CHAPTER 1

Introduction

This chapter provides background information of the mine as well as an outline of the metallurgical
section duties and responsibilities. The problem statement , justification,aim ,objectives of the project
conclude the chapter. South Mining Private Limited is located at Madumabisa Farm along Victoria Falls in
Hwange. It is a Chinese owned company. It produces metallurgical coke, crude tar and coke oven gas.The
company’s production target is 480 000 metric tonnes of coke per month. The coke is used for industrial
purposes such as heating boilers and furnaces. South Mining produces different sizes of cokes namely
coke breeze(0-5 mm,5-10mm & 0-10mm),coke peas (10-30mm & 10-40 mm) ,wharf /nuts (30-40mm,30-
90mm). South Mining employs over 700 people of diverse skills.In the past years the company has been
performing very well which saw the company opening a new processing plant at Chabba in 2020 to add to
the already existing plant .The registered office and the marketing function are in Harare.Quality control is
a function held at South Mining under the laboratory department to ensure that the correct coal quality is
used for processing, production and to deliver to the customers to meet their needs and wants.

Locality map showing the location of South Mining Pvt Ltd

1.0 Historical Background of South Mining

 Incoperated in Zimbabwe in 2007
 Began operating beehive coke ovens in 2007
 Operated a coal processing plant (coal washing) in Hwange colliery company which was
meant to supply clean coking coal duff to the bee hive coke ovens.
 In 2010 constructed a non-recovery coke oven with capacity of 120 000 metric tonnes
per year.
 In 2011 constructed another non-recovery coke oven with capacity of 120 000meric

1
 tonnes per annum.
 In 2020 expanded its operations by opening a new plant area in stateland C in Hwange
were it constructed a recovery coke oven with capacity of 240 000 metric tonnes of coke
and 20 000 metric tonnes of crude tar and coke oven gas.
 Various Coporate social responsibility projects which include construction of a
community library to Hwange and various farming inputs to local irrigation schemes.
CORPORATE VALUES OF SOUTH MINING
Vision
To be a world class producer of quality coke and by- products.
Team Work
We value team work and the synergies that come from the ability to work together efficiently
and effectively for a common purpose.
Passion
Our core values that area applied to all areas of our organisation are: safety, transparency,
innovation, teamwork, Employee motivation and development.
All operations will be conducted in an environmentally friendly manner under the guidance
of internationally and locally acceptable standards.
Integrity
We value honesty and integrity. This is what makes us a respectable, credible corporate
citizen. South Mining has its values centered on community development, providing a safe
and structured working environment and empowering the Zimbabwean people by decreasing
the poverty datum line through employment generation.
Mission statement
To satisfy customer needs through the production of quality coke and by-products in a viable
and environmentally sustainable manner.

ORGANISATION STRUCTURE.

2
 CHAIRMAN

MANAGING DIRECTOR

OPERATIONS DIRECTOR

FINANCE ASST OP PLANT PLANT

ADMIN
&SALE DIRECTOR MANAGER A MANAGER B

SAFETY HEALTH
SALES HUMAN SNR
AND
OFFICER RESOURCES ENGINEER
ENVIRONMENT

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE MINING OPERATIONS AT SOUTH MINING.

South Mining gets coal from Hwange Colliery 3Main ,JKL and Zambezi Gas.The coal is put
in a bunker for particle size reduction.It is then taken to the washery plant where it is washed
to remove impurities such as phosphorus and sulphur.After the washing process ,the blended
coal is fed into a series of ovens which are sealed and heated at high temperatures in the
absence of oxygen.
The battery consists of 32 ovens each with two walls of 4.5 in length on either side.It is of 12.7 meters
long and each oven is 0.4 metres wide.There are four levels which make up the battery and these are the
generators ,oven walls to the top passing.There are 7 courses of fireclay brick.The battery has capacity of
producing 12.2 metres tonnes of coke per oven with a minimum coke production which is 60% of the
design capacity.
The battery operates on a five two pushing schedule meaning an oven can be pushed and charged
Volatile compounds that are collected and processed to recover combustible gases and other by

3
 products.The blended coal coming from handling plant is transported to the bunker by a loader ,then it is
transported with the help of a conveyor belt into the charging car.In the charging car ,blending of coal is
done with the help of Ram stamping of coal is done due to stamping coke of coal is produced.This coke is
pushed to the coke oven with the help of the pusher machine.The exhaust gas escapes to the atmosphere
through the chimney.

