GEOGRAPHY

BIOSPHERE
Soils
• Soil and Life • Pedogenesis: The Process • Soil Erosion & Degradation
• Defining Soil and Pedology • Soil Types & Characteristics

Soil Erosion & Degradation

• Erosion of the soil means loss of topsoil, it is carried out by natural agents like rainfall, river, glaciers, wind.
• Slopes tend to move soil down either very slowly as in soil creep or very rapidly as in landslides.
• Problem of “degradation”. Degradation means lateritisation, alkalisation and salinisation of the soil.
• Anthropogenic activities including deforestation, overgrazing, shifting cultivation, faulty methods of
cultivation are a leading cause of soil erosion and degradation.

Soil Degradation
• 33% of Global Soils are moderately to highly degraded.
• Most significant threats to Global Soils are:
1. Erosion
2. Loss of Organic Carbon
3. Nutrient Imbalance
4. Soil Sealing
• Way ahead
1. Sustainable Soil Management
2. Use of Scientific and Local Knowledge
3. Proven Approaches and Technology

Soil Erosion In India

Ravine Erosion
• In India, there are 4 major regions affected by the gullies and ravines, and they are:

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1. Yamuna-Chambal ravine zone 3. The Punjab Siwalik foothills zone

2. Gujarat ravine zone 4. Chotanagpur zone
• Apart from the above major ravine regions, substantial ravine erosion is found in Mahanadi valley, Upper
Narmada, and Tapi Valley.
Desertification: land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various
factors, including climatic variations and human activities (around Thar desert, rain shadow regions like
parts of Karnataka, Telangana etc.)
Waterlogging: (Punjab- Haryana Plain)
Salinity & Alkalinity (excessively irrigated regions of Punjab, Haryana, Karnataka etc.)
Soil Sealing: Encroachment of agricultural land due to urban and transport development.

Lecture Outcomes
• Biome Concept • Foerst Biome Types & Characteristics
• Natural Vegetation Concept • Forests of the world : Data and Distribution
• Forest as a Natural Vegetation type • Deforestation

Roles of Forest

World Forests & Sdgs

Forests and trees contribute towards achieving 28 targets
within ten SDGs of the 2030 Agenda.
• SDG1. End poverty in all its forms everywhere
• SDG2. End hunger, achieve food security and improved
nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture
• SDG5. Achieve gender equality and empower all
women and girls

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• SDG6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all
• SDG7. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all
• SDG8. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment
and decent work for all
• SDG11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable
• SDG12. Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns
• SDG13. Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts
• SDG15. Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage
forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss

Global Forest Goal Report 2021

• Prepared by the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations, this report
provides an initial overview of progress of Goals and targets contained within the United Nations
Strategic Plan for Forests 2030.
• An estimated 1.6 billion people, or 25% of the global population, rely on forests for their
subsistence needs, livelihoods, employment, and income.
• At the same time, climate change is jeopardizing the resilience of forest ecosystems and their ability to
support ecosystem services worldwide.

Status of World Forest

• Total Forest Area: According to the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 (FRA 2020) report,
the world’s total forest area is 4.06 billion hectares (bha), which is 31% of the total land area.
• This area is equivalent to 0.52 hectares per person.
• Top Countries in Forest Cover - the Russian Federation, Brazil, Canada, the United States of America
and China constituted more than 54% of the world’s forests.

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Equitorial Rain Forest

Looking from air they are continuous mass of trees, broken only by river courses.
Trees are tall with straight trunks and branch only at the top.

Equitorial Rain Forests

• The Equatorial Region has uniformly hot and wet climatic conditions throughout the year. There is no
dry season during the year.
• Annual range of temperature is low.
• Seasonal contrasts are minimum.
• The combination of high temperature and high humidity makes the climate unfavourable for sustained
human effort.
• The region has soils of low fertility as they get leached by heavy rainfall.
• The natural vegetation consists of tropical evergreen forests containing a variety of species.

• Tall hardwood trees form a continuous cover at a high level. There are smaller trees forming a second
layer. The ground is roofed with ferns and herbaceous plants which can tolerate shade.

• Because the trees have large canopies, they cut out most of the sunlight the undergrowth is not dense.

