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Chapter 12: Nervous System and Nervous Tissue

1. General functions of the nervous system: The nervous system is like the body’s main

control center. Its main jobs include:

• Sensation: Detecting changes both inside (like blood pressure) and outside (like

temperature) of the body.

• Interpretation: Making sense of what’s detected (is it hot, cold, painful?).

• Integration: Combining all incoming information to make a response.

• Direction: Sending out commands to make muscles move or glands release

chemicals.

2. What is a nerve, what is a tract, what is a ganglion, what is a nuclei and

where do you find them?

• Nerve: A bundle of axons (the long, tail-like parts of neurons) found in the PNS

(Peripheral Nervous System).

• Tract: A bundle of axons in the CNS (Central Nervous System).

• Ganglion: A group of neuron cell bodies in the PNS. Think of it as a cluster where

neuron cell bodies are gathered.

• Nuclei: A group of neuron cell bodies in the CNS, serving as information

processing hubs within the brain and spinal cord.

3. How do axons regenerate? Why is this more likely in the PNS than the CNS?
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Axon regeneration: In the PNS, axons can regrow if damaged because Schwann cells

assist in repair. Schwann cells clear debris allowing the axion to reconnect. In the CNS

oligodendrocytes don’t support regrowth. In the CNS repairing damaged axions is very

limited. (Spinal cord injuries often permanent)

4. Major parts of a neuron:

• Cell body (soma): Contains the nucleus and organelles, which keep the cell

functioning.

• Dendrites: Short branches that receive signals from other neurons.

• Axon: The long fiber that transmits signals to other cells.

• Axon terminal: The end of the axon, where signals are passed to the next cell,

often using chemicals called neurotransmitters.

5. Types of neurons:

• Multipolar: Most common type, has multiple branches (many dendrites, one

axon). Found in the brain and spinal cord, controlling muscles.

• Bipolar: Rare, only in certain sensory organs like the retina.

• Unipolar: Found in sensory neurons of the PNS, carrying information from the

body to the brain.

6. Identify the types of neuroglia in the central nervous system and their

functions as well as the neuroglia in the PNS and their functions

Neuralgia (supporting cells):

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• CNS:

• Astrocytes: Provide structure, form the blood-brain barrier to protect the

brain.

• Ependymal cells: Line brain cavities, produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

• Microglia: Act as immune cells, cleaning up waste.

• Oligodendrocytes: Make myelin in the CNS.

• PNS:

• Satellite cells: Support neuron cell bodies.

• Schwann cells: Produce myelin for insulation.

7. Explain myelin’s function and know what cells make this.

Myelin’s function: Acts as insulation for axons, allowing faster signal transmission.

Schwann cells make myelin in the PNS, while Oligodendrocytes make myelin in the

CNS.

8. Describe the resting membrane potential and how it occurs.

Resting membrane potential: The “resting state” of a neuron’s membrane. It’s about -

70mV inside because of a higher concentration of K+ inside and Na+ outside. This

negative charge sets the stage for the neuron to fire when activated.

9. What is the threshold and how does a neuron reach this?

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Threshold: The minimum voltage change needed to start an action potential. Once this

is reached, the neuron fires a signal down the axon.

10. Describe the changes that occur to the membrane that result in an action potential.

Action potential: A rapid change in charge that moves down the neuron. Sodium (Na+)

rushes in, causing depolarization, followed by potassium (K+) moving out to repolarize,

restoring the negative charge.

11. What is repolarization and what are the refractory periods?

Repolarization restores the negative charge.

• Repolarization: After the neuron fires, K+ ions flow out, restoring the cell’s

negative charge back toward its resting state.

• Refractory Periods:

• Absolute Refractory Period: The neuron can’t fire again, ensuring the

action potential moves in one direction.

• Relative Refractory Period: The neuron can fire again, but it needs a

stronger signal because it’s briefly hyperpolarized (more negative than usual) During the

absolute refractory period, no new signals can start, ensuring one-way signal flow.

12. How are action potentials inhibited? Know how hyperpolarization happens.

Inhibition: Making it harder for a neuron to fire by increasing the negative charge inside.

