesian equations are = =
4 5 -6

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 Topic 8: Vectors

Example 8.29
x −1 y−2 z −3
A line has Cartesian equations = = . Find a vector equation for a
3 4 5
parallel line passing through the point with position vector 5i – 2j – 4k and find the
coordinates of the point on this line where y = 0.

Solution

Example 8.30

(a) Find parametric equations for the line l passing through the points
P1 (2 , 4 , –1) and P2 (5 , 0 , 7).
(b) Where does the line intersect the xy-plane?

Solution

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 Topic 8: Vectors

Example 8.31

( )
A straight line L with vector equation r = 2i − j + k + t i − j + 2k passes through
point (a,1, b ) . Find the values of a and b.

Solution

8.4.1.1 The Angle Between Two Straight Lines

Suppose two straight lines vector equation are

r1 = a1 + tv1
r2 = a2 + sv2

With t, s are any scalar and  is angle between two straight lines.

r1 = a1 + tv1
v1

v2
r2 = a2 + sv2
 

If  is the angle between two straight lines, and also  is the angle between v1 and v2
. because of the lines and the direction vectors are parallel.
v1 . v2 = v1 v 2 cos θ
v1 .v 2
cos θ =
v1 v 2

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 Topic 8: Vectors

Hence, the acute angle between two straight lines given by

v 1 .v 2
θ = cos −1
v1 v 2

Two straight lines are perpendicular if v1 . v2 = 0 and the straight lines are parallel if
v1 = kv2 for k scalar.

Example 8.32

The vector two straight lines equation are given by

r1 = ( 2i + 2j - 4k ) + t( i + 3j - 3k )
and r2= ( i + j + k) + s( i + 2j - 4k )
with t and s scalar. Find the acute angle between the two straight lines.

Solution
Direction vector line r1is given by v1 = i + 3j – 3k
Direction vector line r2 is given by v2 = i + 2j – 4k

Hence, the angle between r1 and r2 are,

v v
 = cos −1 1 2
v1 v 2
(i + 3j − 3k )  (i + 2 j − 4k ) 1 + 6 + 12
= cos −1 = cos −1
(i + 3j − 3k ) (i + 2 j − 4k ) 1 + 9 + 9 1 + 4 + 16
19
= cos−1
399
−1
 = cos (0.951)  18

Example 8.33

Line 1 has equations x = –1 + 2s , y = 1 – 2s and z = 1 + 4s.

Line 2 has equations x = 1 – t , y = t and z = 3 – 2t.
x −1 z −4
Line 3 has equations = − y − 1= .
2 3
a) Show that line 1 and line 2 are parallel.
b) Show that line 2 and line 3 intersect and find the acute angle between them.

Solution
a) Line 1 has direction vector v1 = 2i – 2j + 4k
Line 2 has direction vector v2 = –i + j – 2k

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 Topic 8: Vectors

We can write the relation between v1 and v2, that is

2i – 2j + 4k = -2 ( -i + j – 2k)
v1 = -2v2
 both line 1 and line 2 are parallel to each other.

b) Substituting line 2's equations into line 3's, gives

1− t −1 3 − 2t − 4
= − t − 1=
2 3
−t − 1 − 2t
i.e., = − t − 1=
2 3
 – t = 2(– t – 1) and 3 (– t – 1) = –1 – 2t
 – t = –2t – 2 and –3t – 3 = –1 – 2t
 t = –2 and t = –2
i.e t = -2 ( common solution)

 the lines intersect when t = –2, i.e at (3, –2, 7).

v2 = –i + j – 2k

v3 = 2i – j + 3k
Identify v3:
x −1 − y −1 z − 4
= =
2 1 3

x −1 y +1 z − 4
 = =
2 −1 3
Therefore v3 = 2i – j + 3k

The acute angle between lines 2 and 3 is found by using

v2  v3 (−i + j − 2k)(2i − j + 3k
cos = =
v2 v3 − i + j − 2k 2i − j + 3k
− 2 −1− 6
=
1 + 1 + 4. 4 + 1 + 9
9
=
6 14
9
 = cos−1( ) 10.89
84

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 Topic 8: Vectors

Example 8.34

The position vectors of the points A and B are given by

2i + 4j – 4k and - i - 2j - k respectively.
The point P on AB is such that 2AP = PB and L is the line through P and parallel to
the vector 3i - 2j – k.
(a) Find the vector equation of the line L.
(b) Find the position vectors of the two points on L which are at a distance 20 from
A.
y+2
(c) The line M has Cartesian equation: x − 3 = = z −4.
−2
Find the sine of the acute angle between the lines L and M.

