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Project Report Writing Unit1 Notes

computer science and engineering (Anna University)

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UNIT-I
MASTERING WRITING SKILLS

Writing Skills - Essential Grammar and Vocabulary - Passive Voice, Reported Speech, Concord,
Signpost words, Cohesive Devices - Paragraph writing - Technical Writing vs. General Writing.
1.1 WRITING SKILLS
Writing skills is all about having adequate knowledge and abilities to express your thoughts and
ideas in written words. Good writing skills allow communicators to communicate their message
with clarity to a far larger audience than other mediums of communication like face-to-face or
telephone conversations. Remember, effective written communication is not an easy task as it
demands detailed knowledge of sentence structure, vocabulary, grammar, and other basic
writing skills. But this can be improvised with continuous practice. People with excellent writing
skills can personalize their tone and choice of words according to their targeted audience and in
different situations. They prefer writing techniques, such as literary devices, to communicate
their ideas and keep their readers engaged.
Writing skills are essential due to the following reasons:
 To express ideas and thoughts clearly
 Increases grammar and vocabulary skills
 Ignite curiosity about writing
 Provides a base for further education Improve social skills
 Help writers organize their thoughts
 To take effective decision
The process of writing a project report, can be broken down into several systematic stages.
Following these stages helps ensure that your writing is organized, clear, and effective.

The process of writing has the following steps:

 Prewriting: Before you can write your document, you must have something concrete to
say. Prewriting allows you to spend quality time, prior to writing the correspondence,
generating information, considering the needs of the audience, and choosing the
communication channel.
 Writing: Once you have gathered your data and determined your objectives, the next
step is to draft your document. To do so, organize the draft, supply visual aids, and format
the content so that your readers can follow easily.
 Rewriting: The final step, and one that is essential to successful communication, is to
rewrite your draft. Revision allows you to test for usability and to perfect your memo, Web
site, letter, report, or any document so you can be a successful communicator. The writing
process is dynamic, with the three parts prewriting, writing, and rewriting often occurring
simultaneously. You may revisit any of these parts of the process at various times as you
draft your document.

Figure 1.1. Process of writing

A writing style is simply the unique way a writer expresses their ideas and crafts their prose. It is
like their personal signature or fingerprint on the page. A writer's style can be influenced by
factors such as their personality, experiences, target audience, and the purpose of their writing.
Different writing styles can evoke various tones in the reader, making the manuscript more
engaging, persuasive, or informative. Each style has its own characteristics and techniques that
writers use to effectively communicate their message. Mastering different writing styles can
make you capable of tackling any writing task that comes your way.
The most common and important styles of writing:
 Expository writing style
 Descriptive writing style
 Persuasive writing style
 Narrative writing style
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 Creative writing style

 Argumentative writing style
Types of writing styles
(i) Expository writing style bed
Expository writing serves to inform, explain, or clarify ideas and concepts. Its primary goal is to
deliver information clearly and concisely without the influence of the writer's own opinions. This
style of writing is foundational in academic and technical settings, where understanding and
precision are paramount.
It is used in writing expository essays, textbooks, business reports, manuals, and articles that
aim to educate and inform the reader about a particular subject.
Example: Article explaining the process of photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis is a biochemical process by which plants convert sunlight into chemical energy. It
occurs in the chloroplasts, where sunlight and carbon dioxide are transformed into glucose and
oxygen through a series of reactions. This process not only fuels the plant's own growth but also
sustains life on Earth by producing vital oxygen and forming the base of the food chain.
The article provides a straightforward explanation of how photosynthesis works without offering
opinions or arguments.
(ii) Descriptive writing style
The primary purpose of descriptive writing is to provide a detailed sensory experience for the
reader. It uses rich and evocative language to describe the subject matter in a way that the
reader can visualize or imagine vividly. Descriptive writing serves to immerse the reader in the
scene or topic, allowing them to feel as if they are part of the setting or event being described. It
is often used in fiction, poetry, journal entries, descriptive essays, and nature writing, as well as
in certain types of journalistic and academic writing where detailed descriptions are necessary.
Example: Description of a puppy.
The small puppy has fur as white as snow. Its bright blue eyes sparkled with curiosity as it
playfully wagged its tiny tail. The soft jingle of its collar could be heard as it bounced around the
sunny backyard, exploring every corner with excitement.
The description uses picturesque language to describe the puppy, making the reader imagine
the experience of actually seeing the puppy.
(iii) Persuasive writing style
The purpose of persuasive writing is to convince or persuade the reader to agree with the
writer's point of view I specific action. Persuasive writers use emotional appeals, logical
arguments, and credible evidence to build their case. The effectiveness of persuasive writing lies
in its ability to influence the reader's beliefs or behaviors.
This style of writing is essential in law, advertising, and opinion.
Example: A speech advocating for climate change action.
Today, we stand at a crossroads. The evidence of climate the change is undeniable, and its
effects are devastating. We have the power to change this trajectory. By investing in o
renewable energy and reducing our carbon footprint, we can safeguard our planet for future
generations. The time bon for debate has passed; now is the time for action.

