2A Chemistry - Classification of Substances
CHEMISTRY
The world is made up of a variety of substances.
Some of these occur naturally in our environment, others are made through the combination of naturally
occurring substances to form new materials.
The study of chemistry can lead us to a better understanding of our material world and the processes by
which materials can change and be changed.
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass
There are three states of matter
• Solids, Liquids and Gases
Characteristics of the States of Matter
Solid Liquid Gas
Fixed Shape Shape of Container Shape of Container
Fixed Volume Fixed Volume Shape of Container
Cannot flow Can flow Can flow
e.g. iron, copper, sulphur e.g. water, mercury e.g. hydrogen. oxygen,
methane
Changes of State
Elements, Compounds and Mixtures
Elements: Cannot be broken down into anything simpler using chemical means or
Substance made up of one type of atom
All the known elements are listed in the Periodic Table Invented by Dmitri Mendeleev
Vertical columns are called Groups
Horizontal rows are called Periods
Metals are to the left of the red line and Non-metals are to the right of the red line
Periodic Table
Solid
H
1
Liquid Metals Non-metals He
2
Li Be Gas B C N O F Ne
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Cu Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge Se Sc Br Kr
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mn Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
55 56 57-71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 87
Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Uub Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo
87 88 89-103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Physical Properties of two metals and two Non-metals
Element Metal or Non-metal State Colour
Hydrogen (H) Non-metal Gas Colourless
Carbon (C) Non-metal Solid Black
Copper (Cu) Metal Solid Salmon pink
Mercury (Hg) Metal Liquid Silvery
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2A Chemistry - Classification of Substances
Compounds: Substance made up of more than one type of atom chemically joined
Elements combine chemically to form compounds
When elements combine they lose their individual properties
o Sodium is a very reactive silvery metal
o Chlorine is a poisonous green-yellow gas
o Sodium chloride (table salt) formed when they react is a white crystalline solid
+ =
Sodium Chlorine Gas Table Salt Crystals
Properties of Simple Compounds and their Constituent Elements
Compound Properties Elements Properties
H2O Colourless liquid Hydrogen Colourless gas burns
Water Does not burn Oxygen Colourless gas, supports combustion
CO2 Colourless gas Carbon Black solid
Carbon dioxide Does not burn Oxygen Colourless gas, supports combustion
MgO White powder Magnesium Silvery metal, burns
Magnesium oxide Does not burn Oxygen Colourless gas, supports combustion
FeS Grey solid Iron Grey shiny metal, burns if powdered
Iron sulphide Does not burn Sulphur Yellow solid , burns
Mixtures: Substance made up of more than one type of atom NOT chemically joined
e.g. salt and sand, salt and water
Separating Sand and Water by Filtration
Filtration is used to separate an insoluble solid from a liquid
e.g. salt and sand
Set up the apparatus as in the diagram
Fold the filter paper twice and place it opened in the filter funnel
Pour the mixture of sand and water into the filter paper
Result: The sand particles are trapped in the filter paper and
are called the residue. Water passes through and is called
the filtrate
Conclusion: Filtration can be used to separate an insoluble
solid from a liquid
Separating Salt and Water by Evaporation
Evaporation is used to separate a soluble solid from a liquid
e.g. salt and water
Set up the apparatus as in the diagram
Pour the salt water solution into the evaporating basin
Place the evaporating basin on top of the boiling water bath
Result: The water evaporates leaving the salt behind
Conclusion: Evaporation can be used to separate a soluble solid
from a liquid
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2A Chemistry - Classification of Substances
Separating Salt and Water by Distillation
Distillation separates a liquid from a soluble solid or another liquid, and collects
the liquid separated
Set up the apparatus as shown
Connect the bottom lug to the tap so that water enters the bottom of the
condenser
The pipe from the top lug should go to the sink
Heat the flask
Collect the distillate in a beaker
Result: Water evaporates from the flask and is condensed (turned
back to water) in the Liebig condenser.
Conclusion: distillation can be used to separate and collect a
liquid from a soluble solid
Separating a Mixture of Inks using Paper Chromatography
Place a spot of black ink near the bottom of a strip of chromatography paper
Place the paper in water so that the black ink spot is above the water as
shown in diagram
Leave for a time and observe the solvent moving up the paper
Result: the different inks are carried up the paper by the solvent at different
rates and so are separated.
Conclusion: Paper chromatography can be used to separate a mixture of inks
Metals
are shiny (have a lustre) e.g. silver and fresh copper in new coins
can be stretched into wires (ductile) e.g. copper
can be hammered into sheets (malleable) e.g. gold leaf
conduct heat
conduct electricity
are used to make tins, cars, ships, bridges, knives, gold rings and bracelets etc.
