Aircraft Performance – Steady-level Unaccelerated Flight (Cruise)

In Aircraft Performance, we study of aircraft motion considering it as a Point Mass with

Aerodynamic, Propulsive and Inertia forces acting on it. (Moments are not considered in this
study).
• Point Performance: Stall velocity, minimum velocity, maximum velocity etc. at
various altitudes (h), Climb Rate, Turn Rate, Level Acceleration etc. at various flight
speeds and altitudes (within flight envelope), Absolute Ceiling, Service Ceiling etc.
• Path Performance: Time to climb from sea level to cruise altitude, Transonic
acceleration time from M= 0.8 to M = 1.2, Range and Endurance for given fuel onboard.
Definitions:
Straight flight: flight in which the Centre of gravity of the aircraft travels along a straight line
(dγ/dt = 0)
Steady flight: Flight in which the forces and moments acting on the aircraft do not vary in
time, neither in magnitude, nor in direction (dV/dt = 0)
Horizontal flight: The aircraft remains at a constant altitude (𝛾 = 0)
Symmetric flight: flight in which both the angle of sideslip is zero and the plane of symmetry
of the aircraft is perpendicular to the earth (β = 0 and the aircraft is not turning)
Mission Profile:
In order to estimate the performance at each phase or overall performance of aircraft, it is
necessary to know the number of phases or rather the profile of the mission.

Typical Mission Profile of a Transport Aircraft

Steady-level Unaccelerated Flight
The 4 forces L, W, D and T acting on an aircraft in level flight are shown in the figure below.
They are in equilibrium and we get
Aircraft lift curve – level flight 𝐂𝐋 and 𝛂:
For level flight,
L=W
Aircraft lift curve is given by (for α < αstall ),
CL = CLα (α − αL=0 )

Lift curve slope for 3-D wing (a) based on airfoil lift curve slope (a0 ),

a0
a= a0
1 + πeAR

This is valid for elliptical wing.

where a and a0 are wing and airfoil lift curve slope per radian, respectively.
From the lift coefficient formula,

𝛂 = (𝐂𝐋𝟏 ⁄𝐂𝐋𝛂 ) + 𝛂𝐋=𝟎

For a given flight 𝐂𝐋𝟏 we can obtain angle of attack α1from the lift curve as shown above.
Aerodynamic Review:
Lift and drag can be represented (when Re is sufficiently large) as:
1 2
1 2
L = ρ∞ V∞ SCL (α, M); D = ρ∞ V∞ SCD (α, M)
2 2
At any Mach number and when α is “sufficiently small", we can write
CL2
CL = CL0 + CLα α ; CD = CD0 +
πeAR

1 2W
L = W = ρV 2 SCL (α) ⟹ V = √
2 ρSCL

The ratio W/S is called the Wing Loading; an important design parameter.
For low angle of attack, the lift and drag coefficients are expressed as
CL2
CL = CL0 + CLα α ; CD = CD0 +
πeAR
CL0 : depends on wing camber and Aspect Ratio
CL𝛼 = 2π⁄1 + (2⁄AR): depends on Aspect Ratio
CD0 : depends on aerofoil geometry
Maximum lift to drag ratio (𝐋⁄𝐃)𝐦𝐚𝐱:
L CL CL d(CL ⁄CD )
= = 2 ⟹ = 0 ⟹ CD0 = KCL2
D CD CD0 + KCL dCL
L/D ratio is maximized when the AOA equals:

√CD0 ⁄K − CL0
α(L⁄D)max =
CLα

1 2W
L = W = ρV 2 SCL (α) ⟹ V = √
2 ρSCL

Stall speed is given by:

2W 1 1
Minimum Airspeed = Vstall = √ ( )∝
ρ S CL max √ρ

• Stall speed increases with altitude.