The ovens doors are opened and the glowing cake mass is discharged by the machine driving the coke
pusher into the coke quenching car.The solid carbon remaining is the coke.The empty oven is made ready
for a fresh charge.According to a properly maintained schedule,coke process is called quenching.After
quenching,the coke is sent to the stockpile for screening.

The vibrating screen is used for final size reduction at South Mining.They have a rectangular screening
surface with feed and oversize discharge at opposite ends.They perform size seperations from 90mm in
size to 10mm and are used in a variety of sizing ,grading ,scalping ,dewatering wet screening and washing
applications.They can be manufactured more than one screening deck.On multiple deck systems the
undersize falling through to the lower screen decks thus producing a range of sized fractions from a single
screen.After the screening processs the coke is sold to customers such as Zimasco, Samancor and
Makomo resources.

SAFETY HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENT

There is need to emphasize on a zero tolerance to unsafe practices due to this massive
expansion for development

Personal Protective Clothing (PPE) is required on every employee. The general PPE required
at South Mining include a hard hat, reflective vests, safety shoes, goggles, ear plugs and dust
musk. There are other PPE that is required by different departments such as gloves, safe
leggings and welding goggles, for when they are doing different tasks. A fine is charged on
someone who is not wearing the proper PPE.
The management and employees of South Mining are committed to being a sustainable and
world class producer of coal in a safe, health and loss reduction manner. The collective effort
and commitment by all in maintaining safety and health standards, procedures and values is
considered top priority.

 Make safety, health and loss control the responsibility of every employee of the company
including on and offsite contractors. All employees of the company will be held accountable
for the loss to people, property, process and environment.

4
 Ensure that a proactive position is taken to identify the potential disruptive or lossmaking
misdemeanours and corrective action instituted.
 Provide training to all employees in issues relating to safety, health and loss control.
 Conduct regular safety, health and loss control audits to ensure the above compliance with
company as well as government requirements.
 Ensure the safety, health and loss control program is sustainable at each operation and
envisages continuous improvement through research and review programs
 Provide each employee with appropriate procedures, instructions and protective equipment to
enable them to safely perform assigned tasks.
 Identify potential emergency situations and provide means to deal with them in order to
minimize loss of life and company property.

A safety talk is done each day before the beginning of the shift. It is supposed to take between
ten and fifteen minutes. Below is the FIVE point safety system which is employed at the
mine and is adhered to by everyone.
1. Check entrance and travel way to work place.
2. Are workplace and equipment in good working order?
3. Are we working safely?
4. Do an act of safety.
Shall we continue to work safely?

Topic

Optimization of the water purifying system at South Mining Washery Plant

Aim : To introduce a thickener with a reliable bed level that can work under all
environmental settling conditions and cannot be affected by density change.

:To show effects of various fine coal desliming options on a tailings thickener.

5
Objectives

-To evaluate different types of flocculent to be used.

- To establish the optimum parameters required for improving efficiency of the thickening
process.

-to analyze the ash content of the slurry after the thickening process.

-to analyze the moisture content after the thickening process.

-potential savings in operational costs.

Problem Statement

South Mining does not have a permanent water purification system for its washery plant.Over
the years since manufacture of the plant, a reverse osmosis auxiliary plant was used to clean
the water from the jig so that it could be re-used back into the system. With the need to
increase production in the washery plant, a bigger jig was installed. This led to the reverse
osmosis plant failing to clean all the water from the jigging plant. Temporary settling ponds
were created as a way of trying to clean the water. These ponds are not an ideal solution to
the problem as they allow infiltration in to the soil which may cause various environmental
problems and they are also prone to collapse since hey are made of earth. Temporary settling
ponds require frequent stoppages in order to remove settled materials. Thus there is need to
design and install a proper water purifying plant.

Justification

This project is of great importance as it will improve the sustainability and profitability of the
plant operations.It is also crucial to meet the environmental obligations of the sector and
ensure its continued economic viability in the future.

