Chapter 4: Electrostatics and Electro-Mechanics

Topics to be covered: Electrostatic field, electric field strength, concept of permittivity in

dielectrics, capacitor composite, dielectric capacitors, capacitors in series and parallel, energy
stored in capacitors, charging and discharging of capacitors, Electricity and Magnetism, magnetic
field and Faraday's law, self and mutual inductance, Ampere's law, Magnetic circuit, Single phase
transformer, principle of operation, EMF equation, voltage ratio, current ratio, KVA rating,
efficiency and regulation, Electromechanical energy conversion.

Introduction:
Electric field:
In general field produced by electric charge is called electric field, but when electric field is
produced by stationary charge it is called electrostatic field.
Electric field is defined as the electric force per unit charge. The direction of the field is taken to
be the direction of the force it would exert on a positive test charge. The electric field is radially
outward from a positive charge and radially in toward a negative point charge.

Electrostatic field
When two objects in each other's vicinity have different electrical charges, an electrostatic field
exists between them. An electrostatic field also forms around any single object that is electrically
charged with respect to its environment. An object is negatively charged (-) if it has an excess
of electrons relative to its surroundings. An object is positively charged (+) if it is deficient in
electrons with respect to its surroundings.
Electrostatic fields bear some similarity to magnetic fields. Objects attract if their charges are of
opposite polarity (+/-); objects repel if their charges are of the same polarity (+/+ or -/-). The lines
of electrostatic flux in the vicinity of a pair of oppositely charged objects are similar to lines
of magnetic flux between and around a pair of opposite magnetic poles. Electrostatic fields are
blocked by metallic objects, while magnetic fields can pass through most (but not all) metals.
Electrostatic fields arise from a potential difference or voltage gradient, and can exist when charge
carriers, such as electrons, are stationary. Magnetic fields arise from the movement of charge
carriers, that is, from the flow of current.

Electric field strength

The force acting on a unit positive charge inside an electric field is termed as electric field
strength or electric field intensity.
Electric field strength or electric field intensity is the synonym of electric field. Electric field
strength can be determined by Coulomb’s law. According to this law, the force ‘F’ between two
point charges having charge Q1 and Q2 Coulombs and placed at a distance ‘d’ meter from each
other is given by,

Where,
εo is the permittivity of vacuum = 8.854 × 10 – 12 F/m
εr is the relative permittivity of the surrounding medium.

Now, let us put Q2 = + 1 Coulomb and let us denote force F by E in the equation (1), and by
doing these we get,

This equation shows the force acting on a unit positive charge placed at a distance ‘d’ from
charge Q1. As per definition, this is nothing but of electric field strength of charge Q1 at a
distance ‘d’ from that charge.
Now, by combining this expression with equation (1), we get,

The above expression shows that, if we place a charge at any point in an electric field, the
product of the electric field strength at that point and the charge of the body gives the force
acting on the body at that point in the field. The above expression can also be rewritten as,

So far we have discussed the electric field intensity at a point due to the influence of a single
charge, but there may be a case where the point is under the field of many charged bodies. In that
case, we first have to calculate, the electric field strength at that point for individual charges and
then we have to do the vector addition all the field strengths to get resultant field strength at that
point.

Dielectric Permittivity

Dielectric permittivity is a diagnostic physical property which characterizes the degree of

electrical polarization a material experiences under the influence of an external electric field.
Dielectric permittivity (ε) is defined as the ratio between the electric field (E⃗ ) within a material
and the corresponding electric displacement (D⃗ )

D⃗ = ε E⃗
When exposed to an electric field, bounded electrical charges of opposing sign will try to
separate from one another. For example, the electron clouds of atoms will shift in position
relative to their nuclei. The extent of the separation of the electrical charges within a material is
represented by the electric polarization (P⃗). The electric field, electric displacement and electric
polarization are related by the following expression:
D⃗ = ε0 E⃗ +P⃗

Capacitors
The capacitor is a component which has the ability or “capacity” to store energy in the form of an
electrical charge producing a potential difference (Static Voltage) across its plates.
In its basic form, a capacitor consists of two or more parallel conductive (metal) plates which are
not connected or touching each other, but are electrically separated either by air or by some form
of a good insulating material such as waxed paper, mica, ceramic, plastic or some form of a liquid
gel as used in electrolytic capacitors. The insulating layer between a capacitors plates is commonly
called the Dielectric.