This occurs when ions like Cl- enter, making the neuron hyperpolarized.
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• Inhibition: Action potentials are inhibited by making the inside of the neuron more

negative, which makes it harder to reach the threshold to fire. This is often due to

chloride ions (Cl-) entering the cell or potassium ions (K+) leaving the cell.

• Hyperpolarization: This is the increase in negative charge inside the neuron,

moving the membrane potential further away from the threshold, which inhibits firing.

Hyperpolarization typically occurs when Cl- ions enter or K+ ions exit.

Chapter 13: Nervous System Anatomy

1. What are the lobes of the cerebrum and what do they do? What are the boundaries

or sulce that distinguish the different lobes? Central, lateral?

• Lobes of the Cerebrum:

• Frontal Lobe: Controls voluntary movement, decision-making, and

personality.

• Parietal Lobe: Processes sensory information like touch, pressure, and

pain.

• Temporal Lobe: Responsible for hearing, language, and memory.

• Occipital Lobe: Processes visual information.

• Boundaries (Sulci):

• Central Sulcus: Separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe.

• Lateral Sulcus: Separates the temporal lobe from the frontal and parietal

lobes.
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2. Describe which lobes have primary sensory areas and what are the motor areas of

the brain, what is the basal nuclei?

• Primary sensory: Located in the parietal (touch), occipital (vision), and temporal

(hearing) lobes.

• Motor area: Frontal lobe, directs voluntary movements.

• Basal nuclei: Coordinate and regulate movements, reducing involuntary tremors.

3. Diencephalon parts:

• Thalamus: Processes sensory info (except smell).

• Hypothalamus: Maintains homeostasis, regulating temperature, hunger, etc.

• Epithalamus: Includes the pineal gland (sleep-wake cycles).

• Subthalamus: Involved in movement.

4. Brainstem parts:

• Midbrain: Controls reflexes for visual/auditory stimuli.

• Pons: Bridges various parts of the brain and helps with breathing.

• Medulla Oblongata: Controls heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing—critical

for survival.

5. Cerebellum: Ensures smooth, coordinated movement by balancing inputs from

muscles, joints, and the inner ear.

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6. What is the role of the spinal cord? What do you find in the gray matter? What do you

find in white matter? Which parts are sensory? Which parts are motor?

• Role of the Spinal Cord: The spinal cord acts as a communication pathway

between the brain and body, transmitting sensory and motor signals, and controlling

reflexes.

• Spinal Cord Structure:

• Gray Matter: Contains neuron cell bodies and synapses; involved in

processing information.

• White Matter: Contains myelinated axons (tracts) that transmit signals up

and down the spinal cord.

• Sensory and Motor Parts:

• Sensory: Located in the posterior (back) part of the spinal cord.

• Motor: Located in the anterior (front) part of the spinal cord.

7. Describe the formation and flow of cerebrospinal fluid.

• Formation: CSF is produced by the choroid plexus in the brain’s ventricles.

• Flow: CSF flows from the lateral ventricles → through the third ventricle → down to

the fourth ventricle → into the subarachnoid space around the brain and spinal cord. It then

circulates and is eventually reabsorbed into the bloodstream.

• Function: CSF cushions the brain and spinal cord, provides nutrients, and

removes waste.
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8. Meninges:

• Dura mater: Tough outer layer.

• Arachnoid mater: Web-like middle layer.

• Pia mater: Thin inner layer that clings to the brain and spinal cord.

9. Describe the structures of the PNS (neurons and afferent versus efferent) and

distinguish somatic (skeletal muscle & skin) and autonomic structures (smooth muscle,

cardiac muscle & glands).

PNS structure: Transmits sensory and motor information. Somatic division controls

muscles, while the autonomic division controls involuntary functions like digestion.

• PNS Structure: The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) transmits sensory

(afferent) information to the CNS and motor (efferent) commands from the CNS to the

body.

• Types of Neurons:

• Afferent (Sensory) Neurons: Carry information from sensory receptors

toward the CNS.