Methodology

-Settling tests on thickener’s flocculants :Magnafloc and Yangfloc N0101P.

-Flocculation.

-Sulphur analysis

-Phosphorus analysis.

6
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW
Thickening
A thickener is defined as a classifying tank of shallow depth and large diameter used to
recover water from slurry. It is a relatively cheap, high capacity process . Thickening is the
process of removing excess water using gravimetric means.it has rakes or arms rotating
within the suspension resulting in formation of thick slurry. thick slurry tests at the bottom
ready for discharge.

Purposes of a thickener

-To recover the coal fines lost during the processing of coal in the preparation plants.

-to recycle water ultimately reducing fresh water feed required as the thickener produces
clarified water that is recirculated into the plants.

-to manage wastes before discarding to the environment.

Features of a thickeners

-thickeners are made of steel , concrete or a combination of both,steel being the most
economical in sizes of less than 25m in diameter.The thickener has a central depth of 2.7 m
and a diameter of 40m.The tank bottom is often flat , while the mechanism arms are sloped
towards the central discharge, with this design, settled solids must bed in to form a false
sloping floor. Steel floors are rarely sloped to conform with the arms because of
expense.Concrete bases and sides become more common in the larger sized tanks. In many
cases the settled solids , because of particle size , tend to slump and will not form a false
bottom .In these cases the floor

Thickener components

Tanks

These are usually cylindrical and are made of steel. The base slopes up to 4.5 to 8 degrees ,80
to 140 mm though angles of up to 45 degrees are known for larger units. The tanks provides
holding time to produce settled solids and clarified liquour. The slopped bottom assists
movement of the concentrated solids towards the discharge point.

7
Feedwell

The feed wells usually carry 1cubic meters per minute and act as a buffer to energy from the
stream and are usually cylinders. They allow for flocculation by extending retention time.
Mild agitation occurs in the feed wells.The feedwell is the entry point of feed into the
thickener tank.The pulp is fed into the centre of the tank via a feedwell. A feedwell has the
main purpose of dampening the turbulence of the incoming feed so that the entry into the
thickener will be as laminar as possible. This effect is achieved by entering the feedwell
tangentially so that the centrifugal swirl distributes the feed in an even pattern below the
liquid level. Feedwells also allow for mild agitation and flocculation by extending the
retention time.

Rakes

Rakes serve to deliver sludge to central discharge and help to increase pulp density. Rakes
can be arranged to rake 1-4 times per revolution. The typical speeds are 5-8 meters per
minute.Raking Arms

They are rotating radial arms from each of which are suspended series of blades shaped so as
to rake the settled solids towards the central outlet.The blades also helps in the compaction
of settled solids particles and produce a thicker underflow.

There are two configuration of raking arms:

 Arms that rake once per revolution

 Arms that rake twice per revolution

Light Duty Applications

Arms that rake once per revolution are normally used on light duty applications.

On this arrangement the blades are staggered so that each blade moves the solids once
per cycle.These arms with staggered blades are usually used on light duty
applications.On light duty applications straight blades are used.

8
 Heavy Duty Applications

Arms that rake twice per revolution are normally used on heavy duty applications.On
this arrangement the blades of each arm overlap and moves the solids twice per
revolution.In the industry sometimes two short arms are added in 90 degrees to the
two long arms so that the inner circle of the bottom of the thickener is raked four
times per revolution.In heavy applications curved blades are usually attached to the
arms.

On abrasive applications the rakes and blades are subjected to a significant wear so it is a
good practice to increase their thickness for corrosion allowance.

The Tank and Roof

The materials used for the construction of thickener tanks are steel and concrete and
thickeners can reach diameters of 120 meters and in earthen basins up to 180 meters.The steel
tanks are commonly used in chemical process industries since they may be elevated above
ground level, allow inspection of the tank's floor for leakages and bring the underflow
slurry pumps nearer to the outlet of the discharge cone.

Steel tanks are also prefered in the industry due to their ready adaptation to corrosive
processes by rubber covering the wetted parts of the tank.

The bottom of the tanks are sloped and on smaller thickeners there is one continuous slope of
13/4:12. On larger thickeners there are normally two slopes with the external circle at 1:12
and the internal 2:12. The discharge cone's slope is always 1:1.