Tropical Rain Forests

On this Planet they are the ones with...
1. The heaviest Rainfall
2. The highest Humidity
3. The densest Forests
4. The greatest Biodiversity
5. The largest Reserves of Hardwood
6. A winterless Climate
7. Very little Seasonality
8. The most uniform temperature during the year
9. The most diverse and productive forest ecosystems
10. The lowest diurnal and annual temperature Range

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Tropical Deciduous Forests

• This region includes eastern margins of continents between 100N to 300N and 100S to 300S.
• Parts of this region such as India, South East Asia, East Africa and Northern Australia experience a typical
monsoonal climate having seasonal reversal of winds.
• In these areas, Trade winds prevail in winter and Monsoon winds blowing from the opposite direction
prevail during summer. Other areas such as Eastern Brazil and Central America and Natal Coast of South
Africa experience trade winds throughout the year.
• Rainfall is generally moderate except in coastal regions and mountainous tracts.
• The natural vegetation is Tropical Deciduous forests. These forest yield valuable timber and are prized
for their durable hardwood. Amongst these Teak is the best known.

Tropical Deciduous Forests

• This region includes eastern margins of continents between 100N to 300N and 100S to 300S.
• Parts of this region such as India, South East Asia, East Africa and Northern Australia experience a typical
monsoonal climate having seasonal reversal of winds.
• In these areas, Trade winds prevail in winter and Monsoon winds blowing from the opposite direction
prevail during summer. Other areas such as Eastern Brazil and Central America and Natal Coast of South
Africa experience trade winds throughout the year.
• Rainfall is generally moderate except in coastal regions and mountainous tracts.
• The natural vegetation is Tropical Deciduous forests. These forest yield valuable timber and are prized for
their durable hardwood. Amongst these Teak is the best known.

Temperate Forests
• This region is under the influence of Westerly winds throughout the year.
• As these winds blow from warm oceans towards the coast, winters are warmer and annual rainfall is
higher than in the cool East Margin region.
• Rainfall is of cyclonic origin and occurs throughout the year with a maximum in winter.
• Deciduous forests is the natural vegetation of this region. Coniferous forests are found on the hill slopes.
• A long history of human occupance of these wooded regions has reduced many forests to tiny remnants.
Dense forests are now found only on mountains and highlands, these are mostly Coniferous.

Boreal Forests
• This region occurs as a broad belt in Europe, Asia and North America between the Midlatitude Grassland
region in the South and Polar Tundra in the North. The region has short warm summer and long cold winter.
• Coniferous forests occur extensively. The trees are evergreen and the needle-shaped leaves prevent loss
of moisture by transpiration.
• Taiga is a Russian word for coniferous forest, which is the predominant natural vegetation of the Siberian climate.
• Pine, fir, spruce and larch are the four major species in the coniferous forests. Among them larch is the
only deciduous variety found towards the warmer southern margin of the Taiga.
• That the conifers are so called because of their conical shape with sloping branches, an adaptation to
ward off snow.

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FORESTS OF THE WORLD

Global Forest Resources Assessment -2020
• Since 1946, FAO has been monitoring L SEP the world’s forest resources through periodic assessments
conducted L SEP in cooperation with its member countries.
• According to the report, the world has a total forest area of 4.06 billion hectares (ha), which is 31
percent of the total land area. This area is equivalent to 0.52 ha per person– although forests are not
distributed equally among the world’s peoples or geographically. The tropical domain has the largest
proportion of the world’s forests (45 percent), followed by the boreal, temperate and subtropical domains.
• More than half (54 percent) of the world’s forests is in only five countries – the Russian Federation,
Brazil, Canada, the United States of America L SEP and China

Distribution
• The Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA), coordinated by FAO, found that the world’s forest area
decreased from 31.6 percent of global land area to 30.6 percent between 1990 and 2015, but that the
pace of loss has slowed in recent years
• Forests are distributed across the globe.
• 31% percent of Earth’s total forest area is found in Asia (including Asian Russia),
• 21% in South America,
• 17% in Africa,
• 17% in North and Central America,
• 9% in Europe, and
• 5% in Oceania.
• Globally, 5% of forests are plantations generally used for commercial purposes.