Dielectric: Dielectric, insulating material are a very poor conductor of electric current. When
dielectrics are placed in an electric field, practically no current flows in them because, unlike
metals, they have no loosely bound, or free, electrons that may drift through the material.
Instead, electric polarization occurs. The positive charges within the dielectric are displaced
minutely in the direction of the electric field, and the negative charges are displaced minutely in
the direction opposite to the electric field. This slight separation of charge, or polarization, reduces
the electric field within the dielectric.
The presence of dielectric material affects other electrical phenomena.
1. The force between two electric charges in a dielectric medium is less than it would be in
a vacuum
2. The quantity of energy stored in an electric field per unit volume of a dielectric medium
is greater.
3. The capacitance of a capacitor filled with a dielectric is greater than it would be in a
vacuum.

Dielectric constant: The factor by which the dielectric material, or insulator, increases the
capacitance or decreases the effective field by the polarization of the capacitor compared to air is
known as the Dielectric Constant, k.

Capacitor dielectric: Commercially manufactured capacitors typically use a solid dielectric

material with high permittivity as the intervening medium between the stored positive and
negative charges. This material is often referred to as the capacitor dielectric.

The most obvious advantage of using such a dielectric material is that it prevents the conducting
plates, on which the charges are stored, from coming into direct electrical contact. More
significantly, however, a high permittivity allows a greater stored charge at a given voltage.

The Capacitance of a Capacitor

Capacitance is the electrical property of a capacitor and is the measure of a capacitors ability to
store an electrical charge onto its two plates with the unit of capacitance being the Farad
(abbreviated as F) named after the British physicist Michael Faraday.
Capacitance of a Parallel Plate Capacitor
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is proportional to the area ‘A’ in metres2 of the two
plates and inversely proportional to the distance or separation ‘d’ (i.e. the dielectric thickness)
given in metres between these two conductive plates.
The generalized equation for the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given as:
C α (A/d)
C = ε (A/d)
Where, ε = absolute permittivity of the dielectric material being used.
The dielectric constant, εo also known as the “permittivity of free space” has the value of the
constant 8.84 x 10-12 F/m.
Capacitor Composites: When a parallel plate capacitor has two dielectrics or more between the
plates, it is said to be composite capacitor.

Capacitor in Series
For series connected capacitors, the charging current (iC) flowing through the capacitors
is same for all capacitors as it only has one path to follow.
Then, total current flowing through all the capacitors are iT = i1 = i2 = i3 .
Therefore each capacitor will store the same amount of electrical charge, Q on its plates
regardless of its capacitance. This is because the charge stored by a plate of any one capacitor
must have come from the plate of its adjacent capacitor. Therefore, capacitors connected together
in series must have the same charge.
QT = Q1 = Q2 = Q3

Consider the following circuit in which the three capacitors, C1, C2 and C3 are connected in
series across a supply voltage between points A and B.

In the series circuit above the right hand plate of the first capacitor, C1 is connected to the left
hand plate of the second capacitor, C2 whose right hand plate is connected to the left hand plate
of the third capacitor, C3. Then this series connection means that in a DC connected circuit,
capacitor C2 is effectively isolated from the circuit.
The result of this is that the effective plate area has decreased to the smallest individual
capacitance connected in the series chain. Therefore the voltage drop across each capacitor will
be different depending upon the values of the individual capacitances.
Then by applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law to the above circuit, we get:

Since Q = C*V and rearranging for V = Q/C, substituting Q/C for each capacitor voltage VC in
the above KVL equation will give us:

When adding together Capacitors in Series, the reciprocal (1/C) of the individual capacitors are
added together (just like resistors in parallel ) instead of the capacitance’s themselves.
Then the total value for capacitors in series equals the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of
the individual capacitances.