The speech uses compelling language to convince the audience of the urgency of addressing
climate change and suggests clear actions to be taken.
(iv) Narrative writing style
Narrative writing serves to tell a story or to relay events in an organized, chronological manner.
It is used to engage the reader by presenting a compelling tale, often to entertain, educate, or
convey a particular theme or moral.
In addition to entertainment, narratives can be used to preserve history, as in the case of
memoirs or biographies. It can also be used in narrative essays to share personal experiences in
a relatable way or to explore complex ideas through literary devices.
Example: A personal anecdote in a college application essay. (Source: Internet)
"When I was eleven, a run-down piano in the community hall called out to me, its keys worn from
years of neglect. Despite its decrepit state, I saw potential. Day by day, I cleaned and tuned it,
and soon, my fingers danced across the keys, bringing life to melodies that had long been silent.
That piano wasn't just an instrument; it was my first step towards a lifelong passion for music."
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The essay provides a narrative of personal growth and discovery centered around the piano,
offering insight into the writer's character and history.
(v) Creative writing style
Creative writing's purpose is to entertain, provoke thought, express feelings, and stretch the
imagination of the reader. It is a way for writers to express themselves creatively by talking
about all sorts of human experiences, like wild adventures, deep thoughts, or trying out new
ideas. Creative writing can help us understand what it is like to be human, share stories that
touch our hearts, or just give us a break from everyday life.
It includes genres such as fiction, poetry, drama, and other creative forms where the writer's
voice and style are integral to the work's impact and appeal.
Example: A short story opening in a literary magazine. (Source: Internet)
"When Alice opened the locket, she did not expect to find the ocean. But there it was, a drop of
the sea, trapped behind glass, its tiny waves crashing against the metal shores. As she peered
closer, the sound of distant gulls filled her ears, and the scent of saltwater wafted through the
air".
This piece uses imaginative elements and detailed imagery to engage the reader and tell a story.
(vi) Argumentative writing style
The purpose of argumentative writing is to present a reasoned argument in favor of a particular
position or point of view. This style of writing is analytical and persuasive. bas It requires the
writer to clearly articulate their stance on an issue and support it with evidence, logic, and
reasoning. Argumentative writing uses facts and logic, not emotions, to persuade. It encourages
critical thinking by presenting multiple viewpoints and debunking opposing arguments.
Argumentative writing is critical in areas such as academic research, opinion-editorial pieces,
argumentative essays, legal cases, and public debates.
Example: An editorial arguing for the preservation of historical buildings.
"The city council must act now to protect our historic buildings. These structures are not mere
edifices of brick and mortar; they are the embodiment of our community's rich heritage and
cultural identity. Critics may argue development is essential for economic growth, but must
progress come at the cost of our past? Surely, we can find a balance that honors both our history
and our future aspirations. Preserving these landmarks is not a blockade to modernization it is an
act of respect for the narrative that has shaped us".
The editorial presents a clear argument for the preservation of historic buildings, addressing
potential counter arguments about economic development and proposing a balanced solution.
Guidelines for improving writing skills
Improving writing skills specifically for project reports involves focusing on clarity, structure, and
precision. Some of them are:
a) Understand the Purpose and Audience:
i. Know the objectives of your report and the audience who will be reading it.
ii. Adapt your language and content to meet the needs and expectations of your audience.
b) Plan and Outline:
i. Create a detailed outline before you start writing.
ii. Include sections such as introduction, methodology, findings, analysis, conclusion, and
recommendations.
c) Use Clear and Concise Language:10
i. Avoid jargon and complex language unless necessary and clearly defined.1950
ii. Aim for clarity and brevity in your sentences and paragraphs.
d) Follow a Logical Structure:
i. Organize your report in a logical order that guides the reader through your project.
ii. Use headings and subheadings to break up text and highlight key sections.
e) Be Objective and Factual:
i. Base your writing on evidence and data.
ii. Avoid personal opinions and unsupported claims.
f) Use Visual Aids:
i. Incorporate charts, graphs, tables, and images to support and illustrate your points.
ii. Ensure visual aids are clearly labeled and referenced in the text.
g) Include an Executive Summary:
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i. Provide a brief overview of the key points of your report at the beginning.
ii. This should summarize the purpose, methodology, findings, and conclusions.
h) Pay Attention to Formatting:
i. Use consistent formatting for headings, fonts, and spacing.
ii. Follow any specific guidelines provided for the project report.
i) Use Proper Citations:
i. Accurately cite all sources of information, data, and visual aids.
ii. Follow the appropriate citation style (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago).
j) Revise and Proofread:
i. Review your report multiple times to identify errors and improve clarity.
ii. Consider having someone else proofread your work to provide feedback.
k) Focus on the Introduction and Conclusion:
i. Write a clear and engaging introduction that sets the context and outlines the purpose of the
report.
ii. Ensure your conclusion summarizes the key findings and provides actionable
recommendations.
l) Highlight Key Findings:
i. Emphasize the most important results and insights from your project.
ii. Use bullet points or numbered lists to make these stand out.
m) Be Consistent with Terminology:
i. Use consistent terminology throughout the report to avoid confusion.
ii. Define any technical terms or acronyms when first used.
n) Use Active Voice:
i) Prefer active voice for clarity and directness.
ii. For example, "The team conducted the experiment" instead of "The experiment was
conducted by the team.
o) Seek Feedback:
i. Share your draft with colleagues or mentors for feedback.
ii. Use their input to refine and improve your report.

1.2 ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR AND VOCABULARY

Grammar
By understanding the basic elements of grammar, you can write more confidently. It helps to
ensure that your writing does not contain grammatical errors and makes your writing more
interesting to read. In order to understand essential grammar terms, you need to know the parts
of speech, parts of a sentence and types of sentences in the English language.
Parts of Speech
There are eight parts of speech that you can use to create a sentence. Each part of speech works
with the others to complete full thoughts and statements. The eight parts of speech are:
Noun - The person, place, thing, or idea in the sentence.
Example: My sister went to the store across the street.
Verb - The action word in the sentence.
Example: My sister went to the store across the street.
Adjective - The describing word in the sentence that modifies the noun.
Example: My sister went to the small store across the street.
Adverb - The describing word in the sentence that modifies the verb.
Example: My sister quickly went to the store across the street.
Pronoun - A small word that replaces a noun in the sentence.
Example: She went to the store across the street. Preposition - A word that describes a noun's
location.
Example: My sister went to the store across the street.
Conjunction - A word that connects two words or ideas.
Example: My sister went to the store across the street and bought some gum.
Article - A short word (the, an, and a) that determines which noun you are speaking about in the
sentence.
Example: My sister went to the store across the street.
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Parts of a Sentence
Syntax is an important way to convey meaning and to ensure understanding. Without it, the
intent of your communication may be misunderstood.
The parts of a sentence are:
Subject -The noun that the sentence is about, and that performs the action in the sentence.
Example: My sister went to the store across the street.
Predicate - The part of the sentence that explains more about the subject.
Example: My sister went to the store across the street.
Direct Object - The noun that receives the action from the verb in a sentence.
Example: My sister went to the store across the street.
Indirect Object -The noun that receives the secondary effect from the verb in a sentence.
Example: My sister went to the store across the street.
Clause - A group of words that conveys a complete thought with a noun and a verb.
Example: My sister went to the store across the street.
Phrase - A group of words that doesn't convey a complete thought and is missing either a noun
or a verb.
Example: My sister went to the store across the street.

Sentence Types
The four different types of sentences are:
Declarative - A sentence that makes a statement to relay information.
Example: My sister went to the store across the street.
Interrogative - A sentence that wants to find information by asking a question.
Example: Did my sister go to the store across the street?
Imperative - A sentence that requests or commands the listener to complete an action.
Example: Please go to the store across the street.
Exclamatory - A sentence that expresses strong emotion, either positively or negatively.
Example: I asked you to go to the store across the street an hour ago!

The essential grammar terms include:

Verbal - Verbs that function as other parts of speech. These include gerunds (-ing verbs
functioning as nouns), participles (verbs functioning as adjectives), and infinitives (verbs that
start with to and function as nouns, adverbs, or adjectives).
Voice- It is used to denote the form of the verb which shows if the subject in a given sentence is
the doer or receiver of the action. The voice of a verb describes the relationship between the
action and the participants (subject or object) in a sentence.
There are two voices in the English language and they are as follows:
Active Voice - It denotes that the noun or pronoun that acts as the subject in the sentence is
the doer of the action. In other words, the subject performs the action or acts upon the verb.
According to the Oxford Learner's Dictionary, the active voice is defined as "the form of a verb in
which the subject is the person or thing that performs the action", and according to the Collins
Dictionary, the active voice is defined as "a voice of verbs used to indicate that the subject of a
sentence is performing the action or causing the event or process described by the verb."
Passive Voice - It represents that the subject is one acted upon by the action or verb in the
sentence. It can also be said that the passive voice indicates that the subject in the sentence is
no longer active but passive. According to the Oxford Learner's Dictionary, the passive voice is
defined as "the form of a verb used when the subject is affected by the action of the verb", and
according to the Collins Dictionary, the passive voice is "formed using 'be' and the past participle
of a verb. The subject of a passive clause does not perform the action expressed by the verb but
is affected by it." This is discussed in detail in section 1.3.
Subject-verb agreement - A state in which the sentence's verb correctly reflects whether its
subject is singular or plural.
Punctuation is the tool that allows us to organize our thoughts and make it easier to review and
share our ideas. The standard English punctuation is as follows: period, comma, apostrophe,
quotation, question, exclamation, brackets, braces, parenthesis, dash, hyphen, ellipsis, colon,
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semicolon. Punctuation is necessary for writing a grammatically correct sentence. Punctuation is

a writing convention and not a grammar concept. That is because grammar rules exist in both
written and spoken forms, while punctuation exists only in the written form. Inflection is used to
convey meaning in a spoken sentence rather than a period, comma, or question mark.