Good examples of metallic elements are copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), aluminium (Al), iron (Fe), silver (Ag) and
gold (Au) [Learn these symbols]
Alloys are mixtures of metals (carbon is considered as a metal in this case)
Alloy Constituents Uses
Bronze Copper (Cu) and Zinc (Zn) Ornaments, coins and statues
Brass Copper (Cu) and Tin (Sn) Door knobs, hinges and musical instruments
Steel Iron (Fe) and Carbon (C) Ships, bridges and car bodies
Solder Lead (Pb) and Tin (Sn) Joining metals in electrical circuits
Non-metals
Are not shiny
Are brittle
Do not conduct heat
Don not conduct electricity (carbon is a notable exception)
Many are gases
You need to know the following non-metals and their symbols:
Carbon (C), Oxygen (O), Sulfur (S), Hydrogen (H) and Nitrogen (N)
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2A Chemistry - Classification of Substances
Mixtures and Compounds
Compare a Mixture and a Compound made from the same Constituents
Take some iron filings (14.0g) and powdered sulfur (8g)
Note their colours (Iron grey and sulfur yellow)
Mix fully
Hold a magnet (wrapped in polythene) near the mixture
Result: iron filings stick to the magnet as mixture separates
Remix the elements and place the mixture in a test tube
Heat strongly in a Bunsen flame
Note what happens
Allow to cool and test once more with a magnet
Result:
Mixture glows as they react and iron sulphide forms
Iron sulphide is NOT magnetic
Conclusion:
The constituents of the mixture retain their original properties
The compound formed (iron sulphide) does NOT keep the
properties of the original substances
Water and Solutions
Solution: a mixture of a liquid (solvent) and a solid dissolved in it (solute) e.g. water and sugar
Water is a very good solvent
Dilute Solution: contains a small amount of solute (salt) in a lot of solvent (water)
Concentrated Solution: contains a large amount of solute (salt) in a small amount of solvent (water)
Saturated Solution: contains as much solute dissolved in it as is possible at a particular temperature
The Effect of Temperature on Solubility
Set up the apparatus as shown
3
Place 10 cm of water in the test tube
Place some copper sulfate (50g) on a filter paper
Weigh it
o
Heat the water bath to 20 C
Add a small amount of copper sulfate to the test tube and stir
Keep adding copper sulfate and stirring till no more dissolves
Calculate the amount of copper sulfate added by the change in weight of the
crystals on the filter paper
Increase the temperature of the water bath to 40 C and repeat
o
Increase the temperature of the water bath to 60 C and repeat
o
Plot a graph of the amount of copper sulfate dissolved against temperature
Result: as the temperature increases the amount of copper sulfate that
dissolves increases
Conclusion: Solubility increases with temperature
Test for Water
Take some dry cobalt chloride paper (it should be blue)
Put a piece of cobalt chloride paper in (i) a test tube of water and
(ii) a test tube of pure alcohol
Result:
Water turns the cobalt chloride paper blue
Alcohol has no effect on the cobalt chloride paper
Conclusion: Cobalt chloride paper can be used as a test for water
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2A Chemistry - Classification of Substances
Examine the difference between a Dilute, Concentrated and Saturated Solution
Make up three copper sulphate solutions
(i) Dilute
(ii) Concentrated
(iii) Saturated
Compare the solutions
Result
If the solution is coloured the colour gets deeper as the
concentration increases
Note: Copper sulfate solution is clear and blue while water is clear and colourless.
Growing Copper Sulfate Crystals
Dissolve copper sulfate crystals is hot water until you have a saturated solution
Divide the solution equally between two evaporating basins (leave any
undissolved crystals in the container)
Place one evaporating basin on the bench to cool slowly
Place the other on ice to cool it quickly
Compare the two sets of crystals
Result:
o the crystals formed slowly on the bench are large
o the crystals formed quickly on the ice are smaller
Conclusion: The faster crystals are formed the smaller they are
Acids and Bases
An Acid is a substance that turns Blue Litmus Red
A Base is a substance that turns Red Litmus Blue
The pH Scale is a scale from 0 to 14 that tells how strong an acid or a base is
Substances with a pH of 7 are Neutral
Substances with a pH of less than 7 are Acidic
Substances with a pH of more than 7 are Basic
An Indicator is a substance used to show how acidic or basic a substance is
Litmus Indicator is red in acids and blue in bases
Universtal Indicator tells us how acidic or basic a substance is by turning a variety of colours
Investigate the pH of a Variety of Materials using the pH Scale
Take a sample of the substance to be tested
Disolve it in a small amount of water
Add a few drops of universal indicator and mix
Note the colour against the supplied chart (see above)
Record the pH
Results: See table below
Strong Acids Weak Acids Neutral Weak Bases Strong Bases
Sulfuric Acid Vinegar Pure Water Toothpaste Sodium hydroxide
Hydrochloric Acid Lemon Juice Alcohol Baking Soda Potassium hydroxide
Nitric Acid Rainwater Sugar solution Soap Ammonia solution
Nettle sting Salt Solution