Roofs that cover the entire tank are sometimes used for process conditions that require to
preserve slurry temperature or to avoid the hazard of corrosive gases emitting from the
surface. Such roofs are usually made from fiberglass plates that are supported in the outer
circumference by the tank's wall and internally by the bridge. A hydraulic inverted cup seal
between the central shaft and the roof ensures that no gases are leaving to the atmosphere.
For thickeners with lifting devices the seal should by long enough to retain the gases
regardless of the arms position. In another technique that saves the cost of the roof plastic
balls are spread to float on the surface to preserve heat but its efficiency is low.

9
problem with roofs is that special covers on the circumference of the roof are required for
accessing the overflow weir and launder periodic cleaning. Likewise, the roof must be
strong enough to carry the maintenance personnel.

The Overflow Weirs

The overflow weir that surrounds the tank ensures that the flow that leaves the thickener is
distributed evenly in terms of m 3/hr/m weir length. During the first year or so differential
settling of the tank foundations may cause an uneven distribution so that the entire flow
passes over the lower part of the weir which results in high velocities and drag of fines to the
overflow launder. Therefore, it is essential to check from time to time that the weirs are in
leveled.

Underflow Pumping

There are some complications in pumping of dense underflows especially on thickeners that
handle slurries such as metallurgical concentrates, potash or phosphate and the position of the
pumps in relation to the discharge cone can be very critical. It is adviceable to position the
slurry pumps so that their suction side will be as close as possible to the cone's outlet and it is
also good practice to have two pumps, one in operation and one as stand-by.

The types of pumps generally used for underflow pumping of the thickener are centrifugal
slurry and positive displacement pumps.

There are three ways of positioning the pumps;

 For bridge and column type thickeners with tanks that are mounted on ground level
the access to the slurry pumps is trough tunnel.
 For very large column type thickeners the column is constructed as a caisson that is
submerged in the slurry so that the pumps are housed at the bottom of the chamber
and deliver the underflow upwards.
 For small thickeners, which are normally of the bridge type, the pumps are positioned
at the periphery of the tank and the suction pipe is buried or runs through a pipe
sleeve for replacement if necessary.

The methods of supporting the mechanism are:[2]

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 a) Mechanism supported on the superstructure spanning the tank.

This method is common on small thickeners of diameter less than 45m.

b) Mechanism supported on the stationery steel or concrete centre column.This method

is common on large thickeners of diameter up to 180m.

c) The cone, trench and scrappers

These three perform an action similar to the rake arms so that underflow solids can be
discharged.The cone is found at the bottom of the tank that helps to direct the settled solids
to be withdrawn through an outlet at the center.

The Overflow launder

The launder collects clarified liquor for transport to the outlet.

The rake drive

The rake drive provides driving force to move the rake arms and blades against resistance of
the thickened solids.It is also to supply driving force in order to move the rake arms and
bladder against resistance of the thickened solution.

The rake lift

The rake lift provides a means of lifting the arms out of contact with the more concentrated
solids so as to reduce the driving force demand from the rake drive. The lift will operate
while the rake arms are operating.

Classification of thickeners

Thickeners can be classified according to their rake driving mechanisms which are:

 Centrally driven

•Peripherally driven

The Central Drive Mechanisms

There are two methods of supporting the heavy drive with its shaft and raking arms(see figure
2.3 and 2.4)

 The bridge type

 The column type

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Figure 1.0 shows a column type thickener

Figure 1.1 shows a bridge type thickener

The bridge type has a superstructure that spans across the tank and is subjected vertically to
the weight of the mechanism plus any solids that accumulate within the arms truss and
horizontally to the twin forces imposed by the density of the raked underflow.

The bridge type thickeners has the following advantage:

-The thickener has the ability to give a denser and more consistency underflow concentration
with single draw of point.

-Less complicated lifting device

-Ability to transfer load to the tank periphery.

The column type has a central steel or concrete column takes vertically the reaction to the
weight of the mechanism and horizontally the torque load.

12
For tanks up to 25-45 meter diameter the bridge type is selected and for larger diameters the
column type is prefered. However, in many instances other considerations determine the
selection such as the local cost of steel versus concrete. Also selection may be influenced by
process consideration such as the handling of the dense underflow through a central discharge
cone, as in the bridge type.

