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493 views141 pagesThe Process of Shipbuilding - Rajesh Singh
Shipbuilding technical process
Uploaded by
Sunil SahuCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
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Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
/ 141
THE
PROCESS
OF SHIP
BUILDING eset inas)
Rajesh Singh was born at Bhagalpur, 400 Km north
\west of Caleuta, India where he completed his primary
.& secondary education, He excelled in science creating
‘record of scoring 100% in Mathematics. Further, he
pursued Marine Engineering from arguably the best
Institution in India: Marine Engineering & Research
Institute. He was certified as Chief Engineer Officer
(Senior Management Level) by Govt. of India in the
‘year 1999,
After, nearly a decade of successful assignments in
international shipping he is performing multi-tasking
duties as Technical Superintendent for Fleet
Management Ltd., Hong Kong. Specialising in
providing Technical solutions & Logistic support to a
et comprising of Oil/Chemical Tankers & Bulk
‘Cariet. Rajesh has also been a core team member of
4 New Building Project of 30,000Dwt, Type I & IL
chemical Tanker at Kitanihon Shipbuilding Company,
Japan,
Research for publication, writing and his current
assignment take most of his time while he travels
between Hong Kong, Japan & Calcutta,
“2m Sot Ever since my college days, I had always searched for suitable books which can provide me a
‘comprehensive view of the processes involved during ship construction. Most of the writers did
cover most of the theoretical parts but it always seemed to be in-complete. Hence, most of the
student kept pondering with their limited visualization power and concluded differently. Not only
students, I also noticed varying perception among sea & shore based professional. Many students
did understand the terminology used in ship construction but failed to understand the process of
ship building,
The process of ship building is a complete overview of ship building and covers each processes
separately. Ihave focused on each technical terms used with the help of real time photo rather than
drawing or sketch. Real time photo will always provide the reader with required visualization power
for each defined process. I have tried to bridge those gaps which most of the students and professional
failed to conclude with their limited imagination.
‘The book covers most of the processes involved during ship building in an elegant and systematic
way. I have paid special emphasis to welding procedure, fabrication of blocks, paint application,
installation of main Engine and process of shaft alignment.
I would like to thank those who supported me writing this book, especially Tanya, who has
encouraged me in continue writing this book under extreme and tough circumstances. I would like
to extend my thanks to Mr. Hiroshi Iwanaga, representing Saito Shipping Company Ltd, Mr. Moto
San, representing Kitanihon Shipbuilding Company Ld; and Capt. Nagarajan, General Manager,
Fleet Management Ltd.
Lastly, I would like to praise Mr. Kishore Rajvanshy, Managing Director, Fleet Management Ltd;
for providing me in-valuable moral support in publishing my ideas for the entire maritime world.
Dedicated to Tanya
Lap
Rajesh Singh FIRST EDITION NOVEMBER 2007
(© THE INSTITUTE OF MARINE ENGINEERS (INDIA)
Price: Rs. 900
Printed In India By
COMPACT PHOTO OFFSET
G1, G2, Shree Parshwa Industrial Estate,
\V.P. Road, Near Janaki Hotel,
Dombivii (E). 421 201.
Phone: 0251-2473680. Fax: 0251-2470337
E-mail: compact [email protected]
ISBN No.: 902330-4-1 FOREWORD
It gives me a great pleasure to write these words for the
book “The Process of Shipbuilding” which has been put
together by this young member Mr. Rajesh Singh of our new
building team.
While there are many books on the subject in the market,
most of them are very theoretical and adopt classroom
approach with little focus on actual practical work.
What makes this book unique is that it is compiled from the
actual practical experience of this young man in carrying
out new building supervision work and as such contains very
valuable information which has been composed in simple
language with numerous illustrations and photographs. This
makes the book easy to read and understand.
I am sure that students and professionals in the
shipbuilding industry will find this book very useful as a
reference material. I would like to strongly recommend to
all those who plan to involve themselves in the ship
building activity to read this book to get the basic
knowledge of this industry.
I would also like to say that I am very impressed by the
dedication and commitment of Mr. Rajesh Singh who has
worked long hours in compiling this work in such short
period of time. I wish him and this book all the success.
| yay
Kishorels, Rajvanshy
Managing Director
Fleet Management Ltd. mp ot
elf “Qee’,
ee) | ge)
ae Ae TRS
CGoyEReMENT OF INDIA
ha oferer Harera
: __MINSTRY OF SHIPPING .
weal goiRrahe a orgie Re (aS.a1-%)
MARINE ENGINEERING & RESEARCH INSTITUTE
a9 arene Ss. BHT ~ 700088
PISTARATALAROAD, KOLKATA: 700085
‘AN 190-5001:2000 CERTIFIED INSTITUTE (24 et 9001-2000 sere eer )
gre) 240 1904, 675,478,367 a4 sel 3,461 $e an: deer i
NoMERUDIR/1 16/208 Dated 19.06.2008.
ESSA
For long, Marine Engineering in the Country was in high expectant need of an exhaustive
Feerengs book on ship-yard practice, which at a time could ful the requirement of fundaments)
[naples ond practoes along with State-lthe-Art procedures adopted in most versale yates
Procite Globe. The effort of Sri Rajesh Singh is an unique, pragmatic and praiseworthy
arfoach iis regard and | am confident that this book wil be equally acceptable to all, Pe *
arrests reference, Mult-nationals, ship-yards of for a die-hard professional ether for his
‘Vocational excellence or for an educative exercise.
It gives me a futher pleasure and pride to endorse my view that Rajesh Singh had been 27
UE NES erage student of tis Institution in the recent past, whom | had the opportunity to
teach and | wish my very best wishes on this momentous occasion
Got
(BN. DAS)
C.Eng F LE (Ind.) F.L.Mar.E (Ind) Extra First Class Engineer
DY.DIRECTOR TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN
It’s my pleasure to grant permission to Mr. Rajesh Singh, Technical Superintendent for
publishing photographs of our vessel, which was under construction inside the premises
of Kitanihon Shipbuilding Company, Hachinohe, in his book named “The Process of
Shipbuilding”. | appreciate his effort for publishing this book which will be a great
contribution to the shipping community and can understand the immense importance to
the students and professionals in the Maritime Industry. 1 would also like to provide our
fullest support to him for spreading the knowledge and concept of all the processes
involved during shipbuilding,
froshi Iwanaga
Saito Shipping Co. Ltd;
Fukuoka City,
ae (3/06Lc ob The Initialization 1
Welding Procedure 6
Ovtfitting (Part -1) 24
Paint Application 35
Main Engine Shop Trial 48
Shaft Alignment ( Part -1) 58
Fitting of Keyless Propeller B
Rudder Installation B
Launching 89
Shaft Alignment ( Part - II) 2
Rudder Carrier Installation 102
Outfitting (Part - 11) 106
Mooring trial—Test of Equipments 109
Official Sea Trial 12
Delivery 127 The Initialization
‘The construction of a ship involves many technical aspect including good architectural design, planning,
logistic support and implementation of designated task. There are many processes which initiates the making
of a ship. One such process is that the ship owners or a charterer approaches ship broker who is attached
to ship building yard located world wide. Since the charterers are aware about the latest market trend, they
approach ship broker looking for some owners who is willing to invest their money on particular kind of
ship. The ship broker introduces charterer to ship owners and the basic terms and conditions are formally
discussed. Discussion comprises of leasing vessel to the charterer for specified period which is also known
as time charter and rough outline of a ship which is also known as specification. Sometimes the charterer
includes clauses like the purchase ofa ship after few years from ship owners. Usually, ship owners do oblige
charterer keeping long term business relation in mind,
Once these issues are settled between owner and charterer, Owner approaches broker for a suitable ship
building yard which suits their budget. Since the broker is in a better position for suggesting ship owners
about the availability of ship yard and the approximate cost of the ship. Then the ship broker provides
{detailed information about the ship building yard to the owners with all the contact detail. At this stage, the
specification of a ship is discussed with the business department of ship building yard.