• Stall speed is found by setting CL = CL max : the minimum level flight speed
• In practice, Vmin ≈ 1.2Vstall
• Vmin (and Vstall ) increases with increasing wing loading
 • Flaps used while take-off and landing to reduce wing loading
At high angles of attack, the CL − α relation is nonlinear; So
CL ≠ CL0 + CLα α
A more accurate representation is of the form:
CL = K1 sin(K α α + K 0 )

Wing Loading, Span Loading and Aspect Ratio are related:

W W b
=
b S AR
W⁄b = span loading; W⁄S = wing loading; AR = b2 ⁄S
zero lift drag = D0 = qSCD0

1 W 2
induced drag = Di = ( )
πeq b

Di 1 W 2 1
=[ ( ) ]
D0 πeq b qSCD0

W 2 (W⁄S)2 (W⁄S)2 Di 1 (W⁄S)2

= = ⟹ =
b2S b 2 ⁄S AR D0 πeq2 CD0 AR
• Increasing AR will decrease drag due to lift relative to zero-lift drag
• AR predominately controls ratio of induced drag to zero lift drag, whereas span loading
controls actual value of induced drag
Vehicle Drag:
Drag takes the form shown below, being composed of a part termed parasitic drag that increases
with the square of the flight velocity, and a part called induced drag, or drag due to lift, that
decreases in proportion to the inverse of the flight velocity.
 CL2
CD = CD0 +
πeAR
1 1
where L = 2 ρV 2 SCL and D = 2 ρV 2 SCD

Thus,
1 L2 1
D = ρV 2 SCD0 + ( )
2 1 2 πeAR
2 ρV S
During cruise L = W, So
1 2 W2 1
D = ρV SCD0 + ( )
2 1 2 πeAR
ρV S
2
Free-body diagram and Kinetic diagram:

➢ Lift (L) and drag (D) are perpendicular and parallel to the velocity, respectively.
➢ Weight (W) is perpendicular to XE. The component of weight parallel to the velocity
is Wsin𝜸 and perpendicular to the velocity is Wcos𝜸

Force components parallel to the velocity: D, Wsin𝛾, T

Force components perpendicular to the velocity: L, Wcos𝛾
Equations of Motion:
 T − D − W sin γ = m(dV⁄dt)
L − W cos γ = mV(dγ⁄dt)
If the thrust is not aligned with the velocity vector and rotated by an angle (αT ), then
TcosαT − D − W sin γ = m(dV⁄dt)
L − T sin αT − W cos γ = mV(dγ⁄dt)
For a horizontal (𝛄 = 𝟎), steady (dV/dt = 0), level (dh/dt = 0) and symmetric flight (𝛃 =
𝟎), the equations of motion can be re-written as,
T−D=0
L−W=0
The drag (or thrust required) depends on the density (altitude), airspeed, and the vehicle weight,
and therefore has the general form:
𝐃 = 𝐃(𝐡, 𝐕, 𝐖) 𝐨𝐫 𝐃 = 𝐃(𝐡, 𝐌, 𝐖)
The thrust available (the output of the engine) depends on the density (altitude), airspeed, and
the throttle setting, and therefore has the general form:
𝐓 = 𝐓(𝐡, 𝐕, 𝛅𝐓 ) 𝐨𝐫 𝐓 = 𝐓(𝐡, 𝐌, 𝛅𝐓 )
If the aircraft is flying in unaccelerated level flight, then climb angle equals zero and the sum
of the forces must equal zero.
T−D=0
L−W=0
T = D = qSCD = qS(CD0 + KCL2 ); L = W = qSCL

W 1 2 W
= qCL = ρV 2 CL ⟹ V = √ ( )
S 2 ρCL S

Thrust to Weight ratio is:

T 1 qS(CD0 + KCL2 ) qCD0 W K
= = = +( )
W L⁄D W W S q
(S)

