Polyploidy – Origin, types, effects, importance & its application
Not all plant species are diploids. In fact, 75% of all angiosperms are polyploids, which are
characterized by having more than 2 sets of chromosomes in their somatic cells.
Plant species with 3 (or) more genomes are Polyploidy.
The basic set of chromosomes undergoes multiplications.
E.g., in Chrysanthemum basic set is x = 9. Its species & hybrids show multiple of 9, such as
18, 27, 36, 45.
In Nicotiana & Solanum basic set is x = 12 & multiple of somatic chromosome numbers are
24, 48 & 72.
In Triticum, it is x = 7 & multiples are 14, 21, 42.
In banana – Musa sapientum (3x = 33), polyploidy is quite frequent.
On the other hand, barley & beet, the diploid is maintained (14 in barley, 18 in beet).
Origin of Polyploidy:
Polyploidy may arise either by abnormal mitosis (or) by abnormal meiosis.
(i) Origin of Polyploidy by abnormal mitosis:
Polyploidy may arise if the chromosomes of a dividing cell fail to separate (or) cell division
stops after the duplication of chromosome. The cell thus produced is with double number of
chromosomes than the diploid parent cell.
If such tetraploidy occurs:
(a) in the zygote, a tetraploid plant may directly originate
(b) in a group of cells at the shoot apical region, (or) in the single apical initial, a tetraploid
shoot originate.
The tetraploid shoots on maturity may form flowers with diploid gametes & ultimately the
seeds produced will develop tetraploid plants. In case of vegetatively reproducing plants,
tetraploid shoots may develop into tetraploid plants directly.
(ii) Origin of Polyploidy by abnormal meiosis:
The homologous chromosomes synapse (align) & prepare for normal reduction division, but
due to some reasons, these may fail to occur. Therefore, daughter cell receives all the
chromosomes in the restitution nucleus which undergoes 2nd division & produces 2 diploid
daughter cells which form diploid gametes.
When these diploid gametes unite with the normal haploid gametes, triploids are produced
(or) if fuse with each other, tetraploids are formed.
Types of Polyploidy:
i) Auto-Polyploidy,
ii) Allopolyploids, &
iii) Segmental allopolyploids
(i) Auto-Polyploidy:
Auto-Polyploidy occurs when the same genome is duplicated, i.e., the same basic set of
chromosomes is multiplied. For instance, if a diploid species has two similar sets of chromo-
some or genomes (AA), an auto-triploid will have 3 similar genomes (AAA) & an auto-
tetraploid will have 4 such genomes (AAAA).
Auto-triploids are known in watermelon, banana, sugar beet, tomato, grapes;
Auto-tetraploids are common in rye, corn, red clover, snapdragon and Allium tuberosum.
(ii) Allopolyploids:
Polyploidy may also result from doubling of chromosome number in hybrid which is derived
from 2 (or) more distinctly d/f species. This brings 2 (or more) d/f sets of chromosome in
hybrid. The doubling of chromosomes in the hybrid, which gives rise to a Polyploidy, is
called an allopolyploid.
An allopolyploid in which a sterile hybrid (AB) originating out of the combination of 2 d/f
species, undergoes duplication of chromosome set, is known as amphidiploid (AABB).
Raphanobrassica is a classical example of amphidiploidy. In 1927, Karpechenko, a Russian
scientist, reported a cross between Raphanus sativus (2n = 18) and Brassica oleracea (2n =
18) to produce hybrids which were completely sterile.
This sterility was due to lack of chromosome pairing, since there is no homology between
genomes from Raphanus sativus & Brassica oleracea. Among these sterile hybrids, certain
fertile plants were found. On cytological examination, these fertile plants were found to have
2n = 36 chromosomes.
Of the allopolyploids, amphidiploid hybrids containing two sets of each species are of special
importance because they are usually fertile, occur rather widely among angiosperms in
nature, afford clues to the relationship of certain species, and open a new path to the improve-
ment of cultivated plants.
(iii) Segmental Allopolyploids:
In some allopolyploids the d/f genomes that are present are not quite different from one
another, i.e., having partial homology with each other. Consequently, in these Polyploidy ,
chromosomes from d/f genomes do pair together to some extent. This means that segments of
chromosomes & not the whole chromosome is homologous.
Such allopolyploids are called segmental allopolyploids. These chromosomes are partially
homologous & not completely homologous with each other. It is also believed that most of
the naturally occurring Polyploidy are neither true auto-Polyploidy nor true allopolyploids.
Solanum tuberosum is the best example of segmental allopolyploid.
Induction of Polyploidy:
For induction of polyploidy, 2 strategies are adopted:
(i) Prevention of the halving of the chromosome number at meiosis &
(ii) Suppression of chromosome separation at mitosis.
Both methods have yielded positive results.