‘The ship building yard consists of Business department, Design Department, purchase department, Inspection
Department & Technical Department. The ship owner approaches the business department of ship building
yard for the specification for a particular kind of ship. The business department conveys to the design
department for preparing specification of the ship in question. The complete design of the ship with ship's
specification as per the existing rule and regulation is prepared by the design department. The specification
ofa ship comprises of general Outline, Hull, Machinery and Electrical. The cost of the ship along with the
ship's specification is submitted to the ship owners. The ship owner contacts financial organization who is
willing to provide the financial assistance. Usually, the financial organization verifies the credit history of
a shipping company or the availability of charterer who is going to employ the ship for certain period of
time. By doing this, they are assured about the return from the huge investment involved, Sometimes even
the ship broker also provides the financial assurance to the ship owners. This way a ship broker gets
‘commission from ship building yard, owners & financial institute. After obtaining the guarantee for the loan
‘amount, the ship owners informs the ship building yard about their intention for construction. The ship's
specification is reviewed and approved after necessary correction by the owner keeping in mind the charterer’s
requirement.
‘The other process for initialization is the owner's direct approach to ship building yard, In this case, help
of ship broker or charterer is not required. Ship owner prepares its own specification which is sent to different
ship building yard located world wide. After reviewing the specification, the builders submit the quotation
to the ship owner. The cost and past history of the builder is taken into consideration while awarding the
contract to the ship builder.
‘Once the decision regarding the ship builder is made, a contract for new building of a vessel is signed
‘between the ship builder and owner. The signing of contract is a formal ceremony which is represented by
top level official from builder's business department and shipping company.
The terms and conditions relating to the cost, mode of payment, approval of design, launching, delivery
time of the vessel forms a part of contract. Once the contract is signed, the keel laying ceremony, although
customary, is organized by the yard which is represented by the officials from shipping company. Steel plate|
Switch’
Fig I : Keel laying ceremony
‘The podium for keel laying ceremony is arranged inside the ship building yard as shown in fig 1; The
ceremony begins with a priest performing a formal offering to the God. Then the power supply switch is
Closed for producing an are between the steel plate and welding electrode by one of the top representative
from shipping company. Unlike earlier days, the keel plate is now replaced by the starting block which is
first to be placed on the slip-way or dry-dock. The steel plate shown in the picture do not form a part of
the bottom shell or keel plate,
Planning and managing ship construction requires careful coordination of a wide variety of different resources
‘& responsibilities.
+ Engineering & technical development
+ Purchasing & material control
+ Subcontractors & vendors
+ Production shops, trades & support services
+ Hull erection sites and assembly areas
+ Waterfront facilities & equipment
+ Financial & project management services
+ Classification societies & government authorities
+ Ship owner representatives
‘The assembly operation are the most significant cost drivers, They are influenced by a very large degree
ashow and when the assembly is performed. Productive stage of construction from most to least is mentioned
below: -
1) Assembly at out-fitting - most produetive stage
2) Assembly on hull block - Second most productive stage 3) Assembly On-board or When vessel is moored on [—gaox,
jetty - Least productive stage
The cost wise comparison for different stages of
production is shown in fig 2. The productivity of on-
block assembly is dependant on the block size. Medium
sized block in the range of 400~500 tons are the most
production as far as cost is concerned. The primary
focus of planning must be to organize all work activities ov mama
to support the major assembly operations: Cee oes oa
ee a Peis ‘tage ol presenistion
1) Outfit Units
2) Hull blocks
3) On-board ship outfit
‘The pre-outfitted hull block construction is best described as mentioned below.
| a ee
‘The ship building yard develops erection sequence of hull blocks and equipment modules followed by
integrating it with on-board outfit, tests and trial. The standard criteria followed for maximizing efficiency
Fig 2 : Graphical presentation
‘Maximizing work during most productive stages of construction (On-Unit & On-Block)
Minimizing work during less productive stages of construction (On-Board)
Maximizing work under cover
Maximizing access to work
Minimizing material handling
Minimizing non-productive activities
Maximizing productivity of available manufacturing process
ea ay aeee
Ensuring all work resources are readily available at work time schedules such as drawings, material,
tools, facilities and man-power.
9. Exploiting benefits of engineering, material and production standard
The purchase department of ship building yard plays a vital role in material management, The purchase
department strictly comply with material management plan to support production. The material management
plan includes:
1. Purchase order management
2. Sub-contract management
3. Warehouse and inventory management
4, Production work order management si
‘ INSPECTING
RECEIVING é ‘WAREHOUSING
woos! PERCEPTION %,...
Life Cycle =
ae
: Rie
eee Material PaSsoetToN
Q Control y
a eee
nefits
oa
Venger inves
nde sar
— SI
é TAGESS STORES
Interface with
‘accorunting
system
‘The process of material managing from engineering to production is explained above. There are various
software based solutions for material management which enables tracking of materials from anywhere in
the operations by allowing the user to manage, view inventory levels, location and active history.
‘A work order isa distinct and definable unit of work that can be started and completed without significant
interruption under the direction ofa single work center, The work centers are mainly design, technical
inspection and paint department. The size of the work orders is dependant onthe scope of assigned task,
‘Usually large work orders are dificult to manage than small work orders. Large work orders that are opett
and in-process for a long period of time always collect more costs than necessary. Monitoring of actual
progress not only becomes more difficult but impossible. However, work orders which is i09 small are
vtivalt to manage. They require more overhead to plan and! manage. They inerease opportunities for time
charge errors. As a thumb rule which is being followed by most shipbuilding yard is to create work orders
for 350 man-hours or 2-weeks duration maximum, The recording of time charges against authorized work
sens is of major importance tothe shipyard. Correct and complete time charging against contracts is oRen
the basis by which shipyard bills its customer. Without accurate and timely information, billing can be in-
complete of late causing considerable problems to the builders.
‘The shipbuilding yard might reduce its ability to make profi. Every work order is authorized so tha it an
bbe completed without undue delay and entered into the reporting system. ‘The completed work orders are of prime significance as it helps shipbuilding yard to measure, track and
forecast cost variances automatically. Cost variance is the eared value compared with the actual cost
incurred for the work performed provides an objective measure of planned and actual cost, Any difference
is called a cost variance. A negative variance means more money was spent for the work accomplished than
was planned. The performance is measured not only in terms of labor hours and costs against budgets, but
also in terms of planned versus actual production throughput units of measure (feet of weld, tons of steel,
etc).
‘The builders relies on tracking performance cost, progress, forecasting schedule variance, forecasting saving
variance, man-power requirement, material cost and performance index. The schedule status and cost is
reported online to head of business department,
Ahead / Behind Schedule For New Building Project
T T T T
oeaaagaaceseeg ARRRaERACT TTT aaRo aE Ea
‘she
rein commrwmss sD —WKs TH or RoERISS
Tracking & Forecasting Schedule Variance
During the production stage, the owners can provide proposal for minor alteration in design and layout.