Capacitors in Parallel
The voltage (Vc ) connected across all the capacitors that are connected in parallel is same.
Then, Capacitors in Parallel have a “common voltage” supply across them giving:
VC1 = VC2 = VC3 = VAB
In the following circuit the capacitors, C1, C2 and C3 are all connected together in a parallel
between points A and B as shown.
When capacitors are connected in parallel the total or equivalent capacitance, CT in the circuit is
equal to the sum of all the individual capacitors added together. This is because the top plate of
capacitor, C1 is connected to the top plate of C2 which is connected to the top plate of C3 and so
on. The same is also true of the capacitors bottom plates. Then it is the same as if the three sets of
plates were touching each other and equal to one large single plate thereby increasing the effective
plate area in m2.
Since capacitance, C is related to plate area (C = ε (A/d) ) the capacitance value of the combination
will also increase. Then the total capacitance value of the capacitors connected in parallel is
actually calculated by adding the plate area together. In other words, the total capacitance is equal
to the sum of all the individual capacitances in parallel. You may have noticed that the total
capacitance of parallel capacitors is found in the same way as the total resistance of series resistors.
The currents flowing through each capacitor are related to the voltage. Then by applying
Kirchhoff’s Current Law, to the above circuit, we have

When adding capacitors in parallel, they must all be converted to the same capacitance units,
whether it is μF, nF or pF.
We can also define the total capacitance of the parallel circuit from the total stored coulomb charge
using the Q = CV equation for charge on a capacitors plates. The total charge QT stored on all the
plates equals the sum of the individual stored charges on each capacitor therefore,

Energy Stored in a Capacitor

The energy stored in a capacitor is nothing but the electric potential energy and is related to the
voltage and charge on the capacitor.

If the capacitance of a conductor is C, then it is initially uncharged and it acquires a potential

difference V when connected to a battery. If Q is the charge on the plate at that time, then
Q=CV
The work done is equal to the product of the potential and charge.
Hence, W = V Q
If the battery delivers a small amount of charge dQ at a constant potential V, then the work done
is
dW = V dQ = Q dQ
C

Now, the total work done in delivering a charge of an amount q to the capacitor is given by
W=∫0 q Q dQ
C
= 1 Q2 = 1 Q2
C 2 2 C
Therefore the energy stored in a capacitor is given by
E = 1 Q2
2 C
Substituting Q = C V in the equation above, we get

E = 1 (CV)2
2 C
The energy stored in a capacitor is given by the equation
E = 1 CV2
2

Charging and discharging of a capacitor

It is important to study what happens while a capacitor is charging and discharging.

It is the ability to control and predict the rate at which a capacitor charges and discharges that
makes capacitors really useful in electronic timing circuits.

When a voltage is applied across the capacitor the potential cannot rise to the applied value
instantaneously.
As the charge on the terminals builds up to its final value it tends to repel the addition of further
charge.
The rate at which a capacitor can be charged or discharged depends on:
(a) The capacitance of the capacitor
(b) The resistance of the circuit through which it is being charged or is discharging.

Charging
During charging electrons flow from the negative terminal of the power supply to one plate of
the capacitor and from the other plate to the positive terminal of the power supply.
When the switch is closed, and charging starts, the rate of flow of charge is large (i.e. a big
current) and this decreases as time goes by and the plates become more charged so "resisting"
any further charging.

What happens when a capacitor is charging and discharging?

Charging

As soon as the switch is closed in position 1 the battery is connected across the capacitor, current
flows and the potential difference across the capacitor begins to rise but, as more and more
charge builds up on the capacitor plates, the current and the rate of rise of potential difference
both fall. Finally no further current will flow when the p.d. across the capacitor equals that of the
supply voltage Vo.
The capacitor is then fully charged.