(a) Temperature treatment:
An important means to double the chromosome number is the treatment of ordinary
vegetative cell or zygote by various external agents. One method is to expose the fertilized
egg cell to a heat shock (40-45°C) at the time of its first division. A low but regular
percentage of the seeds obtained in this way give rise to auto-tetraploids.
(b) Radiation:
Polyploidy may be induced in plants by exposing their certain parts, such as vegetative buds
& flower buds, to radiations of shorter wavelengths, ultraviolet rays. X-rays, gamma-rays.
Irradiation increases the rate of cell division and also causes the multiplication of
chromosome number (somatic doubling of chromosomes).
(c) Injury:
When the meristematic zones of a plant are injured, the cells at the points of injury grow
rapidly and form a callus. Callus growth is enhanced by a chemical substance named
coumarin which also brings about somatic doubling of chromosomes. Vegetative buds
generally developing from callus tissue are Polyploidy in nature. From injured parts of
tomato plants, it is possible to produce tetraploid plants.
(d) Regeneration in vitro:
Polyploidy is a common feature in the cells of cultured tissue in vitro. Some of the plants
regenerated from the callus or suspension culture may be found to be Polyploidy. Polyploidy
have been developed from callus cultures of Nicotiana, Datura, rice and several other species.
(e) Chemical treatment:
A number of chemicals are now known which induce polyploidy in plants. Important among
them are colchicine, 8-hydroxyquinoline, nitrous oxide, chloral hydrate, some narcotics and
alkaloids,.
Colchicine (C22O6N) is the best chemical for this purpose.
Colchicine is obtained from the extract of seeds & corms of Colchicum autumnale.
Effects of Polyploidy:
With regard to external characters, auto-tetraploids are characterized by a certain degree of
giganticism – stems, leaves, flowers & seeds having greater dimensions than in the original
diploids. Moreover, stomatal size shows an increase.
These changes, which are often very striking & therefore, of great importance for the
production of new types of ornamental plants, are primarily due to the fact that the cells are
considerably larger in the tetraploids. In general, doubling of the chromosome number leads
to an increase in the size of the various organs & in many cases, but certainly not always, to
an increase in the size of the entire plant.
It should be stressed as well, that primarily the tetraploids are often weaker. Moreover,
meiotic behaviour in polyploids, due to sudden increase in chromosome number leading to
high gametic sterility.
Chromosome doubling also has physiological consequences. Auto-Polyploidy often have a
lower osmotic pressure, a retarded rate of cell division, & a longer vegetative period than the
corresponding diploids. The lower osmotic pressure often leads to reduced frost hardiness, in
several cases, differences in the contents of vitamins & in the chemical composition of the
cells have also been found.
The physiological effects also lead to the fact that the number of flowers formed are often
lower in the tetraploids than in the original diploid maternal.
In general, the Polyploidy are more resistant to temperatures and climatic stress than diploids.
Importance & Applications of Polyploidy:
i. Role of Polyploidy in Plant Breeding:
Many important crop plants like wheat, oat, sugarcane, cotton, tobacco as well as many fruits
and vegetables are polyploids. One of the important effects of polyploidy is the changes in
the blooming season of the induced Polyploidy . As such, interspecific hybrids can be
obtained of such species which otherwise remain isolated by seasonal isolation & different
blooming season.
By artificial polyploidy induction, disease resistance & other desirable characters have been
incorporated into some commercial crop plants. For example, Nicotiana tabacum is sus-
ceptible to TMV whereas N. glutinosa appears to be resistant. The 2 tobacco species when
crossed, the hybrids were found to be resistant but totally sterile. When the chromosomes
were doubled it was possible to secure a fertile Polyploidy resistant to the virus. Many
Polyploidy are selected and cultivated because of their larger size, vigour and ornamental
values. Several varieties of apples, pears and grapes have produced giant fruits which are of
much economic value.
ii. Role of Polyploidy in Evolution:
Polyploidy combined with interspecific hybridization provides a mechanism by which new
species may arise in nature & play a role in evolution. Allopolyploidy can produce new
species by combining new characters. Among the interspecific hybridization, the most
important are Primula kewensis (n = 18) obtained by crossing P. floribunda (n = 9) & P.
verticillata (n = 9).
iii. Media of Conservation of Characters:
Polyploidy plays an important role in conserving the characters. A recessive mutation in order
to be expressed in an autotetraploid, all four genes must be in recessive condition which is a
time requiring process. Thus the characters in a Polyploidy plant could be conserved.
iv. Polyploidy and Geographical Distribution:
The Polyploidy plants can cope with diverse geographical areas than a diploid. Hence, the
geographical distributions of Polyploidy plants are greater than diploids. Auto- Polyploidy
cannot produce new species, but they can colonize a new environment easily. As
allopolyploids contain different genomes, they can withstand different environmental condi-
tion. Both these power of colonization and coping with a diverse environment of the
Polyploidy plants, help their wide geographical distribution.