Depending on the size of the alteration, additional cost is billed to the customer by the builder. The sequential
production process as discussed is explained in the following chapter. Welding procedure
Welding is an un-controlled heat process. Are welding refers to a group of welding processes that uses 8
power supply to create an electric are between an electrode and the base material to melt the meals at the
Melding point They ean use ether direct (DC) or alternating (AC) current, and consumable or non-consummable
“Clectrodes. The welding region is sometimes protected by some type of inert or semi-inert gas, known as &
shielding gas, and/or filler material
‘To supply the electrical energy necessary for arc welding processes, a number of different power supplies
can be used, The most common classification is constant current power Supplies and constant voltage power
supplies, In are welding, te voltage is directly related tothe Tength of the arc, and the current is related fo
the amount of heat input, Constant current power supplies are most often used for manual welding processes
such as gas tungsten are welding and shielded metal arc welding, because they maintain a relatively constait
artent even as the voltage varies. This is important because in manual welding, it can be dificult to hold
the electrode perfectly steady, and as a result, the are length and thus voltage tend to fluctuate, Constant
\oltage power supplies hold the voltage constant and vary the current, and asa result, are most often used
Tor automated welding processes such as gas metal arc welding, flux cored arc welding, and submerged are
welding, In these processes, arc Length is kept constant, since any fluctuation inthe distance between the
‘Wire and the base material is quickly rectified by a large change in current. For example, if the wire and
the base material get too close, the current will rapidly increase, which in turn causes the heat 0 increase
‘and the tip of the wire to melt, returning it to its original separation distance,
“The direction of current used in are welding also plays an important role in welding, Consumable electrode
processes such as shielded metal are welding and gas meal are welding generally use direct current, bt
‘he electrode can be charged either positively or negatively. In welding, the positively charged anode will
have a greater heat concentration and, as a result, changing the polarity of the eleetrode has an impact on
weld properties, Ifthe electrode is positively charged, it will melt more quickly, inreasing weld penetration
dd welding speed. Alternatively, a negatively charged electrode results in more shallow welds. Non-
consumable electrode processes, such as gas tungsten arc welding, can use cither type of direct current, as
swell as alternating current. With direct current however, because the electrode only creates the arc and does
hot provide filler material, a positively charged electrode causes shallow welds, while a negatively charged
Clectrode makes deeper welds, Altemating current rapidly moves between these two, resulting in medium-
penetration welds. One disadvantage of AC, te fact thatthe are must be re-ignited after every 2er0 crossings
has been addressed with the invention of special power units that produce a square wave pattern instead
‘nating low-voltage time after the zero crossings and minimizing the effects
of the normal sine wave, el
of the problem.
‘Submerged metal arc welding (SMAW), Flux cored metal
are welding (FCAW), submerged arc welding (SAW) and
‘Tungsten inert gas welding (TIG) are widely acceptable
processes. The ship building yard relies mostly on Flux
‘coated metal arc welding (FCAW), submerged are welding
(AW) and Tungsten inert gas welding (TIG). Other forms
‘of welding which is used on smaller scale by ship builders
are also discussed in this chapter.
Submerged metal arc welding: One of the most common
types of are welding is shielded metal are welding (SMAW),
‘which is also known as manual metal are welding (MMA)
Fig I: Joining pipe using SMAW or stick welding, Electric current is used to strike an are between the base material and consumable electrode
rod, which is made of steel and is covered with a flux that protects the weld area from oxidation and
contamination by producing CO2 gas during the welding process. The electrode core itself acts as filler
material, making a separate filler unnecessary. The process is very versatile, requiring little operator training
and inexpensive equipment. However, weld times are rather slow, since the consumable electrodes must
be frequently replaced and because slag, the residue from the flux, must be chipped away after welding,
Furthermore, the process is generally limited to welding ferrous materials though specialty electrodes have
made possible the welding of cast iron, nickel, aluminium, copper and other metals. The versatility of the
‘method makes it popular in a number of applications including repair work and construction.
Flux cored
‘wire Roll
Wire/Electrode
‘eeder
Mechanism
Fig 2: Flux cored Wire feeder
Flux cored metal are welding: is a semi-automatic or automatic arc welding process. FCAW requires
continuously fed consumable tubular electrode containing a flux and a constant voltage or, less commonly,
‘ constant current welding power supply as shown in fig 2. The wire consist of a steel electrode surrounding
«powder fill material. An externally supplied shielding gas is sometimes supplied, but often the flux itself
is relied upon to generate the necessary protection from the atmosphere. Depending on the material, the
wire feed speed and current are set by the operator. The operator initially loads the wire roll and feeds the
wire speed, current, voltage, travel speed etc on the control panel provided. The process is widely used in
ship construction because of its high welding speed and portability. This process is used for all position
of welding and due to high speed, its extremely beneficial for welding block joints during assembly of block.
‘The process is useful for welding low alloy steel, mild steel, stainless steel and nickel alloy steel Submerged Are Welding: is a high-produetivity welding method in which the are 1 struck beneath a
covering layer of granular fusible flux. This inreases are quality, since the molten ‘weld and the are zone
sre protected from atmospheric contamination by being “submerged” under 9 blanket of granular fusible
tras When motte, the flux becomes conductive, and provides a current path between the clectrode and
trevwork as shown in fig 3. The slag that forms on the weld generally comes off by ise ‘and, combined
[ Granuiar
| Flux holder |
Electrode holder
[Fox ouilet
Fig 3: Submerged Are Wire & Granular fusible fx feeder
with the use ofa continuous wire feed, the weld deposition rate is high. The stag formed is vac cleaned
from the surface, Working conditions are much improved over other are welding processes 21% the flux
hides the are and no smoke is produced. The process is used as semi or fully automat: ‘welding in ship
building industry for joining large straight stel plating despite of hazard from slog and flux residue.
jan arc welding process that uses a non consumable tungsten electrode
‘ced from atmospheric contamination by a shielding gas (usually
‘an inert gas such as argon), and a filler metal is normally used.
‘A constant current welding power supply produces energy which
js conducted across the are through a column of highly ionized
gs and metal vapors known as a plasma as shown in fig 4 The
fungsten electrode must be held firmly inthe center of the torch
‘with an appropriately sized collet, and ports around the electrode
provide a constant flow of shielding ges as shown in fig 5
Especially useful for welding thin materials, this method is
‘characterized by a stable arc and high quality welds, bt it requires
FL on) significant operator skill and can
ow speeds. It can be used on nearly all
3s steel, clad steel
‘Tungsten inert gas (TIG) wel
to produce the weld. The weld area is prote
only be accomplished at relatively
‘weldable metals, though it is most often applied to stainless
dnd light metals such as Aluminium and copper alloys. The process erants
the operator greater control over the weld than competing procedures such
te shielded metal arc welding and flux cored metal are welding, allowing for
stronger higher quality welds Iti often used when weld quality is extremely
rable such as dressing of weld bead for stainless steel tanks. Fig 5: TIG Torch
desi Stud Welding: isa form of spot welding where a bolt or specially formed nut is welded on to another metal
patt. The bolts may be automatically fed into the spot welder. Weld nuts generally have a flange with small
nubs that melt to form the weld, Studs will have a necked down, unthreaded area for the same purpose. The
fastener or weld stud is positioned for welding through the use
‘ofa stud gun, When the operator activates the stud gun trigger,
the fastener (electrode) is welded to the work-piece without the
use of filler metal. The welding duration of SW is typically one
second or less. Stud welding is primarily used in locations which
do not permit use of other fastening methods such as ventilation
trunk, fuel oil tank bulkhead and accommodation bulkhead,
‘These threaded bolts are welded on to the steel surface in order
to provide support to the bulkhead insulation comprising of
Fig 6: Stud welding Gun thick rock wool or glass wool pad.
‘The stud gun consists of a body, trigger and lift mechanism as shown in fig 6. Stud gun accessories consist
ofa chuck or fastener holder, and an adjustable support (leg) forthe ferrule holder (grip). Chucks and ferrule
holders are easily changed to permit various diameters of studs and ferrules to be used. An adjustment for
the li of the fastener is provided on the stud gun.
‘The welding sequence of complete process for stud welding is explained in step 1 to 4.
>
KIM
Gun is properly Triggers pressed and the After arcing is complete, Gun is witdraiyn
positioned andmain studs ifthe work. An the main spring plunges’ Tom the welded stud.