Discharging

As soon as the switch is put in position 2 a 'large' current starts to flow and the potential
difference across the capacitor drops. (Figure 4). As charge flows from one plate to the other
through the resistor the charge is neutralized and so the current falls and the rate of decrease of
potential difference also falls. Eventually the charge on the plates is zero and the current and
potential difference are also zero - the capacitor is fully discharged.
You should realize that the addition of a resistor in the circuit in series with the
capacitor only affects the time it takes for the capacitor to become fully charge
and not the eventual potential difference across it – this is always the same and equal to the
potential difference across the supply. The bigger the resistor the longer the time taken.

Electricity and Magnetism

Basic Principles of Electricity

Electricity is the presence and motion of charged particles. Electricity is often described as being
either static or dynamic. The difference between the two is based simply on whether the electrons
are at rest (static) or in motion (dynamic). Static electricity is build-up of an electrical charge on
the surface of an object. It is considered “static” due to the fact that there is no current flowing as
in AC or DC electricity. Static electricity is usually caused when non-conductive materials such
as rubber, plastic or glass are rubbed together, causing a transfer of electrons, which then results
in an imbalance of charges between the two materials. The fact that there is an imbalance of
charges between the two materials means that the objects will exhibit an attractive or repulsive
force. Examples of electricity include lightning, electrical current from a battery, and static
electricity. A stationary point charge has an electric field, but if the charge is set in motion, it also
generates a magnetic field.

Basic Principles of Magnetism

Magnetism is defined as the physical phenomenon produced by moving electric charge. Also, a
magnetic field can induce charged particles to move, producing an electric current. An
electromagnetic wave (such as light) has both an electric and magnetic component.

Like electricity, magnetism produces attraction and repulsion between objects. While electricity is
based on positive and negative charges, there are no known magnetic monopoles. Any magnetic
particle or object has a "north" and "south" pole, with the directions based on the orientation of the
Earth's magnetic field. Like poles of a magnet repel each other (e.g., north repels north), while
opposite poles attract one another (north and south attract).

Familiar examples of magnetism include a compass needle's reaction to Earth's magnetic field,
attraction and repulsion of bar magnets, and the field surrounding electromagnets.

Difference between Electricity and Magnetism

 The major difference between electricity and magnetism is the presence of magnetism.
 Electricity can be present in a static charge, while magnetism’s presence is only felt when
there are moving charges as a result of electricity.
 In simple words, electricity can exist without magnetism, but magnetism cannot exist
without electricity.
What is a Magnetic Field?
The magnetic field is a field, produced by electric charges in motion. It is a field of force
causing a force on material like iron when placed in the vicinity of the field. Magnetic field does
not require any medium to propagate; it can propagate even in a vacuum.

Also, the energy storing capacity of the magnetic field is greater than the electric field, this
distinguishes the magnetic field from the electric field, and therefore it is utilized in almost every
electromechanical device like transformers, motors, and generators.

Permanent magnets have their own magnetism, and they are made up of ferromagnetic material
like iron or nickel or alnico alloys, while electromagnets are coils which produce the magnetic
field when an electric current passes through the coil. For example, a current carrying conductor
produces a magnetic field around the conductor.

Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, also known as Faraday’s law is the basic law of
electromagnetism which helps us to predict how a magnetic field would interact with an electric
circuit to produce an electromotive force (EMF). This phenomenon is known as electromagnetic
induction.
Faraday’s law or the law of electromagnetic induction was proposed in the year 1831 by
physicist and chemist named Michael Faraday. It consists of two laws.
The first law describes the induction of emf in a conductor and the second law quantifies the emf
produced in the conductor. In the next few sections, let us learn these laws in detail.
First Law: Whenever there is a change in magnetic flux linked with a closed coil, an e.m.f.
gets induced in the coil and current flows through the coil. This induced e.m.f. remains till the
flux changes.
Few ways to change the magnetic field intensity in a closed loop:

 By rotating the coil relative to the magnet.