• Efferent (Motor) Neurons: Transmit signals from the CNS to muscles and

glands.

• Divisions:
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• Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary movements by targeting

skeletal muscles and skin.

• Autonomic Nervous System: Regulates involuntary functions, affecting

smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands, and is divided into sympathetic and

parasympathetic systems.

10. Assign a nerve to a specific plexus.

• Cervical Plexus: Contains the phrenic nerve, which controls the diaphragm for

breathing.

• Brachial Plexus: Includes the radial nerve, which controls movement in the arm

and hand.

• Lumbar Plexus: Contains the femoral nerve, which controls muscles in the thigh.

• Sacral Plexus: Contains the sciatic nerve, which controls muscles in the leg and

foot.

11. Name the cranial nerves and list their major functions, know which are sensory only,

which are motor only.

1 Olfactory (I) – Sensory only; responsible for smell.

2 Optic (II) – Sensory only; responsible for vision.

3 Oculomotor (III) – Motor only; controls most eye movements, pupil constriction.

4 Trochlear (IV) – Motor only; controls the superior oblique muscle for eye movement.

5 Trigeminal (V) – Mixed; controls facial sensation and chewing muscles.

6 Abducens (VI) – Motor only; controls the lateral rectus muscle for eye movement.
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7 Facial (VII) – Mixed; controls facial expressions, taste on the front of the tongue, and

salivary glands.

8 Vestibulocochlear (VIII) – Sensory only; responsible for hearing and balance.

9 Glossopharyngeal (IX) – Mixed; controls taste on the back of the tongue, swallowing,

and some salivary glands.

10 Vagus (X) – Mixed; affects heart rate, digestion, and other parasympathetic

functions.

11 Accessory (XI) – Motor only; controls muscles in the neck and shoulders.

12 Hypoglossal (XII) – Motor only; controls tongue movement.

Chapter 14: The Somatic Nervous System

1. ​Name the different sensory receptors and know the stimuli they respond to.

• Chemoreceptors: Respond to chemicals, such as those involved in taste and

smell.

• Mechanoreceptors: Detect physical changes, like pressure, touch, vibration, and

sound.

• Thermoreceptors: Sense temperature changes in the environment.

• Nociceptors: Detect pain, usually as a result of tissue damage.

• Photoreceptors: Respond to light and are essential for vision.

2. ​Tell the difference between and give examples of the 3 general types of sensors: free

nerve endings, encapsulated and special senses.

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Here’s a concise answer for the three general types of sensors and their functions:

• Free Nerve Endings: Detect pain and temperature; found throughout the body.

• Encapsulated Endings: Detect pressure and vibration; examples include Pacinian

corpuscles in the skin.

• Special Senses: Involve specialized organs for complex senses like sight (eyes),

hearing (ears), taste (tongue), and smell (nose).

3. Distinguish what the different taste “submodalities” respond.

• Sweet: Detects sugars like glucose.

• Salty: Responds to sodium ions (Na+).

• Sour: Detects hydrogen ions (H+) from acidic substances.

• Bitter: Senses alkaloids, which can indicate toxins.

• Umami: Responds to amino acids like glutamate, giving a savory flavor.

4. ​List the parts of the ear in order and tell me their functions.

• Outer Ear:

• Auricle (Pinna): Collects sound waves and directs them into the ear.

• Auditory Canal: Channels sound waves toward the eardrum.

• Eardrum (Tympanic Membrane): Vibrates in response to sound waves.

• Middle Ear:

• Ossicles (Malleus, Incus, Stapes): Tiny bones that amplify and transmit

vibrations from the eardrum to the inner ear.

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• Eustachian Tube: Equalizes pressure between the middle ear and the

outside environment.

• Inner Ear:

• Cochlea: Converts vibrations into nerve signals for hearing.

• Semicircular Canals: Detect rotational movement and help with balance.

• Vestibule (Utricle and Saccule): Detects head position and linear

movement for balance.

5. What structures in the inner ear are responsible for static equilibrium or head position

and which ones are dynamic equilibrium?