Eunspring’spartally Greiscreated andmelisthe thet into the molten The feu is broken
compressed. Stud and parent material pool of metal away and discarded
Step 1 Sup? Step3 Steps Oxy-acetylene welding/cuttng:-In gas welding and cutting, the heat energy and high temperature needed
to melt the metal is obtained by the combustion ofa fuel gas with oxygen in a torch, Acetylene gas is shipped
in special cylinders designed to Keep the gas dissolved. The eylinders are packed with various porous
materials (e-g. kapok fibre, diatomaceous earth, or, formerly, asbestos), then filled about half way with
avetone, The acetylene dissolves into the acetone. This method is necessary because above 207 kPa (30
Ibs/in’) acetylene is unstable and may explode, Acetylene when burned with oxygen gives a temperature
108 3200 °C to 3500 °C (5800 °F to 6300 °F), which is the highest temperature of any of the commonly used
taseous fuels. Oxygen is usually produced elsewhere by distillation of liquified air and shipped to the
‘welding stein high pressure vessels (commonly called "anks' or ‘eylinders}) ata pressure of about 21000
kPa (3000 Ibs/in? = 200 atmospheres).
/ELDING TORCH
po gas hoses
gas on/off valves
oxygen blast
a eee ee
wa
oxygeft blast valve gas valves
‘The nozzel can be unscrewed
CUTTING TORCH
‘The extra pipe is for the oxygen blast which helps to burn
and blast the melted metal out of the cut,
Fig 7: Cutting & Welding Torch
“The apparatus used in gas welding consists basically ofa torch, two pressure regulator and twin flexible
hoses, The torch is the part that the welder holds and manipulates to make the weld. It has two valves and
‘two connections, one each for the acetylene and the oxygen, a handle for the welder to grasp, a mixing
chamber where the fuel gas and oxygen mix, and a tip where the flame comes out as shown in fig 7. The
regulators are attached to the acetylene and oxygen sources. The oxygen regulator is attached to the oxygen
pottle and reduces the pressure from about 21000 kPa (3000 Ibs/in® = 200 amospheres) to a lower pressure
forthe torch. This pressure can be adjusted to suit the job at hand by turning a knob on the regulator, and
can be set from 0 to about 700-1400 kPa (100-200 Ibsin). Likewise, the regulator for acetylene is attached
to the bottle and the pressure of acetylene is reduced to 0 to 100 kPa (15 Tbstin’) Itis recommended that between the regulator and hose as well as ideally between hose and torch on both
oxy and acetylene tines, a Flashback arrestor and/or non-return be installed to prevent flame or oxy-acetylene
‘mixture being pushed back into the bottle and causing both damage to the equipment as well as a possible
cylinder explosion. An oxy-acetylene flame has two parts; the light blue to white colored inner cone and
the blue colored outer cone. The inner cone is where the acetylene and the oxygen combine. The tip of this
inner cone is the hottest part of the flame. The outer cone is where hydrogen and carbon monoxide. from
the breakdown of the acetylene and partial combustion of the inner cone combine with the oxygen in the
surrounding air and burns. The flame is applied to the base metal and held until a small puddle of molten
‘metal is formed, The puddle is moved along the path where the weld bead is desired. Usually, more metal
is added to the puddle as it is moved along by means of dripping metal from a wire ("welding rod” or “filler
rod") into the molten metal puddle. The force of the jet of flame issuing from the torch tip helps to manipulate
the puddle. The amount of heat can be controlled by the distance of the flame from the metal, as well as
the gas flow rate and nozzle size selected. There should be a bright, incandescent spot on the molten puddle.
When the puddle is correctly maintained, a sound weld will result,
For cutting purposes, the set-up is alittle different. A cutting torch has a 90-degree angled head with six
orifices placed around a central jet. The six outer jets are for oxygen and acetylene (oxy-propane devices
use an array of many jets) and the central jet carries only oxygen. Cutting is initiated by heating the edge
of the steel to melting point using the six pre-heat jets only, then using the separate cutting oxygen valve
to release the oxygen from the central jet. The stec! is instantly oxidized into molten iron oxide, producing
the cut. It is worth noting several things at this point. Firstly, that the oxygen flow rate is critical -to0 little
will result in a slow, ragged cut, too much will waste oxygen and produce a wide, concave cut
Robotic oxy-acetylene cutters sometimes use a
high-speed divergent nozzle. This uses an oxygen
jet that opens slightly along its passage. This
allows the compressed oxygen to expand as it
leaves, forming a high-velocity jet that spreads
less than a parallel-bore nozzle, and allowing a
cleaner cut. These are not used for hand-cutting,
since they require very accurate positioning above
the work. Due to their ability to produce almost,
any shape from large steel plates, gas-cutting is
‘widely used in shipbuilding as shown in fig 8.
Fig 8: Robotic Gas cutting of steel plate
Brazing: isa joining process whereby a non-ferrous filler metal and an alloy are heated to melting temperature
(above 450°C; 800°F) and distributed between two or more close-fitting parts by capillary action. At its
liquid temperature, the molten filler metal interacts with a thin layer of the base metal, cooling to form an
exceptionally strong, sealed joint due to grain structure interaction. The brazed joint becomes a sandwich
of different layers, each metallurgically linked to each other. Common brazements are about 1/3 as strong
as the materials they join, because the metals partially dissolve each other atthe interface, and usually the
‘grain structure and joint alloy is uncontrolled. To create high-strength brazes, sometimes a brazement can
bbe annealed, or cooled at a controlled rate, so that the joint's grain structure and alloying is controlled. A
variety of alloys of metals, including silver, tin, zine, copper and others are used as filler for brazing processes.
‘There are speci
it’s the cheapest and effective form of joining metals,
c brazing alloys and fluxes recommended, depending on which metals are to be joined and The ship builders utilizes brazing process for refrigerant piping of air conditioning and refrigerating plant
“Any flux esidues lef after brazing must be thoroughly removed; otherwise, severe corrosion may eventually
occur.
‘Thermal Gouging: isan essential part of welded block fabrication. Used for rapid removal of unwanted
metal, the material is locally heated and molten metal ejected - usually by blowing it away. Normal ox
acetylene gas or ae processes can be used to produce rapid melting and metal removal, However, f0 produce
4 groove of specific dimensions, particularly regarding depth and width the welder must exereise careful
sent ofthe gouging operation IFthis does not happen, an erratic and badly-serrated groove will result
‘The gouging process has been proved successful that itis used fora wide spectrum of applications in ship
building industries:
1) Repair and maintenance of structures
2) Removal of eracks and imperfections - low holes and sand traps in both ferrous and non-ferrous forgings
and castings
3) Preparation of plate edges for butt and fillet welding
4) Removal of surplus metal such as excess weld bead profiles, temporary backing sips te
“The ship building yard utilize manual metal arc gouging extensively. The main advantage of manusl metal
arc (MMA) gouging is that the same power
source ean be used for welding, gouging, of
cutting, simply by changing the type of
electrode. As in conventional MMA welding,
the arc is formed between the tip of the electrode
and the work-picce. MMA gouging differs
because it requires special purpose electrodes
‘with thick flux coatings to generate a strong
arc force and gas stream as shown in fig 9.
Unlike MMA welding where a stable weld pool
rust be maintained, this process forces the
‘molten metal away from the are zone to leave
Profile of gouge | 3 clean cut surface. The gouging process is
‘characterized by the large amount of gas which
js generated to eject the molten metal. However,
because the are/gas stream is not as powerful as a gas or a separate
air et, the surface of the gouge is not as smooth as an oxy-acetylene
gouge. According to the size of gouge specified, there is a wide
ange of electrode diameters available to choose from. These
grooving electrodes are also not just restricted to steels, and the
same electrode composition may be used for gouging stainless steel
and non-ferrous alloys. When correctly applied, are gouging can
produce relatively clean gouged surfaces as shown in fig 10. For
general applications, welding can be carried out without the need
to dress by grinding, However when gouging stainless steel, thin
layer of higher carbon content material will be produced which
should be removed by grinding.