Solution

(a) OA = 2i + 4 j − 4k , OB = −i − 2 j − k
2 AP = PB
2 OP − OA = OB − OP

3OP = OB + 2OA
1
OP = OB + 2OA
3
 −1   4  
1     
=  −2  +  8  
3    
 −1   −8  
3 1
1   
=  6 = 2 
3
 −9   −3 
Therefore po int of P = (1, 2, −3)
L has direction vector v1 = 3i − 2 j − k .
Therefore vector equation of L is :
r = i + 2 j − 3k + t (3i − 2 j − k )

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 Topic 8: Vectors

(b) let Q lies on line L

L
Q
A
P

AQ = 20

AQ = OQ − OA
 1   3    2 
      
=  2  + t  −2   −  4 
 −3   −1    −4 
 −1   3 
   
=  −2  + t  −2 
 1   −1 
   
= ( −1 + 3t ) i + (−2 − 2t ) j + (1 − t )k
Since AQ = 20

( −1 + 3t ) + (−2 − 2t ) 2 + (1 − t ) 2 = 20
2

Square both sides

(3t − 1) 2 + (−2t − 2) 2 + (1 − t ) 2 = 20
9t 2 − 6t + 1 + 4t 2 + 8t + 4 + 1 − 2t + t 2 − 20 = 0
14t 2 = 14
t 2 = 1 → t = 1
when t = 1, OQ = i + 2 j − 3k + 1(3i − 2 j − k )
= 4i − 4k
when t = −1, OQ = i + 2 j − 3k − 1(3i − 2 j − k )
= −2i + 4 j − 2k

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 Topic 8: Vectors

(c) Direction vector of M : v2 = i − 2 j + k

direction vector of L : v1 = 3i − 2 j − k
v2 = 1 + 4 + 1 = 6, v1 = 9 + 4 + 1 = 14
v1.v2 = (3i − 2 j − k ).(i − 2 j + k )
= 3 + 4 −1 = 6
v1.v2 6 6
cos  = = =
v1 . v2 14. 6 14
6 8 4 2 7
 sin  = 1 − cos 2  = 1 − = = =
14 14 7 7

8.4.2 Plane

8.4.2.1 Equation of Planes

Planes equation in 3 dimension can be measure with this criteria :

1. A plane in space has normal vector n = ai + bj + ck and that it passes
through the fixed point A (x1 , y1 ,z1).

2. A plane passes through 3 non-collinear points in the plane.

3. A plane parallel to two given vectors in different direction and passes through a
point.

Criteria 1:
Suppose a plane in space has normal vector n = ai + bj + ck and that it passes through
the fixed point A (x1 , y1 ,z1).
R(x , y , z) moves anywhere in the plane.
→
Now AR is perpendicular to n.
n = ai + bj + ck

R(x, y, z)

A (x1, y1,z1)
→
 AR . n = 0
→ →
( OR – OA ) . n = 0
(r – a) . n = 0
r.n–a.n=0
r.n = a.n
r . n = p where p = a . n, which is a constant and r = xi + yj + zk

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 Topic 8: Vectors

Example 8.35

Find the equation of the plane with normal vector i + 2j + 3k and containing the point
(-1 , 2 , 4).

Solution

Since n = i + 2j + 3k and (-1 , 2 , 4) lies on the plane,

Therefore the equation of the plane is
r.n = a.n

r. (i + 2j + 3k) =(-i + 2j + 4k) (i + 2j + 3k)

r. (i + 2j + 3k) = 15

Criteria 2:

Example 8.36

Find the equation of the plane through A(-1 , 2 , 0) , B(3 , 1 , 1) and

C(1 , 0 ,3).

Solution n
C
R

A B

→ →
AB = 4i – j + k , AC = 2i – 2j + 3k
→ →
If n is the normal vector, then n = AB  AC
i j k
= 4 −1 1
2 −2 3
= –i – 10j – 6k

Therefore the equation of the plane is

r.n = a.n
(xi + yj + zk). (-i -10j -6k) =(-i + 2j ) (-i -10j -6k)
-x -10y -6z = (1) -2(10)
x + 10y+ 6z +19 = 0

or r. (-i -10j -6k) = -19

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 Topic 8: Vectors

Criteria 3:

Example 8.37

Find the equation of the plane through the point A(3, -2, -1) and parallel to the vectors
b = i -2j + 4k and c = 3i + 2j -5k. (giving your answer in vector and Cartesian form)

Solution

Example 8.38

Show that the line L whose vector equation is r = 2i - 2j + 3k + t ( i – j + 4k ) is

parallel to the plane  whose vector equation r . ( i + 5j + k ) = 5

Solution
L is parallel to i – j + 4k and  is perpendicular to i + 5j + k .
Now ( i – j + 4k ) . ( i + 5j + k ) = 0
Hence the vectors i - j + 4k and i + 5j + k, perpendicular to each other, thus
L and  are both perpendicular to i + 5j + k and must therefore be parallel to each
other.