Deforestation
Deforestation continues, but at a lower rate: Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020

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Causes of Forest Loss

• Fire is a prevalent forest disturbance in the tropics
• Forests face many disturbances that can adversely affect their health and vitality and reduce their ability
to provide a full range of goods and ecosystem services.
• About 98 million ha of forest were affected by fire in 2015; this was mainly in the tropical domain,
where fire burned about 4 percent of the total forest area in that year.
• More than two-thirds of the total forest area affected was in Africa and South America.
• Insects, diseases and severe weather events damaged about 40 million ha of forests in 2015, mainly
in the temperate and boreal domains.

Global Forest Resources Assessment -2020

• The world has lost 178 million ha of forest since 1990, which is an area about the size of Libya.
• The rate of net forest loss declined from 7.8 million ha per year in the L SEP decade 1990–2000 to 5.2
million ha per year in 2000–2010 and 4.7 million ha per year in 2010–2020.
• Africa had the largest annual rate of net forest loss in 2010–2020, at 3.9 million ha, followed by
South America, at 2.6 million ha. The rate of net forest loss has increased in Africa in each of the three
decades since 1990. It has declined substantially in South America, however, to about half the rate in
2010–2020 compared with 2000–2010.
• Asia had the highest net gain of forest area in 2010–2020, followed by Oceania and Europe.
Nevertheless, both Europe and Asia recorded substantially lower rates of net gain in 2010–2020 than in
2000–2010. Oceania experienced net losses of forest area in the decades 1990–2000 and 2000–2010.

Global Fra 2020

The Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) reports on the status and
trends of the world’s forest resources.
• It is led by the Forestry Department of the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

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• The FRA reports the extent of the world’s forest area as well as other variables, including land tenure and
access rights, sustainable forest management (SFM), legal and institutional frameworks for forest
conservation, and sustainable use.
The deforestation rate globally declined between 2015 and 2020, according to the Global Forest Resources
Assessment, 2020. This decline is a result of sustainable management measures worldwide.

2021 Declaration on Forests

• At the 26th Conference of Parties
(CoP26) to the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) in Glasgow, 141
countries got together to sign
the Declaration on Forests and Land
Use (or the Deforestation
Declaration).
• These countries, which represented
over 90 per cent of forests across
the world, committed to “halt and
reverse forest loss and land degradation by 2030 while delivering sustainable development and promoting
an inclusive rural transformation”.
• The signatories committed $19 billion in private and public funds to this end.
• India was among the few countries that did not sign the declaration. According to official sources quoted
in the media, India had concerns about the linkage the declaration makes between deforestation,
infrastructure development and trade.
India’s palm oil imports are already linked to deforestation, biodiversity loss and land conflicts in Southeast Asia.
Will the same pattern be repeated in India’s North East?
“any commitment to the environment and climate change should not involve any reference to trade... as India is
a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO), any trade-related matter should only be looked into by the
WTO”.

Boreal Forests
• This region occurs as a broad belt in Europe, Asia and North America between the Midlatitude Grassland
region in the South and Polar Tundra in the North. The region has short warm summer and long cold
winter.
• Coniferous forests occur extensively. The trees are evergreen and the needle-shaped leaves prevent loss
of moisture by transpiration.
• Taiga is a Russian word for coniferous forest, which is the predominant natural vegetation of the Siberian
climate.
• Pine, fir, spruce and larch are the four major species in the coniferous forests. Among them larch is the
only deciduous variety found towards the warmer southern margin of the Taiga.
• That the conifers are so called because of their conical shape with sloping branches, an adaptation to
ward off snow.

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 GEOGRAPHY

Distribution
• The Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA), coordinated by FAO, found that the world’s forest area
decreased from 31.6 percent of global land area to 30.6 percent between 1990 and 2015, but that the
pace of loss has slowed in recent years
• Forests are distributed across the globe.
• 31% percent of Earth’s total forest area is found in Asia (including Asian Russia),
• 21% in South America,
• 17% in Africa,
• 17% in North and Central America,
• 9% in Europe, and
• 5% in Oceania.
• Globally, 5% of forests are plantations generally used for commercial purposes.