‘Are and gas jet
to displace molten metal
Flux coating
rection oF BOuge
Fig 9: Metal Are Gouging
Fig 10: View of Gouged surface Edge preparation: The effect of edge beveling or grooving is to control the amount of weld reinforcement.
‘The amount of weld penetration is also affected by changes in bevel depth and volume. For butt, fillet and
multi-pass welds, the maximum weld width should be at least somewhat wider than the weld depth. A ratio
of 1.25 to 1.5 weld width/weld depth is preferred to reduce the possibility of center weld cracking. Proper
joint bevels and proper welding parameter selection assist in obtaining this relationship. Beveling or grooving
is especially desirable for butt joints thicker than 5/8 in, Beveling is sometimes used for material as thin
as 1/4 in, where it can assist in tracking the weld seam with knife edged wheel followers. In positioned tee
joint or comer joint fillet welding where complete root penetration is desired, the abutting member is
generally bevelled if the depth of fusion desired for each weld exceeds 3/8-in.
Fig II: Desired V-Angle Fig 13: Large V-Angle Fig 12: Small V-Angle
‘The effect of beveling and consequences is shown in fig 11, 12 & 13. The amount of beveling required for
‘butt and fillet welding varies with the thickness of plating and is generally guided by the rule specified by
Class. The amount of gap between the two steel plating is dependant on the availability of backing strip
whether temporary or permanent.
=a
Fig 14: Single Vee Butt with backing sirip Fig 15: Single Vee Butt
The dimensions for single Vee butt, one side welding with backing strip as shown in fig 14 are:-
G=3~9 mm if Gap angle is 30° ~ 45°
‘The dimensions for single Vee butt without backing strip as shown in fig 15 are: -
G3 mm if Gap angle is 30° ~ 70°
Similarly, for fillet weld plate edge preparation, allowances are specified by Class. Rust, if any, must be
removed before the welding to prevent it from becoming embedded. Rust which has been embedded and
cannot be removed by wire- brushing, then it should be machined or ground off before welding. If cutting
oils or greases are used in machined edge preparation, they should be removed with a degreaser that will
Jeave no residue upon evaporation.
SS SS A a cee eee a
So ie Backing strip/tape helps
provide flat, slag free welds
requiring no grinding or
back-gouging and thus
being used extensively by
ship builders during block
construction or assembly as
shown in fig 15. It helps
eliminate re-welds and
reworking due to defects.
‘This reduces costs and increases weld productivity, cutting set-up
and weld times. The metallic adhesive tape has a woven glass fibre
strip whichis held up against the weld preparation area and maintains
the weld in the same plane as the plates or tubes bei
shown in fig 16. In some situations the use of backing tape can
replace purging of the underside as oxygen is absent and coking, oxidation, and discoloration are prevented.
Trig therefore suitable for situations where the use of purge gas is impractical or expensive such as ship
building yard.
Fig 16: Backing tape rll
joined as
Fig IS: Backing sirip/Tape
Method of Inspection: Inspection of welded joints are caried out by an approved non-destructive jest
trethod, such as radiography, ultrasonic, magnetic particle or liquid penetrant. Radiographic and ultrasonic
inspection are used for internal (subsurface) inspection, Magnetic particle and liquid penetrantinspen 0”
rether equivalent approved detection methods are generally for surface inspection of welds. The Class
provides pudelines forthe extent and locaton of inspetion and chee of inspestion methods NDT personne!
wre tobe qualified by taining and certified to perform the necessary calibrations and tests and fo interes
ar alia indications for any sub-surface flaws. Nondestructive testing of weld beads in stel are conduc
suitable interval after welds have been completed and cooled to ambient temperature, To monitor
hydrogen induced cracking in weldments, the inspection time varies from 24 hrs to 72 brs
Hydrogen induced damage is a degradation of metals caused by exposure {0 environments (iguid or gas)
‘vhich cause absorption of hydrogen into the material to cause degradation in mechanical performance
Examples of hydrogen induced damage are:
1. Formation of internal cracks, blisters or voids in steels.
2, Embrittlement (i.e. loss of ductility)
3, High temperature hydrogen attack (ie. surface decarburation and chemical reaction with hydrogen.
Radiography: is « non-destructive method of inspecting materials for hidden flaws by using the ability of
short wavelength electromagnetic radiation to penctrate various materials. Either a high energy "Cray
nachine ova gamma radiation source such as I-192 or Co-60 is used asa source of photons. The beam of
aration met be directed tothe middle ofthe section under examination and must be normal to the materia}
rufa at that point, except in special techniques where known defects ae best revealed by a diferent
alignment of the beam. The length of weld under examination for each exposure shall be such that the
thickness ofthe material atthe diagnostic extremities, measured i the direction ofthe incident beam, does
not exceed the actual thickness at that point by more than 6%. ‘The specimen to be inspected is placed between the source of radiation and the detecting device, usually
the film in alight tight holder or cassette, and the radiation is allowed to penetrate the part for the required
length of time to be adequately recorded. The result is a two-dimensional projection of the part onto the
film, producing a latent image of varying densities according to the amount of radiation reaching each area.
It is known as a radiograph, as distinct from a photograph produced by light. Because film is cumulative
in its response (the exposure increasing as it absorbs more radiation), relatively weak radiation can be
detected by prolonging the exposure until the film can record an image that wil be visible after development,
‘The radiograph is examined as a negative, without printing as a positive as in photography. This is because,
in printing, some of the detail is always lost and no usefil purpose is served.
‘The radiographic film is to be properly marked to clearly indicate the hull number, or other equivalent
traceable identification, and to identify the exact location of the area radiographed.
Defects such as delaminations and planar cracks are difficult to detect using radiography, which is why
Penetrants are often used to enhance the contrast in the detection of such defects.
‘The minimum extent of radiographic inspection of the vessel's surface is governed by the length, breadth
and depth of the vessel, The selection of location is dependant on the following criteria: -
i) Welds in high stressed areas
ii) Other important structural elements
iii) Welds which are inaccessible ot very difficult to inspect in service
iv) Field erected welds
¥) Suspected problem areas
vi) Intersections of butts and seams in the sheer strakes, bilge strakes, deck stringer plates and keel plates
‘The Class permits some amount of pores (large, medium, fine) per square area of weld length. In addition
to producing high quality radiographic films, the radiographer must be skilled to interpret the radiograph.
Interpretation of radiograph takes place in three basic steps which are as follows:-
1) Detection
2) Interpretation
3) Evaluation
‘The radiographer must have the ability to resolve a spatial pattern in an image. The ability of an individual
to detect flaws in weldment is also dependant on the intensity of lighting in the place of viewing and the
experience level to recognize various features in an image. Radiographic density is a measure of the film
blackness. It is a logarithmic scale of light transmission through the film image and is accurately measured
with a calibrated electronic transmission densitometer. The storage time for the radiograph depends on the
agreement between ship owner and ship building yard. To prevent deterioration of radiographic film, it
should be stored in a controlled atmosphere where temperature and humidity control is taken care off. Each
radiograph should be marked distinctly for easier identification such as hull number, location, date ete and
properly documented for future reference by the surveyor or owner. Cluster porosity is caused when ux coated electrodes are contaminated with moistir® ‘The moisture turns
into gases when heated and becomes trapped in the weld during the welding provess Cluster porosity appear
just ike regular porosity inthe radiograph but the indications will be ‘grouped close together.