8.4.2.2 Point of intersection between a line and a plane

Example 8.39

Find the vector equation of line passing through the point ( 3 , 1 , 2 ) and
perpendicular to the plane
r . ( 2i – j + k ) = 4 .Find also the point of intersection of this line and the plane.

Solution
The normal vector of the plane is 2i – j + k , so parallel to the required line .
As this line passes through the point ( 3 , 1 , 2 ) its equation is
r = 3i + j + 2k + t ( 2i – j + k ) ------------(1)
equation of the plane
r . ( 2i – j + k ) = 4 ---------------------------(2)
substitute (1) into (2)

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 Topic 8: Vectors

3i + j + 2k + t ( 2i – j + k ) . ( 2i – j + k ) = 4
[(3+2t)i + (1- t)j + (2 + t)k] . ( 2i – j + k ) = 4
2(3 + 2t )- (1- t) + (2 + t) = 4
1
6t = 4 – 7 = -3 t=- into (1)
2
1
r = 3i + j + 2k - ( 2i – j + k )
2
3 3
= 2i + j + k
2 2
 3 3
Therefore the point of intersection is  2, , 
 2 2
Or alternatively
The parametric form of the line is
x = 3 + 2t , y = 1 - 2t , z = 2 + t
we see that this line meets the plane where
[ ( 3 + 2t) i + ( 1 – t ) j + ( 2 + t ) k ] . ( 2i - j + k ) = 4
2 ( 3 + 2t ) – ( 1 – t ) + ( 2 + t ) = 4
1
t=-
2
3 3
x=2, y= ,z=
2 2
3 3
So the point of intersection is ( 2 , , ).
2 2

Example 8.40

A plane  passes through a point A, position vector

4i -2j + 2k, and perpendicular to the vector n = 2i + j + 3k.

(a) Find the position vector of the point where the line L1,
r = 5i + 3j – k +  (i – 4j + 2k), intersects the plane  .
(b) Show that the line L2, r = i + 4j + 2k +  (i + j - k) , lies on the plane .
Solution

(a) The equation of the plane  is :

r.n = a.n
r. (2i + j + 3k) =(4i -2j + 2k) (2i + j + 3k)
 : r. (2i + j + 3k) = 12

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 Topic 8: Vectors

L1, r = 5i + 3j – k +  (i – 4j + 2k)

 and L1 are intersect :

substitute L1 into 
5i + 3j – k +  (i – 4j + 2k). (2i + j + 3k) = 12
[(5 +  )i + (3 − 4 ) j + (−1 + 2 )k ].(2i + j + 3k ) = 12
10 + 2 + 3 − 4 − 3 + 6 = 12
1
4 = 2 →  =
2
To find position vector of the intersection point between  and L1 is by substitute
1
 = into L1,
2
1 11
r = 5i + 3j – k + (i – 4j + 2k) = i + j
2 2
(b) To show that L2 lies on  , we need to show that
(i) L2 and  , are parallel, and
(ii) L2 and  , contain a common point.

(i) L2 parallel to i + j -k and  perpendicular to 2i + j + 3k.

However,
(i + j - k).( 2i + j + 3k)= 0

Hence the vectors i + j –k and 2i + j + 3k, perpendicular to each other, thus L2 and 
are both perpendicular to 2i + j + 3k and must therefore be parallel to each other.

(ii) The line passes through the point with vector i + 4j +2k.

Also, (i + 4j + 2k).(2i + j + 3k) = 2 + 4 + 6 = 12

i.e. i + 4j + 2k satisfies r. (2i + j + 3k) = 12

Thus, the point with position vector i + 4j + 2k is common to both the line L2 and
the plane  .

With condition (i) and (ii), it is proved that the line L2 must lie in the plane .

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 Topic 8: Vectors

Or alternatively

The problem can be solved by showing that the line L2 and the plane  contain two
common points.
Taking any two points on the line L2 , for example

 = 0, r = i + 4j + 2k + 0 (i + j - k ) =i + 4j + 2k
1
 = 1, r = i + 4j + 2k + 1 (i + j - k ) = 2i + 5 j + k
2

But r1. (2i + j + 3k) = (i +4j + 2k) (2i + j + 3k)

= 12
and r2. (2i + j + 3k) = (2i + 5j + k) (2i + j + 3k)
= 12

i.e. both points r1 and r2 also lie in the plane :

r. (2i + j + 3k) = 12

Therefore the line L2 and the plane  contain two common points r1 and r2 and so
the line L2 must lie in the plane 

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