The Peripheral Drive Mechanisms

The mechanism is normally used on the largest thickeners with a diameter of 200 meters .

The traction thickeners are an example of the thickeners with peripheral drive mechanism.

The thickeners make use of a central column that serves as a pivot to a rotating raking arm
that spans radially towards the periphery of the tank. The outer end of the arm has a carriage
with motorized wheels that are guided by a circumferential track and move the entire arm
structure in a circular trajectory to convey the settled solids towards the center. The bridge is
not subjected to any operational loads and serves merely as a walkway to access to the
column from the outside.

The major disadvantage a traction thickeners have is the lack of a lifting devices therefore
they cannot be used for storage.

The types of thickeners are ;

-conventional thickeners

-high rate thickeners

-paste thickeners

-rakeless ultra high thickener

Conventional thickeners

The conventional thickeners can be used with or without flocculants depending on the
application.If employed , flocculants are normally added to the feed launder or in the feed
well.Conventional Thickeners are generally applied in heavy duty applications when the
underflow density is high and substantial torques are required to convey the settled solids
from the periphery to the central outlet for pumping away.They suffer from the disadvantage
that large floor area is needed since the throughput mainly depands on the area while depth is
of minor importance. Likewise, thickeners are often used for storage to facilitate the
continuous feeding of downstream filters or centrifuges.

13
Figure 1.3 shows two main groups of conventional thickeners

Differences compared to conventional thickeners

-deep feed well.

-de -aeration of the feed .

-efficient horizontal feed distribution over entire thickeners.

-controlled bed level

-flocculant.

Paste thickeners

They can help producers eliminate the need for settling ponds and other other
structures.They are meant to archive the most highest solids concentrations possible
through gravity separation.

14
Cable thickeners

Cable thickeners has a hinged rake arm fastened at the bottom of the drive cage or centre
shaft.The hinge is designed to give simultaneous vertical and horizontal movement of the
rake arm.The rake arm is pulled by cables connected to torque or drive arm structure, which
is rigidly connected to the centre shaft at a point just below the liquid level.The rake is
designed to automatically lift when the torque developed.This design permits the rake arm to
find its own efficiency working level in the sludge where the torque balances the rake weight.

Tray Thickener

Tray thickeners are made up of series of unit thickeners mounted vertically above one
another.They operate as separate units but having a common central shaft which is utilized to
make the sets of rakes.They have an advantage of saving the space.

High Capacity Thickeners

High capacity thickeners do not have high unit area requirements and this means that they
can save space.High capacity or high rate thickeners are designed specifically to maximize
the flocculation efficiency of flocculants.They differ from conventional thickeners in the way
the feedwell is designed.Conventional thickeners can operate without flocculant thereby
making use of gravitational force inorder to settle particles while high rate thickeners cannot
work without flocculant.High rate thickeners have feedwells that are designed to disperse
flocculant thoroughly into feed end to admit the flocculated slurry into the settling zone of
the thickener withoutdestroyingthe newly formed floccules. The high rate thickener is also
characterized with a reduced residence time due to flocculation efficiency that will cause high
settling rate of particles in the thickeners.

Hi-capacityEnvirotech Thickener

The thickener has radially mounted inclined plates which are partially submerged in a slurry
blanket.The settling solids in the slurry blanket slides downwards along the inclined plates
producing plaster and more effective thickening than vertical descent.The feed enters via a
hollow drive shaft, where flocculant is added and is rapidly dispersed by staged mechanical
mixing.

15
The tailings thickener

Fig 1.4 shows the tailings thickener.

Thickener operation rules

INPUT MINUS OUTPUT equals ACCUMULATION.

Excessive accumulation results in operation problems , usually requiring shutdown and clean
out =DISASTER.

PROBLEM OR CAUSE CORRECTIVE ACTIONS

INDICATION
Thickener overflow water is Slow settling rate not enough Check settling in the feed well
either becoming clouded or is flocculant addition. and adjust flocculation adition
starting to slime over with rate to suit.
solids. Flocculant pump failure. Check pump operation.
Change over to the standby
flocculant pump.
Bed level is too high Lower the bed level by ,
increasing the underflow
output rate
Divert the thickener feed to a
bypass.