Vocabulary
Vocabulary, also known as lexicon, is a set of words in a language or the set known to an
individual. The word vocabulary originated from the Latin - 'vocabulum', meaning 'a word. It
forms an essential component of language and communication, helping convey thoughts, ideas,
emotions, and information. Vocabulary can be oral, written, or signed and can be categorized
into two main types: active vocabulary (words one uses regularly) and passive vocabulary (words
one recognizes but does not use often). An individual's vocabulary continually evolves through
various methods, including direct instruction, independent reading, and natural language
exposure.

Vocabulary forms an integral part of the process of reading and readers' comprehension. It refers
to the words needed for communicating effectively. It implies receptive vocabulary and
expressive vocabulary. Receptive vocabulary refers to the words that we hear and read while
expressive vocabulary implies the words that we speak and write. It is rightly said that without
vocabulary, it is not possible to convey anything.
Vocabulary is denoted as "the group and collection of words that are known and used by a
particular person". It can also be defined as "a list or collection of words or phrases that are
normally alphabetically arranged and defined or explained".
Vocabulary is also commonly called word-stock, lexis, and lexicon.

Importance of Vocabulary
Vocabulary is an essential part of anyone's life and the following points describe the importance
of vocabulary.
 Vocabulary is critical for communication and expression.
 Vocabulary forms the basis of reading comprehension.
 Linguistic vocabulary and thinking vocabulary work parallel Vocabulary also forms a basis
for judgment many times.
 For conveying anything, vocabulary is important.
Vocabulary in English can be categorized into two types, namely- active and passive. The words
that we use and understand in day-to-day language are termed as active vocabulary while the
ones which we know but use rarely are said to be passive vocabulary.

Three Tiers of Vocabulary

Vocabulary is described with the following three tiers:
Basic Vocabulary: The basic words form the first tier of vocabulary. These words normally have
a single meaning and do not require instruction. Early reading words, sight words, adjectives,
verbs, nouns, etc. are portrayed in this tier. 8000-word families in English comprise this tier.
High-frequency Vocabulary: Also called the multiple meaning vocabulary tier. This tier
comprises words used in a variety of domains, adult communication, literature, etc. It influences
reading and speaking. 7000-word families comprise this tier. The characteristics for tier two
words are as follows:
 It has multiple meanings
 Vital for reading comprehension
 Typical mature language
 Descriptive vocabulary
 A diverse environment uses these words
 Used for direct instruction
Low-frequency Vocabulary: The words that are used only when specifically required or in a
particular domain like weather, technology, geographical region, occupation, hobbies, school,
etc. comprise this tier. About four lakh words in vocabulary in English comprise this tier.

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Types of Vocabulary
The types of vocabulary can be categorized based on spoken and written vocabulary. People
start vocabulary-building through listening and speaking even before writing and reading. Every
type of vocabulary has a different aim and purpose.
However, the development of one type of vocabulary facilitates another.

The types of vocabulary are discussed below:

Listening Vocabulary: Listening vocabulary comprises words that we understand through
hearing. Learning new words is a continuous process, and by the time you reach adulthood,
almost fifty thousand words are understood and recognized by you. Deaf people can be exposed
to visual listening vocabulary for learning.
Speaking Vocabulary: Speaking vocabulary consists of words that we actually speak. It has a
horizon of around 5000 to 10000 words. These are used for giving instructions and
conversations. The number of words in this category are comparatively lesser than the listening
vocabulary.
Reading Vocabulary: The major ingredient of vocabulary building is reading. Reading grows
and develops your vocabulary. The words we get to learn while reading a text are termed as
reading vocabulary. It may happen that we understand words through reading vocabulary even if
we don't use it in speaking vocabulary.
Writing Vocabulary: Words we recoup while expressing ourselves through writing are termed
as writing vocabulary. Writing vocabulary is normally influenced by the words we are able to
spell. We find it easy to express verbally, through facial expression, or intonation, but writing
vocabulary depends upon our expertise in vocabulary.
Final Vocabulary: Richard Rorty coined the term 'Final Vocabulary'. It is a collection, set, or
group of words that every person applies to justify their actions, beliefs, and lives. Final
vocabulary comprises words a person avails to praise, contempt, express deep feelings, hopes,
doubts, etc.
Guidelines to Improve Your Vocabulary
Students can adopt several ways to improve their vocabulary. A few important ways to improve
vocabulary are given here:
Develop a Reading Habit: Students can improve their vocabulary if they develop a reading
habit. It is easy to improve vocabulary when they come across new words while reading a novel
or a newspaper article. They can add new and unfamiliar words to their list.
Dictionary and Thesaurus: Students can use online dictionaries and thesauruses for improving
vocabulary. They can find synonyms to the words that are far better than the words used by
them. Dictionaries can help students to learn about root words, related words, and antonyms.
Word Games: Word games such as scrabble are useful for students to expand and enhance
their vocabulary. Students can note down the important words that they learn while playing the
game and can use them in their writing.
Flashcards: Students can use flashcards to learn different words. There are many smartphone
apps that can help students to make flashcards and they make a number of words everyday to
increase their vocabulary.
Use new words in conversation: Students must try to use new words in their conversation.
They can use the words that they learn from reading or while watching TV in their conversation
to remember them.

People struggle with vocabulary due to lack of instruction, learning strategies, poor memory
skills, or learning disabilities. Learning and exploring new words and then applying them in
different contexts improves your communication skills. Always keep learning antonyms,
synonyms, connotations, idioms, phrases, and keep reading various books to develop your
vocabulary.

Guidelines for improving Essential Grammar and Vocabulary

Improving essential grammar and vocabulary is crucial for enhancing your writing skills,
especially for project reports. The key areas to be focused are:

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Essential Grammar
 Sentence Structure:
 Ensure each sentence has a subject and a verb and conveys a complete thought.
 Vary sentence length and structure to maintain reader's interest.
 Subject-Verb Agreement:
 The subject and verb must agree in number (singular or plural).
 Example: "The team is working" (singular) vs. "The teams are working" (plural).
 Tense Consistency:
 Maintain consistent verb tense throughout your writing.
 Common tenses in project reports include past tense for completed actions and present
tense for current findings.
 Punctuation:
 Use commas, periods, semicolons, colons, and other punctuation marks correctly to
clarify meaning.
 Avoid overusing commas; know when to use semicolons and colons.
 Modifiers:
 Place adjectives and adverbs near the words they modify to avoid confusion.
 Ensure modifiers clearly and accurately describe the intended word.
 Pronouns:
 Ensure pronouns agree with their antecedents in number and gender.
 Avoid vague pronouns that can confuse the reader about what they refer to.
 Active vs. Passive Voice:
 Prefer active voice for clarity and directness.
 Example: "The researcher conducted the survey" (active) vs. "The survey was conducted
by the researcher" (passive).

Essential Vocabulary
 Technical Terms:
 Use industry-specific terminology appropriately.
 Ensure technical terms are defined when first used to avoid confusion.
 Precise Language:
 Choose words that precisely convey your meaning.
 Avoid vague terms like "things" or "stuff"; be specific.
 Transitional Phrases:
 Use transitions to connect ideas and sections smoothly.
 Examples: "however," "therefore," "in addition," "consequently."
 Action Verbs:
 Use strong action verbs to convey your points effectively.
 Examples: "analyzed, “ “developed," "implemented," "evaluated."
 Academic Vocabulary:
 Incorporate advanced vocabulary suitable for professional and academic writing.
 Examples: "methodology," "synthesize," "corroborate," "extrapolate."
 Avoiding Redundancy:
 Be concise and avoid repeating the same ideas or using redundant phrases.
 Example: "In my opinion, I believe" should be and simplified to "I believe." simplified to “I
believe."
 Using Synonyms:
 Use synonyms to avoid repetition and make your writing more engaging.
 Ensure synonyms are appropriate and do not alter the meaning.

