Experiments
Outline key features of experiments Identify these features in psychological experiments
Independent variable (i.v) (length of rope/string → Manipulated by the Researcher)
Dependent Variable (d.v) (duration of an oscillation → Measured by the Researcher)
Cause and Effect Relationship between i.v and d.v (investigation the relationship between
the length of string and duration of an oscillation)
N.B. i.v is manipulated by the researcher d.v is measured by the researcher e.v
(Extraneous Variable) are other factors likely to affect the d.v and should be in control
Types of extraneous variable: 1) Participant Variables - Qualities & Characteristics of
participants 2) Situational Variables - Features on context or environment
Types of Experiments
Key Terms: Laboratory Experiments Field Experiments Natural Experiments
Experiment - An experiment is a method of research where a hypothesis is tested by
investigating the relationship between an i.v (cause) and a d.v (effects/findings/results).
independent dependent extraneous environment
variable variable variable
Lab Experiment Manipulated Measured Highly Artificial
Controlled
Field Manipulated Measured Partially Realistic/Natural
Experiment Controlled
Natural Not Measured Not Controlled Natural/Realistic
Experiment Manipulated
Interviews and Questionnaires (Self-Report)
Interview → An interview is a method of data collection where a researcher (interviewer)
asks verbal questions to participants (interviewees) either face-to-face or over a phone
medium of communication e.g. telephone
types of questions in questionnaires also apply to interviews
These are self-report methods of research because participants provide information about
themselves (they report by themselves)
Types of Interviews
● Structured Interviews → Predetermined list of questions
● Unstructured Interviews → Questions depending on interviewers answers
● Semi-structured Interviews → Fixed questions, but the interviewer can add more
Questionnaire → Method of data collection where a predetermined set of written questions
are given to all participants (respondents). These could be on paper or online.
Types of Questions
1. Open Question → Respondents answer in their own words
2. Closed Question → Limited set of answers to choose from (forced choice)
3. Rating Scale → e.g. scale from 1 to 8, where 1 is 'never' and 8 is 'always'
4. Likert Scale → e.g. Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Neither, Agree, Strongly Agree
5. Filler Questions → Not related to the topic; to make it difficult to guess the topic
● The difference between open and closed questions is that open questions allow you
to type, however closed questions "force" you to choose a given option
Correlations, Case Studies, Observations, Longitudinal &
Cross-Sectional Studies
Correlational Studies
A correlational study investigates the relationship between two measured variables
(co-variables) to find out if they influence
● Unlike experiments there is no cause & effect relationship
● Data gathered is quantitative
● Involves drawing scatter graphs to identify types of correction
Positive Correlation → Increase in one co-variable creates an increase in other co-variable
Negative Correlation → Increase in one co-variable creates a decrease in other
co-variables
No Correlation → Change in one variable is not associated with change in another variable
Examples:
As the co-variable "hours spent studying" increases, the co-variable "percentage grade
achieved on test" is expected to increase too (positive correlation)
As the co-variable "hours spent exercising" increases, the co-variable "weight in kilograms"
is expected to decrease too (negative correlation)
As the co-variable "shoe size in millimeters" increases, the co-variable "average Math
grade" is not expected to change at all (no correlation)
Case Studies
Case studies are a research method where an individual person/case/instance is studied in
detail, developing in depth knowledge
● Case studies tend to use multiple methods (such as questionnaire interviews and
observations) and to be conducted over a long duration of time (longitudinal)
Observation
Conducting an observation means watching the behavior of human & animal participants
by a researcher (observer)
Categories:
1. Overt or Covert Observation Are participants aware that they are being watched?
(overt - yes, covert - no)
2. Participant or Non-Participant Observation: Is the researcher (observer)
involved/taking part in the activities of the group they are studying? (participant - yes,
non-participant - no)
3. Structured or Unstructured Observation Structured observations have a limited
set of behavior observed Unstructured observations have an entire range of
behavior to observe/record
4. Naturalistic or Controlled Observation Naturalistic observations happens in an
unaltered environment Controlled observations have aspects of the physical/social
environment changed
Longitudinal Studies & Cross-Sectional Study
A longitudinal study is a study that takes a long duration of time to complete & follow the
same group of participants
A cross-sectional study is a study that compares different groups of people at the same
time
Examples:
Shows such as 7-Up where observers come back every seven years to the same group of
people (longitudinal study)
Censuses where the government collects data by interviewing several groups of people
only once at the same time (cross-sectional study)
Longitudinal & cross-sectional studies use different techniques to investigate differences
between groups/changes over time.
Cross-cultural Studies, and Ethics in Research (Human
Subjects)
Cross-cultural Studies
A cross-cultural study is conducted between different cultures. It requires care in
researchers understanding cultures different from theirs in order not to misinterpret their
findings. It also requires absolutely no bias or prejudice.
Ethical Guidelines
1. Informed consent should be sought
2. Deception should not be used
3. Confidentiality should be maintained
4. Privacy should be respected
5. Right to withdraw should be respected
6. Protection from physical & psychological harm
7. Debriefing should be done
Standards of what is right/acceptable in research.