Thrust Required:
1 2 1 1 1
TR = D = ρV SCD = ρV 2 S[CD0 + KCL2 ] = ρV 2 SCD0 + ρV 2 SKCL2
2 2 2 2
L W W
CL = = =
QS QS (1⁄2)ρV 2 S
2
1 2 1 2 W
TR = D = ρV SCD0 + ρV SK ( ) = 𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐟𝐢𝐥𝐞 𝐝𝐫𝐚𝐠 + 𝐈𝐧𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐞𝐝 𝐝𝐫𝐚𝐠
2 2 (1⁄2)ρV 2 S
 1 2 2KW 2
TR = D = ρV SCD0 +
2 ρV 2 S
B
TR = D = AV 2 +
V2
1 2KW2
where A = 2 ρSCD0 and B = ρS

Minimum thrust required at cruise flight:

In the steady-level accelerated flight,
T D D
T=D⇒ = =
W W L
W W
TR = =
(L⁄D) (CL ⁄CD )
W W
TR,min = =
(L⁄D) (CL ⁄CD )max
or
CD
TR min = W ( )
CL min

For a given weight, thrust required (TR ) is minimum when the lift-to-drag ratio (CL/CD -
Aerodynamic efficiency) is maximum.
The condition for minimum thrust required at a given weight is also the condition for maximum
L/D. To find the velocity at which the thrust is minimum and L/D is maximum, the derivative
of the equation with respect to velocity is set to zero.

𝜕(T⁄W) ∂ qCD0 W K
= ( +( ) )=0
𝜕V ∂V (W) S q
S
1
(2 ρV 2 ) CD0 W K
∂( +(S) 1 )
(W⁄S)
(2 ρV 2 )
=0
∂V
ρVCD0 W 2K
− =0
(W⁄S) S 1 3
(2 ρV )

W 2 2W K
ρ2 V 4 CD0 = 4K ( ) ; then V thrust = √ √
S min or Drag ρS CD0

𝟐𝐖 𝟏⁄𝟐 𝐊 𝟏⁄𝟒
𝐕𝐦𝐝 =( ) ( )
𝛒𝐒 𝐂𝐃𝟎
 2 W 2W K 2 W
We had: V = √ ( ) ; So we can write: √ √ =√ ( )
ρCL S ρS CD0 ρCL S

K 1 CD0
√ = ⟹ CL min thrust = √
CD0 CL K

We know that, D = qS(CD0 + KCL2 )

2
CD0
CD min thrust = (CD0 + K (√ ) ) = (CD0 + CD0 ) = 2CD0
K

It shows that at any given weight, the aircraft can be flown at the optimal lift coefficient for
minimum drag by varying velocity or air density. In addition, the total drag at the lift coefficient
for minimum drag will then be exactly twice the zero-lift drag.
At what 𝐂𝐋 , 𝐂𝐋 ⁄𝐂𝐃 will be maximum?
At a particular lift coefficient (CL ), the (CL ⁄CD ) will be maximum.
To find the maximum CL ⁄CD ,
∂(CL ⁄CD )
=0
∂CL
CL CL
=
CD CD0 + KCL2

∂ CL ∂ CL
( )= ( )=0
∂CL CD ∂CL CD0 + KCL2

If y = u/v, then from quotient rule

𝐝𝐲 𝐝 𝐮 𝐯. (𝐝𝐮⁄𝐝𝐱) − 𝐮. (𝐝𝐯⁄𝐝𝐱)
= ( )=
𝐝𝐱 𝐝𝐱 𝐯 𝐯𝟐
Similarly,

∂ CL (CD0 + KCL2 )(1) − (CL )(2KCL )

( )= 2 =0
∂CL CD (C + KC2 )D0 L

CD0 + KCL2 − 2KCL2 = 0

Optimum lift coefficient,

CD0
CLopt = √
K
 𝟐
𝐂𝐃
𝐂𝐃𝐢 = 𝐊𝐂𝐋𝟐 = 𝐊 (√ 𝟎 ) = 𝐂𝐃𝟎
𝐊

W W
TR,min = =
(L⁄D) (CL ⁄CD )max

√ 𝐂 𝐃 𝟎 ⁄𝐊
𝐂𝐋
where ( ) =
𝐂𝐃 𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝟐𝐂𝐃𝟎