Practice and Application

 Reading and Writing:
 Regularly read well-written project reports and academic papers to see grammar and
vocabulary in context.
 Practice writing summaries or abstracts of these reports to reinforce learning.
 Grammar and Vocabulary Tools:
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 Use grammar checking tools (e.g., Grammarly, Hemingway) to identify and correct
mistakes. Use thesauruses and vocabulary-building apps to learn new words and
synonyms.
 Feedback and Revision:
 Seek feedback on your writing from peers or mentors to identify areas for improvement.
 Revise your work multiple times, focusing on different aspects (grammar, vocabulary,
clarity).

1.3 PASSIVE VOICE

Passive voice is marked by a subject that is followed by a static verb complemented by a past
participle.
For example: The enemy was defeated.
In sentences using the active voice, the subject is the performer of the action-referred to as the
agent. Above, the agent is omitted entirely, but it may also be included adjunctively while
maintaining the passive voice:
 The enemy was defeated by our troops.
The initial examples rewritten in the active voice yield:
 Our troops defeated the enemy.
Passive voice typically involves forms of the verbs to be or to get followed by a passive participle
as the subject complement-sometimes referred to as a passive verb.
Passive voice is used less often than the active voice, but frequency varies according to the
writer's style and the given field of writing. Contemporary style guides discourage excessive use
of the passive voice but generally consider it to be acceptable in certain situations, such as when
the patient is the topic of the sentence, when the agent is unimportant and therefore omitted, or
when the agent is placed near the end of a sentence as a means of emphasis.

1.4 REPORTED SPEECH

Reported speech is the form in which one can convey a message said by oneself or someone
else, mostly in the past. It can also be said to be the third person view of what someone has said.
In this form of speech, you need not use quotation marks as you are not quoting the exact words
spoken by the speaker, but just conveying the message.
Reported speech, according to the Oxford Learner's Dictionary, is defined as "a report of what
somebody has said that does not use their exact words." The Collins Dictionary defines reported
speech as "speech which tells you what someone said, but does not use the person's actual
words." According to the Cambridge Dictionary, reported speech is defined as "the act of
reporting something that was said, but not using exactly the same words." The Macmillan
Dictionary defines reported speech as "the words that you use to report what someone else has
said."

Rules to be followed when using Reported Speech

Reported speech is a little different from direct speech. As it has been discussed already,
reported speech is used to tell what someone said and does not use the exact words of the
speaker. Take a look at the following rules so that you can make use of reported speech
effectively.
The first thing you have to keep in mind is that you need not use any quotation marks as you are
not using the exact words of the speaker.
 Subject said that (report whatever the speaker said)
We can use verbs like said, asked, requested, ordered, complained, exclaimed, screamed, told,
etc. If you are just reporting a declarative sentence, you can use verbs like told, said, etc.
followed by 'that' and end the sentence with a full stop. When you are reporting interrogative
sentences, you can use the verbs - enquired, inquired, asked, etc. and remove the question
mark. In case you are reporting imperative sentences, you can use verbs like requested,
commanded, pleaded, ordered, etc. If you are reporting exclamatory sentences, you can use the
verb exclaimed and remove the exclamation mark. The structure of the sentences also changes
accordingly.

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Furthermore, keep in mind that the sentence structure, tense, pronouns, modal verbs, some
specific adverbs of place and adverbs of time change when a sentence is transformed into
indirect/reported speech.

1.5 CONCORD
Concord in English grammar refers to the agreement between the subject and the verb in the
sentence. However, there are many different ways to apply this rule. Concord is the need for
grammatical agreement between the different parts of speech in a sentence. The word concord
comes from the Latin word for agreement.

Concord is needed for the sentences to make sense. All the words in a sentence need to have
the correct relationships to each other, otherwise the sentence will not sound right.

While there are nine parts of speech that make up English grammar, only two are absolutely
necessary in a sentence: the verb and the subject. For this reason, concord in English is
sometimes referred to as subject-verb agreement.

Types of concord in English grammar

There are several different types of concord in English grammar. The different types of concord,
with examples are given below:
Grammatical concord
Grammatical concord is the easiest type of subject-verb agreement to grasp. It means that if the
sentence has a singular subject, it must also have a singular verb. If the subject of the sentence
is plural, the verb must be plural, too.

The subject of the sentence is the person, animal or thing doing the action. The subject might be
singular or plural. Consider two sample sentences:
 The teacher talks to the class.
 The teachers talk to the class.
In the first sentence, the subject (the teacher) is singular, so the sentence uses the singular verb
'talks. In the second sentence, there's more than one teacher, so the plural verb 'talk' is used.
It is more complicated when we add an object to the sentence before the verb, as this can
sometimes be mistaken for the subject. We have to be careful when we are looking at these
kinds of sentences.
For example:
 The books in the cupboard are arranged neatly.
 The dog in the garden is running around.
In the first example, the books are the subject, not the cupboard. Therefore, we use the plural
verb ‘are'. The subject in the second sentence is singular ('the dog'), so in this case we use the
singular verb 'is'.

Grammatical concord with more than one subject

 Jack and Jill were caught in the rain.
Because there are two subjects (Jack and Jill) we use the plural verb 'were' instead of the singular
'was'.
However, there are a couple of exceptions to this rule. The first exception is when both subjects
are the same person or thing. For example:
 The largest animal and loudest sea creature is the blue whale.
 The singer and songwriter is Harry Styles.
In both of these cases, the subjects are the same person or animal, so we use the singular verb
'is' in both sentences.

The other exception is when two things are always linked together in people's minds, to the point
where, when spoken about together, we think of them as one thing. Consider this example:
 Bread and butter is my favorite breakfast.

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We always think of Bread and butter as one dish, even though they are different things and can
be eaten separately. When we refer to them together, we use the singular verb 'is'.

Proximity concord
Proximity refers to the closeness of two things. In the case of sentences, we often show
proximity between two subjects by using the correlating conjunctions ‘either/or' or 'neither / nor'.
If both subjects are singular, the verb takes the singular form, as in these examples:
 Either the Prime Minister or the Chancellor is attending the meeting.
 Neither Mary nor her mother eats sweets.
But, what happens when one subject is singular and the other is plural? In these cases, the verb
takes the form of the subject nearest to it in the sentence, like this:
 Either the Prime Minister or other Government ministers are attending the meeting.
 Neither Mary nor her parents eat sweets.
Both of these sentences put the plural subject closest to the verb, so the verb takes its plural
form in both cases. If we reversed these sentences, so the singular subject was second, the verb
would take its singular form (‘Neither Mary's parents nor Mary eats sweets').
Notional concord
The idea of notional concord relates to collective nouns. We use these to refer to a group of
people, animals or things.
Some examples include:
1. class
2. choir
3. audience
4. congregatio
n
5. team
6. flock
When we are using collective nouns, the verb takes its we are using con singular form if there is
no action being taken in the sentence. If there is action happening, the verb should be plural, as
the people or animals in the collective are all taking action as individuals, even if It is the same
action as each other.