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FOREST LOSS & DEFORESTATION

Deforestation continues, but at a lower rate: Global Forest Resources Assessment-2020
Global Forest Resources Assessment -2020
• The world has lost 178 million ha of forest since 1990, which is an area about the size of Libya.
• The deforestation rate globally declined between 2015 and 2020, according to the Global Forest
Resources Assessment, 2020. This decline is a result of sustainable management measures worldwide.
• The rate of net forest loss declined from 7.8 million ha per year in the L SEP decade 1990–2000 to 5.2
million ha per year in 2000–2010 and 4.7 million ha per year in 2010–2020.
• Africa had the largest annual rate of net forest loss in 2010–2020, at 3.9 million ha, followed by
South America, at 2.6 million ha. The rate of net forest loss has increased in Africa in each of the three
decades since 1990. It has declined substantially in South America, however, to about half the rate in
2010–2020 compared with 2000–2010.
• Asia had the highest net gain of forest area in 2010–2020, followed by Oceania and Europe.
Nevertheless, both Europe and Asia recorded substantially lower rates of net gain in 2010–2020 than in
2000–2010. Oceania experienced net losses of forest area in the decades 1990–2000 and 2000–2010.
Other Causes of Forest Loss
• Fire is a prevalent forest disturbance in the tropics
• About 98 million ha of forest were affected by fire in 2015; this was mainly in the tropical domain,
where fire burned about 4 percent of the total forest area in that year.
• More than two-thirds of the total forest area affected was in Africa and South America.
• Insects, diseases and severe weather events damaged about 40 million ha of forests in 2015, mainly
in the temperate and boreal domains.
2021 Declaration on Forests
• At the 26th Conference of Parties (CoP26) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) in Glasgow, 141 countries got together to sign the Declaration on Forests and Land
Use (or the Deforestation Declaration).
• These countries, which represented over 90 per cent of forests across the world, committed to “halt
and reverse forest loss and land degradation by 2030 while delivering sustainable development
and promoting an inclusive rural transformation”.
India’s palm oil imports are already linked to deforestation, biodiversity loss and land conflicts in Southeast Asia.
Will the same pattern be repeated in India’s North East?
“Any commitment to the environment and climate change should not involve any reference to trade ... as India is
a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO), any trade-related matter should only be looked into by the
WTO”.

Desert Biome
• Tropical deserts are located on the western margins of continents in the Trade wind belt.
• Annual precipitation is generally less than 25 cm in most of the region.
• Clear skies favour free passage of insolation during day-time and outgoing radiation from the earth
during the night. Therefore, the diurnal range of temperature is quite high.

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• Soils are sandy with saline deposits on the surface caused by evaporation.
• Thorny scrub and bushes which’ are drought resistant occur in patches here and there.
• In the oases, date-palm and other trees may be grown and small areas may also be cultivated.
• Mid-Latitude deserts are mainly located in the continental interior plateaus and basins.
• This continentality results in scanty rainfall and greater extremes of temperature. Tibet and Gobi are
typical examples.
• The region receives scanty rainfall as the interior location surrounded by high mountains prevents inflow
of moist air.
• Interior location also results in greater extremes of temperature between summer and winter.
• Light snowfall occurs in winter.
• Mid-latitude deserts are inhabited by pastoral nomads who migrate in search of pastures.

Grassland Biome
Tropical Grasslands
• The tropical grassland regions occur extensively in Africa as a belt around the Equatorial region.
Other areas are parts of Brazilian plateau and Orinoco basin in South America and Northern Australia.
• This region lies in the interior of continents in the tropical belt.
• Therefore, the region has moderate rainfall and experiences greater annual range of temperature.
• Rainfall mainly occurs in the short summer season with a long dry season.
• Coarse tall grass which grows to a height of about three metres is the typical vegetation.
• The tropical grassland has been known as “the big game country” as carnivorous animals like lion,
leopard and tiger abound in this region.

Temperate Grasslands
• This region lies in the interior of continents and therefore, receives low rainfall.
• Interior location is also responsible for high annual range of temperature between warm summer and
cold winter.
• Rainfall occurs as a result of convectional ascent of air during summer.
• The natural vegetation is predominantly short grasses. The grasslands are known by different local names.
They include the Steppes of Eastern Europe and Central Asia, the Prairies of North America, the Pampas
of Argentina, the Veld of South Africa and the Downs of Australia.
• Owing to low rainfall and cold winter, trees are generally absent.

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Grasslands of The World

Savanna Grassland & Park Landscape

Temperate Grassland

Tundra Biome

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Arctic Tundra
• Arctic tundra is located in the
northern hemisphere, encircling
the north pole and extending
south to the coniferous forests of
the taiga.
• The arctic is known for its cold,
desert-like conditions. The growing
season ranges from 50 to 60 days.
• The average winter temperature is -34°C (-30°F), but the average summer temperature is 3-12°C (37
54°F) which enables this biome to sustain life.