Fig 17: Radiograph of Cluster porosity
Porosity is the result of gas entrapment inthe solidifying metal, Porosity can take many shapes On 8
radiograph but often appear as dark round or ireglar spots or specs appearing singular: #9 NSS
en pony ie eomeed na any av Et wppoerana ieee «til Tie zee of
tov atempting to escape while the metals stil in liguid state and is called wormhole porosity All porosity
sea void inthe material it will have a radiographic density more than the surrounding ares
Fig 18: Radiograph of Porosity
‘ D Cracks can be detected in a radiograph only when they a
propagating in a direction that produces a change
in thickness that is parallel to the x-ray beam. Cracks will appear as jagged and often very faint irregular
lines. Cracks can sometimes appear as "tails" on inclusions or porosity
aca
x
"
Meme ec
Fig 19: Radiograph of Crack
Incomplete fusion is @ condition where the weld filler metal does not properly fuse with the base metal
Appearance on radiograph: usually appears as a dark line or lines oriented inthe direction of the weld seam
along the weld preparation or joining area
Fig 20: Radiograph of In-complete Fusion Slag inclusions are nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or between weld and base metal.
Th avadiograph, dark, jagged asymmetrical shapes witin the weld or along the weld joint areas ate indicative
of slag inclusions.
Fig 21: Radiograph of Slag inclusions
‘Tungsten inclusions: Tungsten isa brittle and inherently dense material used in the electrode in tungsten
inert pas welding. improper welding procedures are used, tungsten may be enfappsd in the weld. Since
‘TIG welding is extensively used by ship building yard for dressing weld bead of stainless steel tanks, the
radiographic examination of certain locations are caried out to determine any inclusion of Tungsten.
Radiograpicaly, tungsten is more dense than aluminum o tel; therefore it shows asa Tighter aca with
4 distinet outline on the radiograph.
Fig 22: Radiograph of Tungsten inclusion
. t Ultrasonic inspection: Ultrasonic Testing (UT) uses high frequency sound energy to conduct examinations
and make measurements. Ultrasonic inspection can be used for flaw detection/evaluation, dimensional
‘measurements, material characterization, and more. To illustrate the general inspection principle, a typical
pulse/echo inspection configuration as illustrated below will be used. A typical UT inspection system consists
of several functional units, such as the pulser/receiver, transducer, and display devices. A pulsetireceiver
isan electronic device that can produce high voltage electrical pulse. Driven by the pulser, the transducer
generates high frequency ultrasonic energy. The sound energy is introduced and propagates through the
‘materials in the form of waves. When there is @ discontinuity (such as a crack) in the wave path, part of the
energy will be reflected back from the flaw surface. The reflected wave signal is transformed into electrical
signal by the transducer and is displayed on a screen. In the applet below, the reflected signal strength is
displayed versus the time from signal generation to when a echo was received. Signal travel time can be
directly related to the distance that the signal traveled. From the signal, information about the reflector
location, size, orientation and other features can sometimes be gained. Ultrasonic test is not among the
preferred choice of NDT carried by ship builders due to some limitation such as surface irregularity or weld
bead profile, application of coupling medium (gel) & extensively trained personnel.
Voids Flat Bottom Hole
\ NY re
Voids Flat Bottom Hole Voids Flat Bottom Hole
i
‘Ultrasonic weld inspections are typi
‘an angle beam transducer and wedge. A
incidence into the test piece, is first uset
js important because an angle beam transducer
flaw.
straight
cally performed using a straight beam transducer
“tte locate any laminations in or near the heat-affected zone, This
in conjunction with
eam transducer, producing a longitudinal wave at normal
‘may not be able to provide a return signal from a laminar
Q,= Angle of Retraction
T= Material Thickness
Surtace Distance = Sin O, x Sound Path
Dept (1st Leg) = Cas Qy x Sound Path
tod Anal
On Rot
x
re
o ~Co0 Oh.
5 Thea
Gor Oy
kip Distance = 2 xTan@,, Path
Fig 23: Scanning of one side weld
When discontinuities are indicated, the sound be
‘The transducer is then moved
amplitude until the indication drops toward the
record and are to include the hull number, exact
(Gnstrument identity, transducer type, size,
any unusual condition of weld bead (ground,
examination is being carrie
‘ultrasonic operator. The number of checkpoints
‘Class, Also the selection of locations are simi
‘observed during the scan is brought to th
satisfaction of surveyor. When a series of
pattem of the indications suggests that non-conforming discontinuities may exis
the satisfaction of the Surveyor.
additional inspection is to be carried out to
frequency, angle), base metal type and thi
undercut, etc.),
“d out and all reflections followed by the date
‘ilar to the
1e notice of Class surveyor
eonforming indications are observed ata checkpoint and the
Fig 24: Scanning other side of weld
ams to be directed 50 as to maximize the signal amplitude
‘parallel to the discontinuity and away from the position ‘of maximum signal
vaseline, Ultrasonic inspection reports are to be filed for
Tocation and length of the welds inspected, equipment used
jckness, weld process,
weld joint design, the specific class to which
‘of inspection and signature of
anned with ultrasonic sound waves is specified by
radiographic examination. The non-conformity
‘and the selected area is repaired to the
to be ses
for an extended distance, Liquid Penetrant: Liquid Penetrant Testing is one of the earliest forms of NDT. The operation principle
of Liquid Penetrant Testing is that if'a component with a surface breaking crack has a layer of a penetrating
coloured liquid applied over its surface, some of the coloured liquid will penetrate into the crack by capillary
action. Ifthe surface is then carefully cleaned and dried, some coloured liquid will remain inside the crack,
but the surface will be clean. If an absorbent layer or developer is then applied over the clean dry surface,
this will "draw out" the coloured liquid, and a stain will appear on the surface. Application of the penetrating
liquid can be by brushing, spraying or dipping. The process for carrying out liquid penetrant test are as
follows: -
1) Surface Preparation: One of the most critical steps of a liquid penetrant inspection is the surface
preparation. The surface must be free of oil, grease, water, or other contaminants that may prevent
penetrant from entering flaws.
2) Penetrant Application: Once the surface has been thoroughly cleaned and dried, the penetrant material
is applied by spraying, brushing, or immersing the parts in a penetrant bath,
3) Penetrant Dwell: The penctrant is left on the surface for a sufficient time to allow as much penetrant
as possible to be drawn from or to seep into a defect. Penetrant dwell time is the total time that the
penetrant is in contact with the part surface, Dwell times are usually re-commended by the penetrant
producers or required by the specification being followed. The times vary depending on the application,
penetrant materials used, the material, the form of the material being inspected, and the type of defect
being inspected. Minimum dwell times typically range from 5 to 60 minutes. Generally, there is no harm
in using a longer penetrant dwell time as long as the penetrant is not allowed to dry. The ideal dwell
time is often determined by experimentation and is often very specific to a particular application.
4) Excess Penetrant Removal: This is a most delicate part of the inspection procedure because the excess
penetrant must be removed from the surface of the sample while removing as little penetrant as possible
from defects. Depending on the penetrant system used, this step may involve cleaning with a solvent,
direct rinsing with water, or first treated with an emulsifier and then rinsing with water
5) Developer Application: A thin layer of developer is then applied to the sample to draw penetrant trapped
in flaws back to the surface where it will be visible. Developers come in a variety of forms that may
bbe applied by dusting (dry powdered), dipping, or spraying (wet developers)
6) Indication Development: The developer is allowed to stand on the part surface for a period of time
sufficient to permit the extraction of the trapped penetrant out of any surface flaws. This development
time is usually a minimum of 10 minutes and significantly longer times may be necessary for tight
cracks.
7) Inspection: Inspection is then performed under appropriate lighting to detect indications from any flaws
which may be present.
8) Clean Surface: The final step in the process is to thoroughily clean the part surface to remove the
developer from the parts that were found to be acceptable. Fig 26: Removal of excess penetrant
‘Removal of penetrant and developer shall be by
‘non-aqueous solvent. It is permissible to spray
the non-aqueous solvent directly onto the
inspection area at this stage but mechanical’
abrasive methods are not to be used. Welds
exhibiting non-conforming indications are to be
brought to the attention ofthe attending Surveyor.