Consider these two examples:

 The class has the best exam results in the school.
 The class are sitting at their desks.
In the first example, there is no action being taken - the sentence is simply stating a fact, so the
verb here is singular. In the second example, the children in the class are individually taking the
action of sitting at their desks, so we use the plural form of the verb.
Indefinite pronoun concord
Indefinite pronouns are pronouns that refer to things vaguely rather than specifically. They give
us ways to talk about people, things and quantities in abstract terms.

Some examples of indefinite pronouns are:

anything / anyone / anybody
something / someone /
somebody
everything/everyone /
everybody
nothing/ no-one / nobody
When the subject of a sentence is an indefinite pronoun, we always use a singular verb. For
example:
 Everyone is coming to the party.
 Something has to be done about this.
 Is anybody there?
Measurement concord

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We use all kinds of measurements in our speech and writing, so it is important to know how to
make the verb agree with the measurement we are describing. If we are talking about
measurements of time, money, amount or distance, we always tend to use a singular verb, even
if the measurement is plural. Here are some examples:
 Two weeks is not long enough for our Christmas holiday.
 Three hundred dollars is too much to spend on a concert ticket.
So, whether we are talking about hours, kilometers or dollars, we always use the singular form of
the verb.

However, things change when we are talking about percentages or fractions. In these cases, the
verb takes the same form as the subject, like this:
 50% of the building is occupied.
 Half the students are boys.

In the first sentence, the subject (the building) is singular, so the verb is singular, too. In the
second case, the subject (the students) is plural, so the verb takes the plural form.

We should also mention comparative measurements here, such as 'more than' and 'fewer than'.
If we are using these expressions to talk about amounts of something, the verb needs to
correlate with the subject, whether it is singular or plural.
For example:
 More than one child is singing a solo in the concert.
 Fewer than ten days have been dry this month.
We can see here that the first example has a singular subject, so the verb is also singular. In the
second sentence, which has a plural subject, we use a plural verb.

1.6 SIGNPOST WORDS

Many people simply write facts together in the body of the manuscripts as paragraphs, without
properly applying them to the topic or signaling to the reader the connections between them. By
adding a few connecting words, called as "signposts" makes the manuscript much more
readable. Transitions show the reader the "movement" between ideas/points. They show that the
ideas follow a logical order and build on each other, creating "flow". If a paragraph flows well
from point to point, it should be obvious to the reader when you move from one point to another.
They tell the reader:
 how the main ideas support the thesis statement
 how each group of ideas follow from the ones before and whether information is:
 an additional point
 in contrast to what has been said
 an example
If you are analyzing one study and then comparing it to another in a later paragraph, a transition
word or phrase could highlight the change in direction or the creation of a comparison.
 In contrast to the conclusion......
A paragraph that provides a similar point to a previous one could start as follows:
 Similarly.....
Some of the most common signposts are listed below, according to what they do in or between a
paragraph.

Highlighting or emphasizing a point

Importantly, ...
Indeed, ...
In fact, ...
More importantly, ...
Furthermore, ..
Moreover, ...
It is also important to
highlight...
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Changing direction or creating a comparison

However...
Rather...
In contrast...
Conversely...
On the other hand...
In comparison, ...
Compared to ...
Another point to
consider is...

Adding a similar point

Similarly...
Likewise...
Again...
Also...

Summarizing
Finally, ...
Lastly, ...
In conclusion, ...
To summarize,...
In summary,
Overall, ...
The main points
are

Being Very specific

In particular,...
In relation to ...
More
specifically, ...
With respect
to ...
In terms of ...
Giving an example
For instance,
For example, ...
this can be illustrated
by ...
…,namely, ...
…,such as …
Acknowledging something and moving to a different point
Although …
Even though...
Despite ...
Notwithstanding...

Following a line of reasoning

Therefore, ...
Subsequently, ...
Hence ...
Consequently, ...

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Accordingly, ...
As a result, ...
As a
consequence, ...
To this end, ...

1.7 COHESIVE DEVICES

Cohesive devices are used to link sentences, paragraphs or any pieces of text. In other words,
cohesive devices make our content coherent. Overusing cohesive devices or not using them
enough might affect the reader negatively. Cohesive devices are words or phrases that connect
different parts of a text, making it coherent and improving its flow. They help link sentences,
paragraphs, or ideas together.
Examples of cohesive devices
 Conjunctions: Words like "and," "but," "however," and "because" connect related ideas.
 Transition words: These include "therefore," "meanwhile," "in addition," and "finally."
 Reference words: Anaphoric references (referring back to previous ideas) and cataphoric
references (referring forward to upcoming ideas).
 Linkers: Words like "first," "then," and "in contrast."
 Adverbs: Words like "similarly," "moreover," and "certainly."

Types of Cohesive Devices

Cohesive devices are essential for creating clear and logical connections within a text. They can
be categorized into several types:
i. Reference: It involves using pronouns or other referencing words to point back to something
mentioned earlier in the text. This helps avoid repetition and keeps the text concise.
Example: "Jack arrived late because he missed the bus. Here, "he" refers back to "Jack."
ii. Substitution: It replaces a word or phrase with another word to avoid repetition and make
sentences shorter.
Example: "I need a pen. Do you have one?"
"One" refers for "pen."
iii. Ellipsis: It is the omission of words that are understood from the context, making the text
more concise without losing meaning.
Example: "I went to the park, and she did too."
The word "go" is omitted after "she did."
iv. Conjunction: They are words used to link clauses or sentences. They help to show
relationships between ideas, such as addition, contrast, cause, and effect.
Example: "I wanted to go to the party, but I was too tired."
Here, "but" shows a contrast between the two clauses.
v. Lexical Cohesion: It involves the use of related words to maintain continuity in a text. This
includes the repetition of words, synonyms, antonyms, and collocations.
Example: "The team played exceptionally well. Their performance was outstanding."
"Played," "performance," and "outstanding" all relate to the theme of sports and excellence.
vi. Reiteration: It involves repeating a word or phrase, or using a synonym or near-synonym, to
emphasize a concept and ensure the reader understands the key point.
Example: "The lecture was boring. The dullness of the presentation made it hard to stay awake."
("Boring" and "dullness" are related terms reinforcing the idea.)
vii. Collocation: It refers to the habitual juxtaposition of a
particular word with another word or words with a frequency greater than chance. These word
pairs or groups naturally go together, enhancing cohesion.
Example: "Fast food"
These two words commonly appear together and are , expected to be used in that combination.
viii. Parallelism: It is the use of similar grammatical structures in related phrases or clauses to
create a sense of rhythm and balance in writing.
Example: "She enjoys reading, writing, and jogging."
The parallel structure of the verbs creates a cohesive rhythm.

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ix. Transitional Phrases: These phrases are used to connect ideas smoothly between
sentences and paragraphs, guiding the reader through the text.
Example: "In addition," "on the other hand," "as a result," "for instance."
These phrases help link ideas and provide a smooth transition.
x. Anaphora: It is the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or
sentences, creating a rhetorical effect and emphasizing a particular point.
Example: "Every day, every night, in every way, I am getting better and better."
The repetition of "every" emphasizes the ongoing nature of the improvement.