Tundra
• Greenland is an example of large landmass in north Polar region having permanent ice sheets.
• During the short summer season, the fringes of the ice caps melt exposing the land along the coast. The
sub-soil remains permanently frozen.
• During summer, temperature does not exceed 100C. Precipitation is low and occurs as snowfall during winter.
• In some places a distinct tree line, coinciding approximately with the 100C (500F) isotherm of the warmest
month (the tree survival line), separates the Tundra from the Coniferous Forests.
• The short growing season of about three months permits the growth of flowering plants and grasses.
• Tundra type of vegetation such as mosses, lichens and sedges occur in scattered patches. These provide
pastures for reindeer.
• Besides reindeer, wolves, foxes, musk-ox and seal are other animals found in this region.
• Breeding and raising of fur-bearing animals is the most important occupation of the local people of Tundra.

Alpine Tundra
• Alpine tundra is located on mountains throughout the world at high altitude where trees cannot grow.
• The growing season is approximately 180 days. The nighttime temperature is usually below freezing.

• Unlike the arctic tundra, the soil in the alpine is well drained.

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Polar Ice Caps

Ice Caps
• Antarctic is the greatest single stretch of ice-cap where the layers of permanent ice are as thick as
1800 metres!! Contributed by this thickness, it has the highest mean elevation of 1846 metres which is
twice as high as the 2nd ranking Asia with oly 923 metres.
• Ice cold winds called Blizzards in Canada, reaching velocities over 200 km/hr are common in polar areas
and Antarctica happens to be the windiest of all continents !!
• The continent of Antarctica in south Polar region is covered by thick permanent ice sheets.
• Penguins are the familiar birds of Antarctica.

Tundra & Ice Caps

The polar world lies on the colder extreme of the Equatorial – Polar Continuum and therefore, they are the
ones with...
1. The heaviest snowfall 11. The finest fur bearing animals
2. The lowest mean diurnal and annual temperature 12. The largest fur farms in the Tundra region
3. The least Biodiversity of both Plants & Animals 13. The poorest drainage
4. The lowest Biological productivity 14. The shortest growing season
5. The least Bacterial Activity 15. The longest days during summers
6. The most Germ-free Environment 16. The longest nights during winters
7. The largest continental glaciers 17. Not a single tree(lies beyond the tree line!)
8. The thickest ice sheets and caps 18. Regions lying beyond the Arctic and Antarctic circles
9. The lowest Biomass 19. The coldest deserts (the greatest heat deficit regions)
10. The slowest nutrient cycling 20. The least density of population

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Coral Reef
Coral reefs are built by coral polyps as they secrete layers of calcium carbonate beneath their bodies.

Corals have a set range of conditions that they need in order to survive.
• Clean Sediment Free Salty Water
D Most reef-building corals depend upon zooxanthellae (tiny little algae that grow inside of them) to
photosynthesize and provide food. If the water becomes cloudy or murky, or if corals are covered in
sediment, the sunlight can’t get to the zooxanthellae and the corals lose that important food source.
• Warm Water
D Most hard corals prefer water temperatures that range between 23° and 29° Celsius, though some
can tolerate temperatures as low as 20°C and as high as 32°C.
• Healthy Wildlife Population
D Herbivores like parrotfish and sea turtles graze on algae and help keep algae populations under
control. When herbivore populations decline, coral reefs can quickly become overtaken with algae.

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 GEOGRAPHY

Coral bleaching occurs when corals are stressed by alterations to their living conditions – temperature, light,
nutrients, etc. – and so then expel the symbiotic algae living in their tissues, causing them to ‘bleach’ by turning
white or pale.
While not always fatal, bleaching makes coral far less likely to survive as, without the algae, the coral loses its
major food source and is more susceptible to disease.