Such welds are to be repaired and inspected as
required by the Surveyor.
Fig 27: Application of White coloured Developer
Magnetic Particle Inspection: sa nondestructive testing method used fr desestng defect in ferromagnetic
vhaveral such as iron, nickel, cobalt and some other alloys, MPI is a fast and relatively easy ‘to apply and
part surface preparation isnot as critical asi is for some other NDT ‘methods. These characteristics make
TuPTone ofthe most widely uilized nondestructive testing methods. MPI uses magnetic fields and small
magnetic particles, such as ion Filings to detect flaws in components. In theory, magnets particle inspection
(MPI isa relatively simple concept. It can be considered as a combination of two nondestructive testing
nethods: magnetic fux leakage testing and visual testing, Consider a bar magnet. I has 2 ‘magnetic field
im and around the magnet. Any place tht a magnetic ine of frce exits or enters the magnets called a pole.
“Apole where a magnetic line of force exits the magnet is called a orth pole ‘and a pole where a Tine of force
ers the magnet is called a south pole as shown in fig 28. When a bar magnet is broken in the center of
sts leng, to complete bar magnets with magnetic poles on each end ofeach piece will result, Ifthe magnet
js just cracked but not broken completely in two, anorth
and south pole will form at each edge as shown in fig
29, The magnetic field spreads out when it encounter
the small air gap created by the crack because the air
‘cannot support as much magnetic field per unit volume
as the magnet can. When the field spreads out, it appears
to leak out of the material and, thus, itis called a flux
Teakage field. Fig 28: Magnetic field | eon we FIELDUNES MAGNETIC PARTICLES
x 27 Pas
SS
Westie eg ae,
Fig 30: Flow pattern of magnetic field
If iron particles are sprinkled on
a cracked magnet, the particles
vill be attracted to and cluster not
only at the poles at the ends of the
‘magnet but also atthe poles atthe
edges of the crack as shown in
fig30. This cluster of particles is
much easier to see than the actual
crack and this is the basis for
magnetic particle inspection,
The inspection surface is to be
free of ditt, flaking paint,
excessive corrosion, of any contaminants which may interfere with the test results. Coating removal is not
required providing that it can be demonstrated that the discontinuities sought can be detected under these
conditions, This may involve cos
Fig 31: Indication of crack in weldment
ig the reference specimen with a similar coating during calibration,
‘The first step in a magnetic particle inspection is to magnetize the component that is to be inspected. If any
defects on or near the surface are present, the defects will create a leakage field. After the component has
been magnetized, iron particles, either in a dry or wet suspended form, are applied to the surface of the
‘magnetized part. The particles will be attracted and cluster at the flux leakage fields, thus forming a visible
indication that the inspector can detect. One of the advantages that a magnetic particle inspection has over
some of the other nondestructive evaluation methods is that flaw indications generally resemble the actual
flaw as shown in fig 31. This is not the case with NDT methods such as ultrasonic and eddy current inspection,
‘where an electronic signal must be interpreted. When magnetic particle inspection is used, cracks on the
surface of the part appear as sharp lines that follow the path of the crack. a
Outfitting (Part - 1)
Outitting of construction blocks isthe eurent shipbuilding method used by al compete shipbuilders
oldwide, Outfitting is the process of installing parts and various subassemblies (&- PIPIR systems,
wotilion equipment, electrical components) on the block prior to joining the blocks together at erections.
The outfitting of blocks throughout the shipyard lends itself to forming an assembly line approach to
shipbuilding. Outfiting at each stage of construction is planned to make the Process flow smoothly throughout
the shipyard.
For simplicity, outfiting can be divided into three main stages of construction once the steel structure of
the block has been assembled:
1, Unit outfitting
2, On -block outfitting
3. On-board outfitting.
Unit outfitting isthe stage where fitings, parts, foundations, machinery and other outing materials are
ai eed independent of the hull block (-., units are assembled separate from steel structural blocks).
nit outfitting allows workers to assemble shipboard components and systems on he ground, where they
have easy acces to the machinery and workshops. Units reinstalled at ether the ‘on-board or the on-block
stage of construction, Units come in varying sizes, shapes and complexities. Tn some cases, units are as
simple as a fan motor connected to a plenum and coil, Large, complex unils mainly composed of
omponents in machinery spaces, boilers, pump rooms and other complex arcas of the ship. Unit outfitting
sornrine assembting piping spools and other components together, then connecting the components into
sive Machinery spaces ae areas onthe ship where machinery i lorated (eg. engine oom, PAD stations
and generators) and outing there i intensive, Outfitting units onthe ground meres safety and efficiency
ty reducing the work hour that would otherwise be allocated to on-block or on-board work in more confined
spaces where conditions are more difficult.
‘On-block outfitting is the stage of
construction where most of the
‘outfitting materials are installed onto
the blocks, Outfitting materials
installed on block consist of
ventilation systems, piping systems,
doors, lights, ladders, railings,
electrical assemblies and so on. Many
units are also installed during the
block stage. Throughout the On-block
outfitting stage, the block can be lifted,
rotated and shifted for facilitating
installation of outfitting materials on
the ceilings, walls and floors. The
logistic support among various
department during the on-block stage
js important for proper supply of
materials, components etc are installed
at the right time and place. Fig I: Block with ousting material (On-board outfitting is performed after the blocks are lifted onto the ship under const
uction (Le, after
erection). At this time, the ship is either at a building position (slipway or building dock), or the ship could
be berthed at pier side. The blocks are already outfitted to a large extent, although much more work is still
needed before the ship is ready to operate, On-board outfitting involves the process of installing large units
and blocks on board the ship. Installation includes lifting the large blocks and units on board the new ship
and welding or bolting them into place. On-board outfitting also involves connecting the shipboard systems
together (.e., piping system, ventilation system and electrical system). All of the wiring systems are pulled
throughout the ship at the on-board stage.
The most critical assembly phase is erecting the hull. It is most important that the huge three dimensional
structural blocks are accurately positioned and aligned at this stage. To achieve the required manufacturing
accuracy these structural modules are now-a-days commonly built with excess material which is trimmed
during assembly. Advanced three dimensional co-ordinate measurement technology can be used to position
these blocks efficiently at the hull erection site. Although, Theodolite is still used by ship builders for aligning
the blocks during assembly. A theodolite is an instrument for measuring both horizontal and vertical angles
as used in triangulation networks. It
consists of a telescope mounted
ce Paieinnictinions | ovably within two perpendicular
inate axes, the horizontal or trunnion axis,
here — and the vertical axis. These must be
Meonae ae mutually perpendicular. The
awh ninco condition where they deviate from
erat i perpendicularity (and the amount by
meee which) is referred to as horizontal
—o a tier axis error. The optical axis of the
ete — boyd telescope, called sight axis and
bs omens nla defined by the optical center of the
aot bard objective and the center of the cross-
crore ~ a= hairs in its focal plane, must similarly
bbe perpendicular to the horizontal
axis. If not, we call the deviation
from perpendicularity collimation
error. Both axes of a theodolite are
equipped with graduated circles that
can be read out through magnifying
lenses. The vertical circle (the one
associated with the horizontal axis!)
should read 90° or 100 grad when
the sight axis is horizontal (or 270°,
300 grad, when the instrument is in
its second position, "tured over")
If not, we call half of the difference
Fig 2: Optical Theodolite with 300 grad index error. ‘A theodolite is mounted on a tripod by means of @
forced centering plate or tribach, containing three
thumbscrews for rapid leveling. Before use, @
theodolite must be placed precisely and vertically
ver the point to be measured ~~ centering ~ and its
vertical axis aligned with local gravity ~- leveling.