Uses Cohesive Devices

Cohesive devices play a crucial role in effective writing and communication. The important uses
of cohesive devices:
 Enhancing Clarity: Cohesive devices help clarify relationships between ideas, making it
easier for readers to follow the writing.
 Example: "I forgot to bring my umbrella. Consequently, I got drenched in the rain."
 Improving Readability: Using cohesive devices improves the overall readability of a
text. They create a natural progression of ideas, making the text more engaging and less
choppy.
 Example: "First, we visited the museum. Then, we had lunch at a nearby café."
 Providing Structure: Cohesive devices help organize Sun writing by indicating the
sequence of events, comparisons, contrasts, and cause-effect relationships. This provides
a clear structure that guides the reader through the text.
 Example: "Although it was raining, we decided to go for a hike. In contrast, others chose
to stay indoors."
 Avoiding Repetition: By using pronouns, synonyms, and substitutions, cohesive devices
help avoid unnecessary repetition of words and phrases, making the text more concise
and varied.
 Example: "Maria loves her cat. She takes care of it every day."
 Emphasizing Key Points: Repetition and parallelism, as types of cohesive devices, can
emphasize important ideas or themes within a text, helping to reinforce the message and
make it more memorable.
 Example: "Success requires hard work, dedication, and perseverance."
 Enhancing Coherence: Cohesive devices ensure that different parts of a text are linked
together logically, enhancing the overall coherence of the writing. This helps the reader
understand how different ideas and arguments are connected.
 Example: "The company has seen significant growth. As a result, they are expanding their
operations."

1.8 PARAGRAPH WRITING

Paragraphs are the building blocks of any manuscript. Many people define paragraph in terms of
length like 'a paragraph is a group of at least five sentences' or 'a paragraph is half a page long',
etc. In reality, the unity and coherence of ideas among sentences is the constitution of a
paragraph. A paragraph is defined as a group of sentences or a single sentence that forms a unit.
Length and appearance do not determine whether a section is a paragraph or not. For instance,
in some styles of writing, particularly journalistic styles, a paragraph can be just one sentence
long. Ultimately, a paragraph is a sentence or group of sentences that support one main idea.

In order to determine the composition of a particular paragraph will be, you must first decide on
an argument and a working thesis statement for your paper/article.
What is the most important idea that you are trying to
convey to your reader?
The information in each paragraph must be related to that idea. In other words, your paragraphs
should remind your reader that there is a recurrent relationship between your thesis and the
information in each paragraph. A working thesis functions. like a seed from which your paper,
and your ideas, will grow. The whole process is an organic one-a natural progression from a seed
to a full-blown paper where there are direct, relationships between all of the ideas in the paper.
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The decision about what to put into your paragraphs begins with the germination of a seed of
ideas; this "germination process" is better known as brainstorming. There are many techniques
for brainstorming; whichever one you choose; this stage of paragraph development cannot be
skipped. Building paragraphs can be like building a skyscraper: there must be a well-planned
foundation that supports what you are building. Any cracks, inconsistencies, or other corruptions
of the foundation can cause your whole paper to crumble.
Every paragraph in a paper should be:
 Unified: All of the sentences in a single paragraph should be related to a single controlling
idea (often expressed in the topic sentence of the paragraph).
 Clearly related to the thesis: The sentences should all refer to the central idea, or
thesis, of the paper.
 Coherent: The sentences should be arranged in a logical manner and should follow a
definite plan for development.
 Well-developed: Every idea discussed in the paragraph should be adequately explained
and supported through evidence and details that work together to explain the paragraph's
controlling idea.
Paragraphs are the group of sentences combined together, about a certain topic. It is a very
important form of writing as we write almost everything in paragraphs, be it an answer, essay,
story, emails, etc. We can say that a well-structured paragraph is the essence of good writing.
The purposes of the paragraph are to give information, to explain something, to tell a story, and
to convince someone that our idea is right.

Paragraphs are blocks of textual content that segment out a larger piece of writing-stories,
novels, articles, creative writing, or professional writing portions-making it less complicated to
read and understand. Excellent paragraphs are an available writing skill for plenty of types of
literature, and proper writers can substantially beautify the clarity of their news, essays, or
fiction writing whilst constructing nicely.

Structure of a Paragraph
A paragraph has three major parts-
 Topic sentence
 Supporting sentences
 Concluding sentence
Topic Sentence
A topic sentence is a precise statement that reflects the main idea of the paragraph. It should be
carefully written as it will show the reader what you are going to talk about. Words chosen for
this should not be cluttered and ambiguous as readers will decide to read further based on this.
It is not necessary to write the topic sentence at the beginning of the paragraph. It put
anywhere, as long as it reflects the main topic. For instance, if you mention that you are going to
talk about the advantages of using the hand sanitizer, then in supporting sentence you should
only talk about advantages, not the features or anything else.
Supporting Sentences
Supporting sentences explain the topic sentence in detail. They expand the main topic and
develops the main idea into the explanation. They explain the main topic using examples, facts,
quotes, etc. They have to be related to the topic sentence.
There can be two types of Supporting sentences, First, the major supporting sentence; this
sentence directly explains the main idea with some new fact or new idea. Second, a minor
support sentence helps the major supporting sentence develop the controlling idea.
Conclusion Sentence
A good concluding sentence brings a paragraph to a polished end. It may give a summary of the
main topic; a concluding sentence also gives a final take on the topic and leaves the reader with
complete information. A good conclusion can either be just reiterating the topic again or it could
be concluded with a few main points which were not exclusively mentioned in the paragraph.

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There are many different ways to organize a paragraph. The organization you choose will depend
on the controlling idea of the paragraph. Below are a few possibilities for organization, with links
to brief examples:
 Narration: Tell a story. Go chronologically, from start to finish.
 Description: Provide specific details about what something looks, smells, tastes, sounds,
or feels like. Organize spatially, in order of appearance, or by topic.
 Process: Explain how something works, step by step. Perhaps follow a sequence-first,
second, third.
 Classification: Separate into groups or explain the various parts of a topic.
 Illustration: Give examples and explain how those option examples support your point.

The 5-step process of paragraph writing:

Step 1. Decide on a controlling idea and create a topic sentence
Paragraph development begins with the formulation of the controlling idea. This idea directs the
paragraph's development. Often, the controlling idea of a paragraph will appear in the form of a
topic sentence. In some cases, you may need more than one sentence to express a paragraph's
controlling idea.
Step 2. Elaborate on the controlling idea
Paragraph development continues with an elaboration on the controlling idea, perhaps with an
explanation, implication, or statement about significance. Our example offers a possible
explanation for the pervasiveness of the myth.
Step 3. Give an example (or multiple examples)
Paragraph development progresses with an example (or more) that illustrates, the claims made
in the previous sentences.
Step 4. Explain the example(s)
The next movement in paragraph development is an explanation of each example and its
relevance to the topic sentence. The explanation should demonstrate the value of the example
as evidence to support the major claim, or focus, in paragraph. Continue the pattern of giving
examples and explaining them until all points/examples that the writer deems necessary have
been made and explained. None of your examples should be left unexplained. You might be able
to explain the relationship between the example and the topic sentence in the same sentence
which introduced the example. More often, however, you will need to explain that relationship in
a separate sentence.
Step 5. Complete the paragraph's idea or transition into the next paragraph
The final movement in paragraph development involves tying up the loose ends of the
paragraph. At this point, you can remind your reader about the relevance of the information to
the larger paper, or you can make a concluding point for this example. You might, however,
simply transition to the next paragraph.

Characteristics for a good paragraph

A perfect and well-written paragraph comprises a key sentence, applicable supporting sentences,
and a last (or transition) sentence. This structure is fundamental to maintaining your paragraph
centered on the main concept and creating a clear and concise photo.
In order to add something interesting, and adding an interesting fact in your content does not
necessarily follow the conventional paragraph structure, it is more about scene building and
continuing a story. Properly-written paragraphs are a staple of suitable flash fiction and short
fiction writing, as short testimonies need to target a principal concept. When your sentences are
unified and connected with other sentences, you can write a good paragraph.