𝐓𝐑 𝐦𝐢𝐧 = 𝟐𝐖(𝐂𝐃𝟎 𝐊)𝟏⁄𝟐

From the lift coefficient expression,

L W W 2(W⁄S)
CL = = = 2
⇒V=√
QS QS (1⁄2)ρV S ρSCL

Hence

2(W⁄S)
VTR,min =
√ CD
ρS√ K0

For a particular altitude (ρ), there is a velocity at which the weight is balanced by lift and the
drag (D) or thrust required (TR) will be minimum.

1 2 1 CD
L=W= ρV SCL = ρV 2 S√ 0
2 2 K

• Thrust required is minimum when CDi = CD0

Minimum Thrust conditions:

CLmindrag = √πeARCD0

CDmindrag = 2CD0

1 πeAR
(CL ⁄CD )max = √
2 CD0

1⁄4
W W 2 1 1 1
Vmindrag = √ = [4 ( ) 2 ( )]
1 S ρ CD0 πeAR
2 ρSCLmindrag
Effect of Altitude on the Performance of Aircraft:
At a given altitude, aircraft is flying at two different velocities (V1 and V2),
At velocity V1, the lift coefficient of the aircraft is CL1 and at V2, the lift coefficient is CL2 .
We know that,
L W W
CL = = =
QS QS (1⁄2)ρV 2 S
If V2 < V1, then
• CL2 > CL1 (lift coefficient at V2 is greater than V1)
• KCL22 > KCL21 (Induced drag at V2 is greater than V1)

At the same altitude, induced drag component increases when the velocity decreases and
vice-versa.
2
1 2 2W
TR = D = qS(CD0 + KCL2 ) = ρV S [CD0 + K ( ) ]
2 1⁄2ρV 2 S
1
TR = ρV 2 SCD0 + 2 KW 2 ⁄(ρV 2 S) = Parasite drag + Induced drag
2

At fixed weight (W) and altitude (h), thrust required versus velocity

Some important points:

Wing loading (W/S) is small when wing area (S) is large. Lift will be more when W/S is small
for a given V, ρ and CL .

2(W⁄S)
V=√
ρCL

• When the wing loading (W/S) is small, cruise velocity (Vcruise ) becomes less.
• Less cruise velocity is required to maintain L = W.
• When velocity is less, drag becomes less.

1
D = ρV 2 SCD
2
 • When drag (D) is less, thrust required becomes less.
• When thrust required is less, thrust available requirement reduces.
• When thrust available is less, engine size becomes small and in turn weight reduces.
Effect of altitude on thrust required or aerodynamic drag (weight is fixed):
Drag (one particular AOA):
CD CD
DH1 = W; DH2 = W
CL CL
DH1 = DH2
Since there is no density term in the drag equation.
H1 = Altitude 1; H2 = Altitude 2
Airspeed (one particular AOA):

W 2 1 W 2 1
VH1 = √ ; VH2 = √
S ρH1 CL S ρH2 CL

𝐇𝟐 > 𝐇𝟏; 𝛒𝐇𝟐 < 𝛒𝐇𝟏 ; 𝐕𝐇𝟐 > 𝐕𝐇𝟏

• When AOA is constant, CL and CD are constant.
• To have same CD at altitude 2, velocity shifts to the right.

Effect of weight on thrust required or aerodynamic drag (altitude is fixed):

2
1 2 2W
TR = D = qS(CD0 + KCL2 ) = ρV S [CD0 + K ( ) ]
2 1⁄2ρV 2 S
➢ Drag Variation with Weight
➢ Parasite is drag independent of W
➢ Induced drag varies like W2
The thrust required curve for steady level flight exhibits the standard features; high thrust is
required for steady level flight at low air speeds and high thrust is required at high air speeds.