16
 Bed level lower than the Increase the bed level above
bottom of the feed well. the bottom of the feedwell
Recirculate the thickener if
required.
Thickener bed level is rising Check for cause of fault Quickly lower the bed level as
rapidly and the thickener is Insufficient force below;
grossly sliming over for Flocculant pump failure Reduce feed to thickener
example slurry is running Underflow ACV failure -Turn off the dilution water
over the overflow. Too much dilution water. -Open the underflow pinch
valve ACV to stop the
overflow , if pinch valve ACV
cannot be opened.
Inform your supervisor
Start the feed into thickener
once the fault has ben
rectified.
Thickener underflow density -Underflow pinch control -check the status of the pinch
is running below the setpoint. valve is opened too far. valve .
-The flocculant addition rate -increase the be mass which
has slowed. will close the pinch valve .
-The dilution water system is -Check the bed level position .
not controlling -if the flocculent addition rate
-No new feed into the is low and the bed level rising
thickener. then increase the flocculant
addition rate.

How the Thickening Process Is Achieved

Since thickening process utilises the principle of sedimentation, therefore this means that the
larger the density difference between the liquid and solid then the higher the efficient of the
thickening process.For effective separation between the solids from liquid ,the settling
velocity of the slowest- settling particle which is to be recovered should be higher than the
upward velocity of liquid.It has been discovered that the settling rates of particles in a fluid
depends on particle size, very fine particles settle extremely slowly and larger once settle
rapidly.This has lead to the use of other alternatives like centrifugal
sedimentation,flocculation and coagulation.

17
Coagulation

Coagulation is the directily adhesion of extremely fine colloidal particles to each other by
use of coagulants.In any given system particles exert mutual attraction known as the London
Van der waals forces and at the same time generates repulsion forces that avoids coagulation
and also retard the settlement of particles.Coagulants are electrolytes that posses an opposite
charge to the particles and applied into a system inorder to cause charge nuetralisation.This
allows the particles to come into contact and adhere as a result of molecular forces.Inorganic
salts are usually used and most frequently are positively charged and containing highly
charged cations.Lime and acid can also be used to cause coagulation.

Flocculation

Flocculation is a process which involves the formation of much more open agglomerates than
those in coagulation and depand on molecules of reagent acting as bridges between separate
suspended particles.The long-chain organic polymers which were formerly natural minerals
such as starch, gelatin,guar gum and glue and which are now increasingly synthetic materials
known as polyeletrolytes are the reagents used to form bridges.Polyeletrolytes are also
grouped as anionic,non-ionic and cationic.Inorganic salts cannot be used for this bridging

18
function.In this bridging process the polymer must be strongly adsorbed,this means there is
need to select a chemical group which has good adsorption characteristics such as amide
group.Anionic polyeletrolytes are commonly used in the industry since they have higher
molecular weight than cationic and less expensive.This anionic type have very long
molecules that allow several interparticle bridges linking a number of particles.

The factors affecting flocculation are:

-The strength of the adsorption of the polymer on the surface.

-The degree of agitaton, since agitation if not controlled result to the breaking down of flocs.

-The flock size; if big flocs are allowed to form they break thereby causing dispersion of
particles.

-The character and concentration of the electrolyte.

-The nature and preceding treatment of the ore.

-The dilution and temperature of the pulp.

-The time elapsed after inception of fllocculation.

-Critical dilution depends on the character and proportion of natural slime in the
ore ,secondarily upon the strength of flocculating agents in the solution and thirdly upon
temperature.

Selective Flocculation

Selective flocculation involves selective adsorption of only one constituents of the mixture.It
is then followed by removal of flocs of one component.This process however was not
applicable to wide range of ore type but was successful in potash,and clay ores.

Gravity Sedimentation

Gravity sedimentation is the most common used dewatering technique in mineral

processing.It is a cheaper method and involves very low shear forces thereby providing good
conditions for flocculation.