 By moving the coil into or out of the magnetic field.
 By moving a magnet towards or away from the coil.
Second law: The induced e.m.f. is directly proportional to the rate of change of flux linkage.
E = −N dϕ/dt
Where,

 e is the electromotive force

 Φ is the magnetic flux
 N is the number of turns
The negative sign indicates that the direction of the induced emf and change in the direction of
magnetic fields have opposite signs.

What is Induction?
Induction is the magnetic field which is proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic field.
This definition of induction holds for a conductor. Induction is also known as inductance. L is
used to represent the inductance and Henry is the SI unit of inductance.
1 Henry is defined as the amount of inductance required to produce an emf of 1 volt in a
conductor when the current change in the conductor is at the rate of 1 Ampere per second.

Factors Affecting Inductance

Following are the factors that affect the inductance:

1. The number of turns of the wire used in the inductor.

2. The material used in the core.
3. The shape of the core.

Electromagnetic Induction law was given by Faraday which states that by varying the magnetic
flux electromotive force is induced in the circuit. From Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction, the concept of induction is derived. Inductance can be defined as the electromotive
force generated to oppose the change in current at a particular time duration.

According to Faraday’s Law:

Electromotive force = – L ΔI/Δt
Unit of Inductance = Volt Second Ampere = Henry

Types of Inductance
Two types of inductance are there:

 Self Induction
 Mutual Induction
Self-Induction
When there is a change in the current or magnetic flux of the coil, an opposed
induced electromotive force is produced in the same coil. This phenomenon is termed as Self
Induction. When the current starts flowing through the coil at any instant, it is found that, that the
magnetic flux becomes directly proportional to the current passing through the circuit. The
relation is given as:
ϕα I
ϕ=LI
Where L is termed as self-inductance of the coil or the coefficient of self-inductance.
The self-inductance depends on the cross-sectional area, the permeability of the material, or the
number of turns in the coil.
The rate of change of magnetic flux in the coil is given as,
e = – dϕ/dt
= – d(LI)/dt
or e = – L dI/dt

Self Inductance Formula

L=N ϕ/I
Where,

 L is the self-inductance in Henries

 N is the number of turns
 Φ is the magnetic flux
 I is the current in amperes

Mutual Induction
If we take two coils, and they are placed close to each other. The two coils are P- coil (Primary
coil) and S- coil (Secondary coil). To the P-coil, a battery, and a key is connected wherein to the
S-coil a galvanometer is connected across it. When there is a change in the current or magnetic
flux linked with P- coil, an opposing electromotive force is produced in S coil, this phenomenon
is termed as Mutual Induction. The relation is given as:
ϕ=I
ϕ=MI
Where M is termed as the mutual inductance of the two coils or the coefficient of the mutual
inductance of the two coils.
The rate of change of magnetic flux in the coil is given as,
e = – dϕ/dt
= – d(MI)/dt
e = – M dI/dt
Ampere’s Law

André-Marie Ampère was a scientist who performed experiments with forces that act on current-
carrying wires. The experiment was done in the late 1820s around the same time when Faraday
was working on his Faraday’s Law. Faraday and Ampere had no idea that their work would be
combined by Maxwell Himself four years later.

What is Ampere’s Law?

According to Ampere’s law, magnetic fields are related to the electric current produced in them.
The law specifies the magnetic field that is associated with a given current or vice-versa, provided
that the electric field doesn’t change with time.

Ampere's Law states that for any closed loop path, the sum of the length elements times the
magnetic field in the direction of the length element is equal to the permeability times the electric
current enclosed in the loop.