Guidelines to Write a Good Paragraph

Whether you are writing a small paragraph or a big paragraph, the basic laws of structure should
apply to both. While the framework for fiction is less strict than for nonfiction, the material or tale
you create must logically or sequentially tie to the next paragraph. These aspects aid in the
coherency of your body paragraphs, linking them together to form a unified one around a topic
or to establish a narrative arc.
 Think Before You Write
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 Thinking before writing helps establish a structure and understand what you are going to
answer in the paragraph. How are you going to answer and what points should be
provided to support your hypothesis? What facts and quotes can support your idea?
 Write the key points
 Write the answers to the above questions in a manner that includes all the important
points. Just write in pointers to remember the gist of the matter.
o Choose the Main Idea
o Out of all the information you have found, you will have to decide the main idea of
the paragraph which you would like to operate.
o Use a dictionary and thesaurus to add additional words to express your ideas.
 Make Your Topic's First Sentence
 The opening line of your first paragraph sets the tone for what your audience will learn as
they continue reading. Even in fiction, a paragraph's introduction either creates or extends
an idea or scenario from the previous paragraph. Every successful paragraph starts with a
central topic that the rest of the paragraph aims to support, regardless of what style or
genre you are writing for.
 Intermediate Sentences to Provide Support
 Follow-up information to your main sentence or prior paragraph is included in these
sentences. These phrases are where you persuade your reader to believe or imagine what
you believe, and offer them all they need to see your point of view.
 Make Use of Transitional Words
 Transition words help unite disparate paragraphs to generate a unified theme. Readers
will be able to trace your ideas and comprehend how they relate to one another if you use
phrases like "in addition" or "moreover," which will make for a smoother, more enjoyable
reading experience. This is especially important for essayists and bloggers, who frequently
share a single concept with their audience at a time.

1.9 TECHNICAL WRITING VS GENERAL WRITING

Technical writing
Technical writing is a specialized form of communication used by many of today's industrial and
scientific organizations to clearly and accurately convey complex information to a user. An
organization's customers, employees, assembly workers, engineers, and scientists are some of
the most common users who reference this form of content to do their jobs. Most technical
writing relies on simplified grammar, supported by easy-to-understand visual communication to
clearly and accurately explain complex information. It is a form of writing that implies writing
technical documentation, help topics, user manuals, articles and the like that helps people
understand how to use an app or device. A simple example is a manual of your fridge a
professional called 'technical writer' created it for you, so you can use your device properly.

Technical writing is a labor-intensive form of writing that demands accurate research of a subject
and the conversion of this content into a written format, style, and reading level the end-user will
easily understand or connect with. There are two main forms of technical writing. By far, the
most common form of technical writing is procedural documentation written for the general
public (e.g., standardized step-by-step guides and standard operating procedures).

Procedural technical writing is used in all types of manufacturing to explain user operation,
assembly, installation instructions, and personnel work/safety steps. Written procedures are
widely used in manufacturing, software development, medical research, and many other
scientific fields. The software industry has grown into one of the largest users of technical writing
and relies on procedural documents to describe a program's user operation and installation
instructions.

It may seem that technical writing is only for people with technical knowledge, but it is not true.
Technical writing is intended for a general audience, so, usually, this form of writing is clear and
concise since it should be helpful for the readers it is intended for.
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In some applications, technical writing may be written for experts or fellow scientists within a
field of work or study. In these applications, a "white paper" form of technical writing is used to
describe a specialized topic and market a product/service or opinion/discovery to select readers.
Organizations normally use the white paper form to publish technical writing as industry journal
articles or academic papers. The white paper form is written to appeal to readers familiar with a
technical topic. Unlike procedural technical writing, white papers often include unique industry
terms and data. Sometimes called scientific technical writing, this secondary form of technical
writing must show a deep knowledge of a subject and the field of work with the sole purpose of
persuading readers to agree with a paper's conclusion. Most technical writing, published in this
format, is written by a technical writer. A technical writer will closely collaborate with an
organization's industry expert to author these documents but is rarely credited in the published
version.

In most cases, however, technical writing is used to help convey complex scientific or niche
subjects to end users in "laymen's" terms and includes purely factual content. Modern procedural
technical writing relies on simple terms and short sentences, rather than detailed explanations
with unnecessary information like pronouns, abstract words and unfamiliar acronyms. To achieve
the right tone and simplicity; procedural documents are written from a third-person, objective
perspective, with a formal tone. This writing style is very similar to the style used in print
journalism. Although technical writing plays an integral role in the work of engineering, health
care, and science; it does not require a degree in any of these fields. Instead, the document's
author must be an expert in technical writing. An organization's Subject Matter Experts (SMEs),
internal specifications, and a formal engineering review process are relied upon to ensure
accuracy. The division of labor helps bring greater focus to the two sides of an organization's
documentation, ensuring greater accuracy and quality. Most technical writers hold a liberal arts
degree in a writing discipline, such as technical communication, journalism, English, technical
journalism, communication, etc. Technical writing is the largest segment of the technical
communication field.

Some of the fields requiring technical writing include computer hardware and software,
architecture, engineering, chemistry, aeronautics, robotics, manufacturing, finance, medicine
etc.

General Writing
General writing refers to any piece of writing which focuses in general subjects of writing and
general papers are published for amusement of the reader. But sometimes many general topics
also gives life lessons, moral, inspiration etc. It is a form of writing that implies writing on general
subjects like blog posts, Facebook/Instagram posts, essays and so on. The content can be
different tips, pieces of advice, lifestyle articles and so on. Usually, articles are logical and
sequential. Comparing with technical writing, general writing has main characters. General
writing covers a wide range of topics, from blog posts to essays. Whether you are a seasoned
writer or a beginner, here are some guidelines to enhance your writing skills:
 Set Writing Goals: Define specific objectives, such as writing a certain number of words
per day or improving your vocabulary. Having clear goals keeps you motivated and
focused.
 Write Daily: Practice makes perfect. Even a short sentence or paragraph each day helps
you get accustomed to the act of writing.
 Get Inspired by Research: Before you start writing, do some reconnaissance reading.
Take notes on your subject material, and ideas will naturally form as you research.
 Carry a Notebook and Pen: Inspiration can strike at any time. Don't rely on memory-jot
down gripping pitches, poetic sentences, or catchy project names in a dedicated
notebook or on your smartphone.
 Experiment with Writing Prompts: Use prompts to stimulate your imagination. There
are countless prompts available online for various genres.

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 Outline: If you tend to ramble without a clear structure, start with an outline. It helps
organize your thoughts from the beginning.

Table 1.1. Comparison of attributes of Technical Writing and General Writing

Attribute Technical Writing General Writing
Style Clear and concise Varied and creative
Entertain, inform,
Purpose Instruct, explain, document
persuade
Audience Specialized professionals General public
Tone Objective, impersonal Subjective, personal
Language Technical, precise Varied, figurative
Structure Logical, organized Flexible, narrative
Less strict, creative
Grammar Strict, adherence to rules
freedom
Examples Concrete, practical Illustrative, imaginative
Formattin
Consistent, standardized Varied, artistic
g

Table 1.2. General Differences between Technical Writing and General Writing
Technical Writing General Writing
Technical writing focuses on factual and General writing focuses on general subjects
straight forward content. of writing.
Technical writing aims to impart information,
General writing aims at pleasure.
instructions and explanations.
General writing is based on subjective tone
Technical writing is based on objective tone.
or personal style.
It follows standard structured format. It follows artistic unstructured format.
It is usually based on a formal way of writing. It may be formal or informal way of writing.
The voice used in technical writing is Third The voice used in general writing is First
person. person.
In technical writing specialized vocabulary is In General writing, evocative vocabulary is
required. required.
A Technical writing has its specific set of General writing has no specific set of
audience or readers. audience or readers.
Technical writing is archival. General writing is non- archival.
It is accurate and more precise in manner. It is decorative and bombastic in manner.
Technical writing is related to any specific General domain is related to any life in
area or domain. general.
It focuses on more technical words specific to It focuses on more common words suitable
the area. to the general topic.
Example: Writing articles on a technical field Example: Writing any prose or story which
in a report/ journal comes under technical will be published in a local magazine comes
writing. under general writing.