Centrifugal Sedimentation

19
Centrifugal separation refers to the settling of particles under the influence of the centrifugal
force.This type of technique involves the use of hydrocyclone and centrifuges.The use of
hydrocyclone is more attractive due to simplicity, cheapness,although it does not allow
efficiency separation since fine particles has a tendency of reporting to the overflow and
flocculation is made impossible due to high shear forces.The centrifuges as compared to the
hydrocyclone are more expensive, and complex although they have greater clarifying power
more flexible.Centrifuges are capable of achieving greater underflow solid concentrations
than hydrocyclones.

Practical principles of a thickener

•The principles underlying the free settling zone are independent of pulp depth.Alt dilutions,
above critical dilution elimination of water is a function of settling area and is independent
of pulp depth.

•The settling rates in free settling rates in the thickening zone vary directly with pulp depth ,
meaning at dilutions below critical dilution, elimination of liquid is a function of pulp
volume , being dependent on both area and depth.

•Settling rates vary with the dilution of the natural slime in the pulp , being the greatest for
high dilution and smallest for low dilutions the amount of coal occurring in the thickener.

•Settling rates increases as the temperature increases.

•Settling rates vary with the degree of flocculation of the slime particle.

The above principles furnish the basis for the solution of settling problems.The first two
principles are of direct importance in the determination by laboratory tests , of the settling
equipment required in metallurgical plants. The remaining principles enumerate the effects
of other influences upon settling operations and illustrate the importance of maintaining them
in the tests as in actual practice.

Thickener shutdown

The thickener was shut down for scheduled maintenance that occours once annually. The
student had the priviledge of seeing its design , configuration of the rakes and the drop points.
This allowed the student to have an in depth understanding of a thickener and how it carries
out its functions.

20
21
 CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Introduction

The method of investigation comprises of test works carried out both a laboratory and plant
scale .All these investigations were done in order to identify the possible ways of introducing
a thickener and establishing optimum parameters.

Experiment 1: Settling test on the thickener to compare the performance of Yangfloc

N0101P and samples of Magnafloc.

Procedure

1. A 1,282 sample of each flocculant was mixed with 2L of water and stirred for 30 minutes.

2. a 20g sample of crushed coal was mixed with the flocculant solution in a 500ml measuring
cylinder and allowed to settle for 15 minutes.

3. The level of settled solids was read per each cylinder and recorded.

4. Two of each tests were conducted per each flocculant.

Experiment 2 :Optimizing flocculent feed rate and concentration

Apparatus and reagents

-Measuring cylinder (500ml)

-Fluctuated flask (250ml)

-measuring cylinder

-water

-stopwatch

-ruler

Syringe

Coal fines (-0,5mm)

Procedure

1. Measure and add 2,5g of flocculant into a flask and fill to the mark with water and mix
thoroughly to make 1% concentration of flocculant.

2. into other flasks add 0.2 g,0.15g and 0.125g of flocculant to make 0.08%, 0.06% and

22
0.05% concentrations respectively.

3. Prepare 8 measuring cylinders each with 450ml of water and 50g of coal fines (-0.5mm).

4. Flocculant is to be dosed at 2.5ml in four cylinders with flocculent concentrations of 1%,

a.0.08%,0.06%and 0.05% respectively using a syringe.

5. Repeat step 4 using 5ml dosage in the other four cylinders.

6. First add 1% concentration at a dosage of 2.5ml and mix thoroughly then time the settling
speed at 10 seconds interval foe 60 seconds noting the change in height on the cylinder.

7. Repeat the above step for each cylinder.

Experiment 3

Sample sulphur analysis to determine the effect of reagent combination of suphur and

phosphorus.

Apparatus and reagents

-Analytical balance

-Furnace

-Silica crucible and lid

-Metal stand

Desicator with copper sulphate

Procedure

-Switch on the machine and let the temperature of the furnace raise up to 1050.

-Perform blank analysis .

-The sample should not exceed 52mg.

-Spread the sample evenly over the surface of the crucible and cover with a thin layer of

23
tungsten oxide.

-Place the boat crucible onto the carrier boat .

-Adjust the airflow rate to 1000ml/m.

-Enter the mass of the sample in three digits and press OK.

-Read the results after completion of analysis.

Experiment 4

Wet phosphorus analysis to determine the effect of particle size on sulfur and

phosphorus.

Procedure

Apparatus

-Hot plate .