Magnetic circuit
A magnetic circuit is made up of one or more closed loop paths containing a magnetic flux. The
flux is usually generated by permanent magnets or electromagnets and confined to the path by
magnetic cores consisting of ferromagnetic materials like iron, although there may be air gaps or
other materials in the path. Magnetic circuits are employed to efficiently channel magnetic fields
in many devices such as electric motors, generators, transformers, relays, lifting electromagnets, ,
galvanometers, and magnetic recording heads.
Single Phase Transformer:

Transformer is a static piece of device (does not contain any rotating parts), which transfers
electrical power from one circuit to another with desired change in voltage and current and without
changing its frequency.

Principle of operation of single phase transformer: Transformer works on the principle of

mutual induction, which states that “when two coils are inductively coupled and if there is change
in current in one of the coils, change in flux takes place in the coil which will induced an emf in
the other coil wound over the same magnetic core”.

Transformer consists of two inductive coils which are electrically separated but linked through a
common magnetic circuit. The two coils have high mutual inductance. The basic transformer is shown
in the figure.

One of the two coils is connected to a source of alternating voltage. This coil in which electrical energy
is fed with the help of source is called primary winding (P). The other winding is connected to load.
The electrical energy transformed to this winding is connected to the load. This winding is called
secondary winding (S). The primary winding has N 1 number of turns while the secondary winding has
N2 number of turns. When primary winding is excited by an alternating voltage, it circulates an
alternating current. This current produces an alternating flux (ø) which completes its path through
common magnetic core as shown dotted in the figure. Thus an alternating flux links with the secondary
winding. As the flux is alternating, mutually induced e.m.f. gets developed in the secondary winding.
 Symbolic representation of transformer

Construction of single phase transformer:

There are two basic parts of a transformer

1) Magnetic core
2) Windings or coil

The core of the transformer is either square or rectangular in shape. It is further divided into two
parts. The vertical portion on which the coils are wound is called limb, while the top and bottom
horizontal portion is called yoke of the core. These parts are shown in figure

The core is made up of laminations assembled to provide a continuous magnetic path with minimum
of air-gap. Generally high grade steel laminations of thickness 0.3 mm to 0.5 mm are used. The steel
should have high permeability and low hysteresis loss. By effectively laminating the core, the eddy-
current losses can be reduced. The laminations are insulated from each other by using insulation like
paper and varnish. The transformer consists of two winding called the primary and secondary wound
on a laminated iron core.

The windings:
The coils are wound on the limbs of the magnetic core and are insulated from each other. Primary
and secondary windings are usually made up of copper. The Conductors of rectangular cross
section are generally used for low voltages winding and also for the high voltage winding for large
transformers. Conductors of the circular cross-sectional area are used for high voltage winding in
the small transformer.
Types of Transformers:

According to the core construction and the manner in which the primary and secondary windings
are wound around it, the transformer is named as core type and shell type.

Difference between Core type and Shell type Transformer:

Sr. No. Core Type Transformer Shell Type Transformer

1) The winding encircles the core The core encircles most part of the
winding
2) There exists a single magnetic circuit. There are two magnetic circuits. Total flux
Ø only flows in the central limb.
3) In Core type transformer, the core In Shell type transformer, the core has
consists of two limbs and two yoke. three limbs and two yokes.
4) The HV and LV winding in Core type HV and LV winding in shell type
transformer are concentric. transformer is interleaved or sandwiched
on the central limb.
5) The windings are uniformly distributed The natural cooling does not exist as the
on two limbs hence natural cooling is windings are surrounded by the core
effective.
6) The coils can be easily removed for The coils cannot be easily removed for
maintenance. maintenance.
7) Preferred for low voltage transformers. Preferred for high voltage transformers.
E.M.F Equation of a Transformer:

When the primary winding is excited by an alternating voltage V1, it circulates an alternating
current, producing an alternating flux . The primary winding has N 1 number of turns and the
alternating flux linking the primary winding itself induces an emf in it denoted as E1. This flux
links with secondary winding through the common magnetic core and induces emf E 2 in the
secondary winding.

The primary winding is excited by purely sinusoidal alternating voltage. Hence the flux produced
is also sinusoidal in nature having maximum value of m as shown in figure.