‘The former is done using a plumb, the latter using @
spirit level
The theodolite is extensively used for aligning the
blocks with respect to the ground and with the
advancement of technology, digital data display are
also available as shown in fig 3. Moder theodolite
‘can store data used for designing block and provide
on-site comparison with the fabricated block. Since
the blocks are placed on slipway, the aligning of block
does require precise measurement asthe block remains
‘rimmed by aft. Small eror on the part of ste personne!
Fig 3: Digital Theodolite can prove costly affair for builders.
Pa Tua} us|
tet tue as
Ts]
Pe asia
b—terte bet
The assembly of block is carried out as specified in block mounting plan as shown in fig 4. The explanation
of abbreviation used in block mount plan is described as follows:
1) A-A_- After most block 11) CAP - Centre accom. portion block
2) U-A - Upperafter block 12) NBD - Navigation bridge deck block
3) B___- Bottomblock 13) CD = Compass deck block
4) S$ - Sideblock 14) US -__ Upper side block
5) SL - Side lower block 15) UCL + Upper center lower block
6) SU - Side upper block 16) ST -_ Stool block
7) UL Upper lower block INU Upper block
8) UU - Upperunder block 18) FB. - Forepeak bottom block
9) LBD - Lower bridge block 19) FU Forepeak upper block
10) UBD - Upper bridge block 20) FC - Forecastle block
= Block Construction: The construction of blocks is carried out on shop floor either inside or outside of ship
building yard. Few ship builders have dedicated block construction site and the blocks are transported to
the assembly site either by sea or land. In some cases, ship builders outsource construction of blocks to
ancillary companies. The material of construction is pre-dominantly mild stee! and high tensile steel, For
chemical tanker, solid stainless steel and clad steel are used for cargo tank bulkhead as discussed in this
‘book. For easy identification, the two different types of steel
are shop primed in different colour by the maker. Depending
on the stee! maker, a high tensile steel plates are painted with
red primer and mild stee! plate are painted with grey primer
as shown in fig 5. High tensile steel has higher tensile strength
of 502 Nimm2 as compared to mild steel! which has a tensile
strength of 471 Nimm2. High tensile steel is resistant to
sulfide corrosive cracking and corrosion. It comprises, as
indispensable components, 0.15% of C, 0.2% of Si, 1.17%
of Mn, 0.015% of P, 0.003% of S, 0.02% of Cu, 0.02% of
Ni, 0.02% of Cr, 0.01% of Nb, and the balance consisting
of Fe, is produced by hot or cold-rolling it, rapidly heating
the rolled steel to austenitize it, quenching the austenitized
steel and, finally, tempering the quenched steel.
Fig 5: Different steel grade
Clad steel is used for the side longitudinal bulkhead, bottom and
top plating of cargo tank. The solid stainless steel is used for
forming transverse and centre longitudinal bulkhead. Cladding
of stainless steel over mild steel can be accomplished in several
‘ways including roll bonding, explosive bonding, weld overlaying
and “wallpapering”. For marine application, the thickness of
stainless steel plate used for cladding varies from 2.5 to 3.0 mm,
Cladding can save up to 80% of the cost of using solid stainless
steel.
For joining flat steel plates, fully automatic welding is used.
Mainly, semi-automatic welding machines are used by ship
builders. Simultaneously, heat treatment of welded joints such as annealing is carried out as specified by
Class. The steel plates are bent using hydraulic press or by heating with gas torches. For providing slight
curvature, multiple gas torches are used to heat and cool the steel plating simultaneously. The curvature is
checked with the help of a template made of ply board
as shown in fig 6.
Fig 6: Template for checking curvature
The block consist of web frames, stiffeners, beams,
brackets, piping etc and fabricated on the shop floor. The
process begins with the fabrication of starting block. The
starting block is obviously a double bottom structure
which forms a part of ballast tank or machinery space.
‘The construction for double bottom block for machinery
space is shown in fig 7. In order to facilitate fabrication,
the frames might be kept upside down on the shop floor.
Upon completion of one block, the block is shifted and
Fig 7: Block under construction placed on the slipway or dry-dock. TBeam
Fig 8: Fabrication of Rudder post & Stern tube
Rudder Po ‘After section [ Draft Mark
— ofstern tube |
‘The most crucial block which requires careful
‘and planned approach is the fabrication of after
most stern block; Le.- (A-A) block. To prevent
mis-alignment, the rudder post and stern tube
(after part) are fabricated together as shown in
fig 8. At each stage of fabrication, the alignment
‘between the rudder post is verified with the help
of piano wire, Once alignment is accomplished,
a beam is welded across the rudder post to
prevent distortion while fabricating the frame
as welding is an un-controlled heat process.
Fig 9: Inverted view of AA block
“The complete view of A-A block is shown in fig 9. The draft marking is tricky prov which involves
precise measurement inorder o determine displacement and other properties ofthe sh for stability
and damage control.
Draft mark set ‘These draft marks indicate
part by0.20M| the depth of the keel
<= (baseline) below the
Venival Send | waterline. The marking
with attached | and confirmation of each
measuring ape} draft mark is accom-
plished with the help of
soft plastic transparent
pipe filled with water
forming U-tube
manometer in the
presence of Class surveyor
as shown in fig 10.
U-Tube
Fig 10: Verifying Draft Mark
5 Block Inspection: Prior assembly, each blocks are inspected by the representatives from yard, owner and
Class surveyor. Inspection of individual blocks comprises of:
1). Distortion of flat and curve plating
2) Faimess of plating between frames
3) Faimess of plating
4) Alignment of panel stiffener and T- longitudinal
5) Gap between beam and frame
6) Gap around stiffener cut-out
7) Distance between butt and fillet weld seam
8) Distance between two butt weld seam
9) Weld defect such as under-cutting, blow hole, irregular weld seam profile ete
10) Fillet weld leg length
11) Fillet and Butt weld toe angle
Fig 11: Blow hole Fig 12: Plate distortion Fig 13: Under-cut
Fig 14: Irregular weld profile Fig 15: Weld bead missing Fig 16: Missing stripe coat
The block inspection is carried out 2 to 3 times by on-site inspector before being checked by Class surveyor.
Weld defects such as surface irregularity, spatter, hardened zone due to ate strike are repaired by the
application of grinder. Care must be taken while grinding as there is more of a possibility for removing
excess metal from the surface. Undercut less than 1 mm can be ground smooth but if more than 1.0 mm,
its filled up with welding. Overhead welded ateas especially the gaps around panel stiffener or stiffener cut-
outs or around scallops are checked more carefully compared to the floor or the sides of the block as shown
in fig 15, Faimess between plating and frames are checked and if required can be corrected by either heating
the plating locally and cooling it simultaneously or in some extreme case, the plate or stiffener has to be
cut-out and then faired as shown in fig 12. In-sufficient throat depth or leg length can be corrected by filling
itup by welding another run. On-site measurement of throat depth is carried out by a portable depth gauge. Block Assembling: The assembly of block is executed either on the slipway of dry-dock. As discusse:
inter that the alignment of block i eritial and is carried out withthe help of digit theodolite. Fach block
att be shifted from the shop flor tothe slipway with heavy duty erane located adjacent 8 the slipway.
"he blocks are supported on the temporary arrangement ether on hydraulic jack oF rectangular chocks but
aoe onthe ral earrer The weight transfer from temporary chocks to ral eatier wil be carried out once
the tating of welded joint, pressure testing of double bottom tanks and flat bottom painting are completed.
Usually, its carried out prior to launching of the vessel from the slipwa.
[Hod nintewsw 1 02 |
[Rockin ooneen 2 8 ULE
Fig 19: Block A-A (upper) being aligned
‘The aft section of stern tube is fabricated
with block A-A. Upon completion of block
‘A-A assembly, forward part of stem tube is
inserted from the machinery space and
‘welded into the frame as shown in fig 20
Prior welding, the alignment between the
afer and forward ster tube is checked with
F