-Analytical balance .

-Sprectrophometer (Shimadzu UV Vis).

-50ml Teflon beakers.

-5ml pipetes

-50ml volumetric flasks.

-Pestle..

Reagents

-Ammonium molydate solution (6%)

24
-5M sulphuric acid.

-Antimony pottasium tartrate .

-Abscorbic acid (5%).

-Dissolve 15g of ammonium molybdate in distilled water and make up to 250mls .

-Measure out 278 ml’s of concentrated sulphuric acid .

-Weigh out 0,34 g of the tartare and dissolve in 250 mls of distilled water .

-Dissolve 0.5 g of the acid in 10 ml of distilled water . prepare fresh daily.

Reagent solution mixture

Mix well the following in the given order ;

-25 ml of 5M sulfuric acid.

-10ml of 6% ammonium molybdate solution.

-10ml of 5% ascorbic acid.

-5ml of antimony potassium titrate.

Cleaning reagent

-Dissolve 1g of potassium dichromate in 200ml of concentrated sulphuric acid.

Procedure

-Grind the ash in an agate mortar with a pestle to pass 63 micron sieve .

-Weigh 0.05g of the ground ash as well as the standard ash , into separate 50 ml Teflon

beakers .

25
- Following this , add 2ml of 5M suphhuric acid and 2ml of HF.

-Digest the ash for 30 minutes on a hot plate until HF has been removed to white fumes of

sulphuric acid.

-Add 0,5 ml of 5 M sulphuric acid and evaporate to white fumes for 2 minutes then.

remove and cool.

-Add 20 ml distilled water and digest again for 30 minutes.

- Carry out a blank.

-Pipete out 10ml of each of the solution A’ s procedure including the blank and ash

standard.

Add 5ml of the freshly prepared reagent mixture .

-After 20 minutes , read the ABS (absorbance) .

-Use the 10 mm cell for all readings .

26
 CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Experiment 1 results

The table shows the different types of flocculant used and the settling rates obtained

Sample code Level of settled Average (ml)

solids(ml)

Magnafloc 336 40 39.5

39

Magnafloc 4240 9 9.5

10

Magnafloc 156 12 11
10

Magnafloc 5250 5 6
7

Magnafloc M1011 16 15.5

15

N101P 12 13
Yang floc 14

27
28
29
30
31
 CHAPTER 5

Conclusion and Recommendations

Conclusion

It is important to look at the process of sulphur and hazardous air pollutant (HAP) trace
element emission reduction through chemical means and understand that the additional costs
will be significant. Through the use of coal beneficiation scrubbing costs can be reduced. The
mineral matter in coal is very significant to many different coal utilization processes. The
maximum utilization of the remaining resources will have to entail highly efficient separation
of coal and minerals down to zero microns. To achieve this objective sharp separation at
coarse sizes will have to be followed by equally sharp medium size separation followed by
optimized fines and ultra-fines beneficiation.an increased yield factor in all separation areas
must be taken into account. The higher the yield, the more tons produced. This requires
accurate operational control, especially in terms of density. However, product quality must
not be compensated and hence quality control remains very important

Recommendations

From the results obtained, it is clear that the consideration of bringing into full production the
use of Coal Chemical cleaning method through thickening is viable and will reduce losses as
Low-Grade Coal will be upgraded. The investigation brought in positive results towards
upgrading Low-Grade Coal to High-Grade Coal by eliminating unwanted chemical material
in the end improve the coal quality and quantity contributing significantly to the output
production and in environmentally friendly means. In finding use of these Low-Grade Coal
previously deemed as discards, it is now clear by this beneficiation process the investigation
will contribute greatly in the Coal industry.

32
References

1. 911 Metallurgist ,How a thickener works .

2. IEA, (2012) Coal information. International Energy Agency – Coal Industry Advisory

Board, Paris Cedex.

3. Yamauchi, Y., Akiyama, K. (2013) Innovative zero-emission coal gasification power

generation project. Energy Procedia, 37, 6579-6786.

Onal, Y., Ceylan, K. (1995) Effects of treatments on the mineral matter and acidic functional
group contents of Turkish lignites. Fuel, 74, 972-977.

4.Mining Pedia (thickening basics ) .

33