Let,
= flux
m = Maximum value of flux
N1 = Number of turns in primary
N2 = Number of turns in secondary
f= frequency of the supply voltage
E1= R.M.S value of the primary induced emf
E2= R.M.S value of the secondary induced emf

From Faraday’s law of Electromagnetic induction the average emf induced in each turn is
proportional to the average rate of change of flux.
i.e. Average emf per turn = Average rate of change of flux.
Average emf per turn = d /dt

Now, d /dt = Change in flux/Time required for change in flux

From the figure, the core flux increases from its zero value to maximum value max in one quarter
of the cycle , that is in ¼ frequency second

d /dt = m – 0 = 4f m Wb/second
1/4f
Therefore, Average emf per turn = 4f m Volts

As is sinusoidal in nature, the induced emf in each turn of both the windings are also sinusoidal
in nature. For sinusoidal quantity

Form Factor = RMS value = 1.11

Average value

RMS value = 1.11 x Average value

RMS value of induced emf per turn = 1.11 x 4 x f x m = 4.44 f m

There are N1 number of primary turns hence the rms value of induced emf of primary denoted as
E1 is,
E1= N1 x 4.44 f m Volts

While there are N2 number of secondary turns hence the rms value of induced emf of secondary
denoted as E2 is,
E2= N2 x 4.44 f m Volts

The expressions of E1 and E2 are called emf equations of a transformer.

Ratios of a Transformer:
Consider a transformer shown in figure below indicating various voltages and currents

Voltage ratio:

We know that the emf equations of a transformer are

E1= N1 x 4.44 f m and E2= N2 x 4.44 f m
Taking the ratio of two equation we get
E2 = N2 = K
E1 N1
This ratio of secondary induced emf to primary induced emf is known as voltage transformation
ratio denoted as K.
Thus, E2= K E1 where K = N2
N1
If N2 > N1 i.e. K >1, we get E2 > E1 then the transformer is called step-up transformer

If N2 < N1 i.e. K <1, we get E2 < E1 then the transformer is called step-down transformer

If N2 = N1 i.e. K =1, we get E2 = E1 then the transformer is called 1:1 transformer or isolation
transformer

Current ratio: For an ideal transformer without any losses, the product of primary voltage V 1 and
primary current I1, is same as the product of secondary voltage V 2 and secondary current I2

i.e. V 1 I1 = V 2 I 2

Therefore
V2 = I1 = K
V 1 I2

Therefore, E2 = N2 = V2 = I1 = K
E1 N1 V1 I2

Losses in the transformer:

Two types of power losses occur in a transformer, they are
1) Iron loss or core loss: The core gets subjected to an alternating flux, causing core or iron
loss. These are constant losses
2) Copper loss: the windings carry currents when transformer is loaded causing copper losses.
These are varying losses

1) Iron Loss: This is the power loss that occurs in the iron part. This loss is due to the alternating
frequency of the emf. Iron loss in further classified into two other losses.

a) Eddy current loss

b) b) Hysteresis loss

a) Eddy Current Loss: This power loss is due to the alternating flux linking the core, which will
induced an emf in the core called the eddy emf, due to which a current called the eddy current is being
circulated in the core. As there is some resistance in the core with this eddy current circulation converts
into heat called the eddy current power loss. Eddy current loss is proportional to the square of the
supply frequency. Eddy current loss is given by
Eddy current loss = ke f2 t2 B2max
Where, f = frequency, t = thickness, Bmax = maximum flux density

b) Hysteresis Loss: This is the loss in the iron core, due to the magnetic reversal of the flux in the
core, which results in the form of heat in the core. This loss is directly proportional to the supply
frequency.
Hysteresis loss=kh t f B1.6 max
Where, f=frequency, t=thickness, Bmax=maximum flux density

Eddy current loss can be minimized by using the core made of thin sheets of silicon steel material, and
each lamination is coated with varnish insulation to suppress the path of the eddy currents.
Hysteresis loss can be minimized by using the core material having high permeability.