• Inner Ear Equilibrium:

• Utricle and Saccule: Detect head position and maintain static equilibrium.

• Semicircular Canals: Detect rotational movement and maintain dynamic

equilibrium

6. List parts of the eye and give them a function. Differentiate the 3 layers to the eye.

• Fibrous Layer (Outer Layer):

• Sclera: The “white” of the eye, providing protection and maintaining shape.

• Cornea: Transparent front part that lets light enter and focuses it onto the

retina.

• Vascular Layer (Middle Layer):

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• Choroid: Contains blood vessels and pigments to absorb stray light,

reducing glare.

• Ciliary Body: Controls lens shape with the ciliary muscle and produces

aqueous humor for the front of the eye.

• Iris: The colored part that controls the pupil’s size to regulate light entry.

• Nervous Layer (Inner Layer):

• Retina: Contains photoreceptors that detect light and convert it into nerve

signals.

• Rods: Specialized for low-light vision, providing black-and-white images.

• Cones: Function in bright light and allow color vision (red, green, blue).

• Macula: Central area responsible for sharp, detailed vision.

• Fovea Centralis: Located within the macula, has only cones, providing the

sharpest vision.

• Optic Disc: The “blind spot” where the optic nerve exits, with no

photoreceptors.

7. Follow light, name the structures in order that it passes through before striking the

retina. How are rods and cones different?

How do you adjust to low light?

• Pathway of Light Through the Eye:

• Light enters through the cornea, where initial focusing occurs.

• It moves into the anterior chamber, filled with aqueous humor.

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• Light then passes through the pupil, regulated by the iris to control light

entry.

• The lens further focuses the light, adjusting for clear vision.

• Light continues through the vitreous humor in the posterior chamber.

• Finally, it reaches the retina, where photoreceptors (rods and cones)

detect and process the light.

• Difference Between Rods and Cones:

• Rods: Highly sensitive to low light, providing black-and-white vision,

crucial for night vision. They are found mainly in the peripheral retina.

• Cones: Require brighter light and are responsible for color vision (red,

green, blue). Concentrated in the fovea for sharp, detailed central vision.

• Adjusting to Low Light:

• In dim light, rods become more active due to their high sensitivity.

• Rhodopsin, the pigment in rods, regenerates in darkness, enhancing night

vision. This adjustment takes a few minutes as the eyes adapt to low light.

8. Describe the general pathway that sensory information follows into the CNS

• Sensory Receptors: The process begins with sensory receptors detecting a

stimulus (such as touch, light, sound, etc.) in the external or internal environment.

• Afferent Neurons: These receptors generate an action potential that travels along

afferent (sensory) neurons toward the central nervous system (CNS).

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• Spinal Cord or Cranial Nerves: If the stimulus is from below the head, the signal

typically enters the CNS through the spinal cord; for sensory input from the head or

neck, it often enters via cranial nerves.

• Thalamus: Once inside the CNS, sensory information is relayed through the

thalamus (except for smell, which bypasses the thalamus and goes directly to the

olfactory cortex). The thalamus acts as a processing and relay center.

• Primary Sensory Cortex: The thalamus then directs the sensory information to

specific areas of the primary sensory cortex in the brain, where it is processed,

interpreted, and perceived. Each type of sensation (touch, sight, hearing) has a

dedicated region within the cortex.

9. Describe the general pathway from cortex to skeletal muscle, the somatic motor

division

• Primary Motor Cortex: The pathway starts in the primary motor cortex of the

frontal lobe, where voluntary movement commands are initiated.

• Upper Motor Neurons: Signals travel from the primary motor cortex through

upper motor neurons. These neurons carry the signal down through the brain and spinal

cord.

• Descending Tracts: The action potential travels along descending tracts (such as

the corticospinal tract) in the spinal cord.

• Lower Motor Neurons: In the spinal cord, the upper motor neurons synapse with

lower motor neurons located in the anterior (ventral) horn of the spinal cord.
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• Skeletal Muscle: The lower motor neurons carry the signal out of the spinal cord

through peripheral nerves to the target skeletal muscle, where they stimulate

contraction and produce movement.