Thermodynamics Notes
Basic Concepts:
1. Thermodynamics: The branch of physics concerned with heat, work, and the forms of
energy and their transformations.
o System: The portion of the universe being studied.
Closed System: Exchanges energy but not matter with surroundings.
Open System: Exchanges both energy and matter.
Isolated System: Exchanges neither energy nor matter.
o Surroundings: Everything external to the system.
o Boundary: Separates the system from its surroundings.
2. Properties of a System:
o Intensive Properties: Independent of the amount of substance (e.g., temperature,
pressure).
o Extensive Properties: Depend on the amount of substance (e.g., volume, internal
energy).
3. State and Equilibrium:
o A system is in equilibrium when its macroscopic properties remain constant over
time.
o Thermal Equilibrium: Uniform temperature.
o Mechanical Equilibrium: No unbalanced forces.
o Chemical Equilibrium: No net chemical reaction.
Laws of Thermodynamics:
1. Zeroth Law:
o If two systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third system, they are in
thermal equilibrium with each other.
o Basis for the concept of temperature.
2. First Law (Law of Energy Conservation):
o Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, only transformed.
o ΔU = Q - W, where:
ΔU: Change in internal energy.
Q: Heat added to the system.
W: Work done by the system.
o Implications:
Energy balance for closed systems.
Defines internal energy as a property.
3. Second Law:
o Entropy of an isolated system always increases over time.
o Heat flows naturally from high to low temperature, not the reverse.
oDefines concepts of irreversibility and efficiency.
oCarnot Efficiency: η = 1 - (T_L / T_H), where:
T_L: Temperature of the low-temperature reservoir.
T_H: Temperature of the high-temperature reservoir.
4. Third Law:
o As the temperature of a system approaches absolute zero, its entropy approaches a
constant minimum.
o Implies that absolute zero is unattainable.
Thermodynamic Processes:
1. Isothermal Process: Constant temperature; ΔU = 0, Q = W.
2. Adiabatic Process: No heat exchange; Q = 0, ΔU = -W.
3. Isobaric Process: Constant pressure; W = PΔV.
4. Isochoric Process: Constant volume; W = 0, ΔU = Q.
Applications:
1. Heat Engines:
o Convert heat into work.
o Operate in a cycle with steps involving work and heat exchange.
o Efficiency: η = W_net / Q_in.
2. Refrigerators and Heat Pumps:
o Use work to transfer heat from a cooler to a warmer body.
o Coefficient of Performance (COP):
Refrigerator: COP = Q_L / W.
Heat Pump: COP = Q_H / W.
3. Real-World Applications:
o Automotive engines (Otto and Diesel cycles).
o Power plants (Rankine cycle).
o Cooling systems (refrigerators and air conditioners).
Key Equations:
1. Ideal Gas Law: PV = nRT.
2. Enthalpy: H = U + PV.
3. Entropy Change:
o Reversible process: ΔS = ∫(dQ_rev / T).
4. Efficiency and Work:
o W = ∫PdV (work in a volume change).
o η = (W_net / Q_in) for heat engines.
Concepts of Entropy and Reversibility:
1. Entropy (S):
o Measure of disorder or randomness.
o Entropy change for reversible processes is calculable.
o For irreversible processes, entropy always increases.
2. Reversible vs. Irreversible Processes:
o Reversible: Can be reversed without leaving any change in the system or
surroundings.
o Irreversible: Involves dissipation of energy (e.g., friction, turbulence).
Practical Considerations:
1. Material Properties:
o Specific heat capacity, thermal conductivity.
o Variations with temperature and pressure.
2. System Design:
o Insulation to minimize energy loss.
o Optimization of engine cycles for maximum efficiency.