2) Copper Loss: This is the power loss that occurs in the primary and secondary coils when the
transformer is on load. This power is wasted in the form of heat due to the resistance of the coils. This
loss is proportional to the sequence of the load hence it is called the Variable loss whereas the Iron loss
is called as the Constant loss as the supply voltage and frequency are constants. Copper losses = I 2R
losses.

Efficiency of a transformer:
Due to the losses in the transformer, the output power of a transformer is less than the input power
supplied.

Power output = Power input – Total losses

Power input = Power output + Total losses
Power output + P i + P cu

The efficiency of any device is defined as the ratio of the power output to power input. So for a
transformer the efficiency can be expressed as

η = Power output
Power input

η= Power output
Power output + P i + P cu

Now, Power output = V2I2 cos

Where, cos = Load power factor

The transformer supplies full load of current I 2 with terminal voltage V2

P cu = copper loss on full load = I22 R2e

Therefore, η= V2I2 cos

V2I2 cos + P i + I22 R2e

But, V2I2 = VA rating of a transformer

Therefore, η= (VA rating) cos

(VA rating) cos + P i + I22 R2e
% η F.L= (VA rating) cos x 100 …..Full load efficiency
2
(VA rating) cos + P i + I2 R2e

% η F.L= (VA rating) cos x 100 …..Full load efficiency

(VA rating) cos + P i +(P cu)FL

% η = n (VA rating) cos x 100 …..Fractional load efficiency

n (VA rating) cos + P i + n2(P cu)FL

Where, n= fractional load

For example if transformer is subjected to half load then

n= half load = ½ = 0.5

full load 1

Condition for Maximum efficiency

To obtain the condition for maximum efficiency
dη = 0
dI2
Condition to achieve maximum efficiency is
Copper Losses = Iron losses
i.e. P cu = P i

Voltage Regulation

At a constant supply voltage the change in the secondary terminal voltage from no load to full load
with respect to no load voltage is called as Voltage Regulation of a Transformer.

If, V02 = secondary terminal voltage on no load

V2 = secondary terminal voltage on given load

Then , % Regulation = V02-V2 x 100

V02
Electromechanical Energy Conversion Principles
An electromechanical energy conversion device is the device that converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy or, mechanical energy into electrical energy. Electromechanical energy
conversion takes place via the medium of a magnetic field or an electric field, but most practical
converters use magnetic field as the coupling medium between electrical and mechanical systems,
this is because the energy storing capacity of the magnetic field is much higher than that of the
electric field. Example: microphones, loudspeakers, electromagnetic relays, and certain electrical
measuring instruments, etc.

DC, induction and synchronous machines are used extensively for electromechanical energy
conversion. When the conversion takes place from electrical to mechanical form, the device is
called the motor, and when the mechanical energy is converted from mechanical to electrical
energy, the device is called a generator.

In these machines, conversion of energy from electrical to mechanical form or from mechanical to
electrical from results from the following two electromagnetic phenomena:

1. When a conductor is allowed to move in a magnetic field, a voltage is induced in the

conductor.
2. When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, then a mechanical force
is experienced by the conductor.

In motoring action, current flows through the conductors placed in a magnetic field. A force is
produced on each conductor. The conductors are placed on the rotor which is free to move. An
electromagnetic torque produced on the rotor is transferred to the shaft of the rotor and can be
utilized to drive a mechanical load. Since the conductors rotate in the magnetic field, a voltage is
induced in each conductor.

In generating action, the rotor is driven by a prime mover. A voltage is induced in the rotor
conductors. If an electrical load is connected to the winding formed by these conductors, a current
will flow, delivering electric power to the load. Moreover, the current flowing through the
conductors will interact with the magnetic field to produce a reaction torque, which will tend to
oppose the torque developed by the prime mover.

Conservation of energy

According to the principle of conservation of energy, energy can neither be created nor be
destroyed it can only be transformed from one state to another.