Mangroves

Mangroves are salt tolerant plant communities found in tropical and sub- tropical intertidal regions of the world.
Such areas are characterized by high rainfall (between 1,000 to 3,000 mm) and temperature (ranging between
26°C-35°C). Mangrove species exhibit a variety of adaptations in morphology, anatomy and physiology to survive
in water logged soils, high salinity and frequent cyclonic storms and tidal surges. Mangroves are important
refuges of coastal bio-diversity and also act as bio-shields against extreme climatic events. Large populations,
primarily rural, depend on Mangrove ecosystems for a wide variety of biomass dependent livelihoods.
Biotic pressure and natural calamities play a major role in negatively impacting Mangrove ecosystems. Growing
land reclamation for agriculture and industrialization along the coastlines and discharge of untreated domestic
sewage and industrial effluents are damaging to these forests. Upstream activities related to river training and
natural erosion and accretion also have an affect on the health of Mangroves since an adequate ecological flow
in the rivers is essential for flushing of the Mangroves of silt and other wastes. Many studies have highlighted
these problems and intensive conservation efforts are needed to ensure the survival of these sensitive ecosystems.

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Role of Mangroves Mangrove’s Coastal Role

Mangroves: Significance and Threats

• Mangroves are an important protection against climate change as they sequester up to five times more
carbon than other forests, area for area.
• They protect coastlines against flooding and tsunamis, and provide a vital habitat for marine animals,
especially crabs, shrimp and juvenile fish.
• The reasons for the decrease in the mangrove cover may be:
• Grazing by domestic cattle and exploitation of mangrove woods for fuel and timber.
• The neo-tectonic movement of river courses.
• Abatement of upstream freshwater discharges due to construction of dams and reservoirs.
• Rapid trend of reclamation of mangrove forests for habitations.
• Pollutant discharges from cities and industries etc.

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 GEOGRAPHY

Status of Mangrove Cover Worldwide

As per Global Forest Resource Assessment, 2020 (FRA 2020), world over, 113 countries have Mangrove forests
covering an estimated 14.79 million hectares. The largest Mangrove area is reported in Asia (5.55 million hectares),
followed by Africa (3.24 million hectares), North and Central America (2.57 million hectares) and South America
(2.13 million hectares). Oceania has reported the smallest area of Mangroves (1.30 million hectares). More than 40
percent of the total area of Mangroves was reported to be in just four countries: Indonesia (19 percent of the
total), Brazil (9 percent), Nigeria (7 percent) and Mexico (6 percent).'

Conservation of Mangroves
In most countries, Mangrove ecosystems face constant pressure due to increasing human population in coastal
areas and the rising demand for land, timber, fodder, fuel-wood and other non- wood forest products.
Appropriate management regimes are germane to effective conservation of Mangroves.
Mangroves are repositories of rich biodiversity. According to Champion & Seth Classification (1968), Mangroves
are included in Type Group-4 Littoral & Swamp Forests and are covered under 4A/L1Littoral forest, 4B/TS1
Mangrove scrub, 4B/TS2 Mangrove forest, 4B/TS3 Saltwater mixed forest (Heritiera) and 4B/TS4 Brackish water
mixed forest (Heritiera) types.
Important species of Mangrove ecosystems in India include Avicennia officinalis, Rhizophora mucronata,
Sonneratia alba, Avicennia alba, Bruguiera cylindrica, Heritiera littoralis, Phoenix paludosa, Morinda citrifolia &
Ceriops tagal.
Sunderban, located in the northern Bay of Bengal is the world's largest single patch of Mangrove Forests. Spread
over approximately 10,000 sq km, in Bangladesh and India, Sundarban is the first Mangrove forest in the world,
which was brought under scientific management, as early as in 1892. Appreciating the importance of Mangroves,
the Government of India set up a National Mangroves Committee in 1976 to advise the Government on issues
related to conservation and development of Mangroves in the country. The Committee emphasized the need to
conduct a survey of the extent of existing Mangrove areas within the country. Subsequently, the government
formulated a scheme for Mangrove conservation and protection.

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PYQ 2021
Q. “Leaf litter decomposes faster than in any other biome and as a result, the soil surface is often
almost bare. Apart from trees, the vegetation is largely composed of plant forms that reach
up into the canopy vicariously, by climbing the trees or growing as epiphytes, rooted on the
upper branches of trees.” This is the most likely Description of :
(a) Coniferous forest
(b) Dry deciduous forest
(c) Mangrove forest
(d) Tropical rain forest

Q. The Black cotton soil of India has been formed due to the weathering of
(a) Brown forest soil
(b) Fissure volcanic rock
(c) Granite and schist
(d) Shale and limestone

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