QUESTION BANK
PART: A - 2 MARKS
1. What do mean by writing skills?
Writing skills is all about having adequate knowledge and abilities to express your thoughts and
ideas in written words. Good writing skills allow communicators to communicate their message
with clarity to a far larger audience than other mediums of communication like face- to-face or
telephone conversations.
2. What are important styles of writing?
 Expository writing style
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 Descriptive writing style

 Persuasive writing style
 Narrative writing style
 Creative writing style
 Argumentative writing style
3. What is the purpose of Argumentative writing style?
The purpose of argumentative writing is to present a reasoned argument in favor of a particular
position or point of view. This style of writing is analytical and persuasive. It requires the writer to
clearly articulate their stance on an issue and support it with evidence, logic, and reasoning.
Argumentative writing uses facts and logic, not emotions, to persuade. It encourages critical
thinking by presenting multiple viewpoints and debunking opposing arguments.
4. List the Parts of Speech.
The eight parts of speech are:
1. Noun - The person, place, thing, or idea in the sentence.
2. Verb - The action word in the sentence.
3. Adjective - The describing word in the sentence that modifies the noun.
4. Adverb - The describing word in the sentence that modifies the verb.
5. Pronoun - A small word that replaces a noun in the sentence.
6. Preposition - A word that describes a noun's location.
7. Conjunction - A word that connects two words or ideas.
8. Article - A short word (the, an, and a) that determines which noun you are speaking about
in the sentence.
5. Define active voice.
Active Voice denotes that the noun or pronoun that acts as the subject in the sentence is the
doer of the action. In other words, the subject performs the action or acts upon the verb.
According to the Oxford Learner's Dictionary, the active voice is defined as "the form of a verb in
which the subject is the person or thing that performs the action", and according to the Collins
Dictionary, the active voice is defined as "a voice of verbs used to indicate that the subject of a
sentence is performing the action or causing the event or process described by the verb."
6. Define Passive voice.
Passive Voice represents that the subject is one acted upon by the action or verb in the
sentence. It can also be said that the passive voice indicates that the subject in the sentence is
no longer active but passive. According to the Oxford Learner's Dictionary, the passive voice is
defined as "the form of a verb used when the subject is affected by the action of the verb", and
according to the Collins Dictionary, the passive voice is "formed using 'be' and the past participle
of a verb. The subject of a passive clause does not perform the action expressed by the verb but
is affected by it."
7. What are different types of sentences?
 Declarative - A sentence that makes a statement to relay information.
 Interrogative A sentence that wants to find information by asking a question.
 Imperative - A sentence that requests or commands the listener to complete an action.
 Exclamatory - A sentence that expresses strong emotion, either positively or negatively.
8. What is Punctuation?
Punctuation is the tool that allows us to organize our thoughts and make it easier to review and
share our ideas. The standard English punctuation is as follows: period, comma, apostrophe,
quotation, question, exclamation, brackets, braces, parenthesis, dash, hyphen, ellipsis, colon,
semicolon. Punctuation is necessary for writing a grammatically correct sentence.
9.What is vocabulary?
Vocabulary, also known as lexicon, is a set of words in a language or the set known to an
individual. The word vocabulary originated from the Latin 'vocabulum', meaning 'a word. It forms
an essential component of language and communication, helping convey thoughts, ideas,
emotions, and information. Vocabulary can be oral, written, or signed and can be categorized
into two main types: active vocabulary (words one uses regularly) and passive vocabulary (words
one recognizes but does not use often).
10. What is the use of Flashcards?o

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Students can use flashcards to learn different words. There are many smartphone apps that can
help students to make flashcards and they can make a number of words everyday to increase
their vocabulary
11. What is Speaking Vocabulary?
Speaking vocabulary consists of words that we actually speak. It has a horizon of around 5000 to
10000 words. These are used for giving instructions and conversations. The number of words in
this category are comparatively lesser than the listening vocabulary.
12. What is meant by basic vocabulary?
In Basic Vocabulary, the basic words form the first tier of vocabulary. These words normally have
a single meaning and do not require instruction. Early reading words, sight words, adjectives,
verbs, nouns, etc. are portrayed in this tier. 8000-word families in English comprise this tier.
13. What are signpost words?
Signposts are connecting words that makes the manuscript much more readable. Transitions
show the reader the "movement" between ideas/points. They show that the ideas follow a logical
order and build on each other, creating “flow”.
14. List the signpost words for changing direction or creating a comparison?
Some of the signpost words for changing direction or creating a comparison are:
 However, ...
 Rather, ..
 In contrast, ...
 Conversely, ...
 On the other hand, ...
 In comparison, ...
 Compared to ...
 Another point to consider is ...
15. What are cohesive devices?
Cohesive devices are used to link sentences, paragraphs or any pieces of text. In other words,
cohesive devices make our content coherent. Cohesive devices are words or phrases that
connect different parts of a text, making it coherent and improving its flow. They help link
sentences, paragraphs, or ideas together.
16. What is concord?
Concord refers to the agreement between the subject and the verb in the sentence. Concord is
the need for grammatical agreement between the different parts of speech in a sentence. The
word concord comes from the Latin word for agreement.
17. What is Indefinite pronoun concord?
Indefinite pronouns are pronouns that refer to things vaguely rather than specifically. They give
us ways to talk about people, things and quantities in abstract terms. Some examples of
indefinite pronouns are:
 anything / anyone / anybody
 something / someone / somebody
 everything / everyone / everybody
 nothing / no-one / nobody
18. List the components in structuring a Paragraph.
A paragraph has three major parts-
1. Topic sentence
2. Supporting sentences
3. Concluding sentence
19. What is general writing?
General writing refers to any piece of writing which focuses in general subjects of writing and
general papers are published for amusement of the reader. But sometimes many general topics
also gives life lessons, moral, inspiration etc. It is a form of writing that implies writing on general
subjects like blog posts, Facebook/Instagram posts, essays etc.
20. Define Technical Writing?
Technical writing is a specialized form of communication used by many of today's industrial and
scientific organizations to clearly and accurately convey complex information to a user. Most
technical writing relies on simplified grammar, supported by easy-to-understand visual
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communication to clearly and accurately explain complex information. It is a form of writing that
implies writing technical documentation, help topics, user manuals, articles and the like that
helps people understand how to use an app or device.

PART B & C
1. Elaborate on the different types of writing.
2. Discuss the essential Grammar components in writing articles.
3. Explain vocabulary and its types.
4. Explain Passive voice in detail and compare it with active voice.
5. Explain the importance of reported speech with examples.
6. Discuss concord and its types with examples.
7. Discuss signpost words with examples.
8. Explain cohesive devices with suitable examples.
9. Elaborate on Paragraph writing with suitable examples.
10. Compare Technical Writing and General Writing.

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