A Simple Aircraft Model for Engine Thrust:

The following picture provides a visual effect of the thrust model
To estimate the thrust at sea level at any Mach number,
T0,M = T0,M=0 − λMtrue
To correct the thrust developed for any altitude,
ρh m
Th,M = T0,M ( )
ρSL
where,
T0,M = Thrust at sea level and at Mach number M

T0,M=0 = Thrust at sea level and at Mach number M = 0 (zero speed)

λ = Rate of change of thrust vs. Mach number (lapse rate)

Mtrue = True Mach number (dimensionless)
Th,M = True at altitude h and Mach number M

ρh = Air density at altitude h (kg/m3 )

ρSL = Air density at sea level (zero altitude) (kg/m3 )
m = Thrust lapse rate (dimensionless)
Effect of altitude and velocity on Power and Thrust:
Propeller-driven aircraft:
• Power remains constant with Speed.
• Power variation with Altitude or density ratio (σ) is given by
Ph ρh n
= ( ) = σn
PSL ρSL
• Thrust available drops with increase in velocity and altitude.
• Power is equal to thrust times velocity

𝐏 = 𝐓𝐡𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐭 × 𝐒𝐩𝐞𝐞𝐝 = 𝐓𝐕

Jet engine aircraft:

• Thrust remains constant with speed.
• Thrust variation with altitude or density ratio is
 𝐓𝐡 𝛒𝐡 𝐦
= ( ) = 𝛔𝐦
𝐓𝐒𝐋 𝛒𝐒𝐋

Thrust and Power:

Steady thrust and power relations (Analytical Assumption):
Jet: Thrust is (assumed) independent of airspeed
Propeller: Power available is (assumed) independent of airspeed

Maximum and Minimum Flight Speeds:

The maximum thrust that the jet engine can provide limits the possible air speeds for which the
aircraft can maintain steady level flight. In particular, at full throttle the thrust required for
steady level flight is equal to the maximum thrust that the engine can provide; this leads to the
equation
 1 2 2KW 2 s
ρ m
ρV SCD0 + = Tmax ( )
2 ρV 2 S ρSL
The maximum and minimum airspeed can also be obtained by solving

1 ρ m 2KW 2
ρSCD0 V 4 − Tmax
s
( ) V2 + =0
2 ρSL ρS
This equation typically has two positive solutions. The high-speed solution denotes the
maximum possible air speed of the aircraft; the low speed solution denotes the minimum
possible air speed of the aircraft.

Flight Ceiling:
The analysis is based on steady flight analysis at a fixed altitude. It is possible to assess the
dependence of the steady level flight conditions on the altitude. As the flight altitude increases
the maximum thrust provided by the jet engine decreases; this implies that the maximum air
speed due to the jet engine limit tends to decrease and the minimum air speed due to the jet
engine limit tends to increase. The air speed at the stall limit also tends to increase. These facts
mean that there is a maximum altitude, referred to as the steady level flight ceiling, at which
steady level flight can be maintained. This leads to a mathematical equation,

s
ρ m
TRequired = TAvailable ⇒ 2W√KCD0 = Tmax ( )
ρSL
Flight Envelope:
The steady level flight envelope for a jet aircraft consists of all flight conditions for which
steady level flight can be maintained. A flight condition is said to be feasible, or to lie within
the steady level flight envelope, if the physical constraints on steady level flight are satisfied.
 Altitude 1 Altitude 2

Altitude 3 Absolute Ceiling

In this case, the minimum air speed due to the thrust constraint is larger than the stall speed;
consequently, the maximum thrust constraint must be active. Hence, the minimum air speed is
equal to the minimum air speed due to the thrust constraint.
The velocity at stall is
 2W
Vstall = √
ρSCL,max

Aircraft Stall Boundary:

The slowest steady level flight aircraft can fly is given by the condition of stall, with aircraft
operating at maximum lift coefficient of CL,max .
1
W = L = ρV 2 SCL,max
2

2(W⁄S)
Vstall = √
ρCL,max

Some observations on Vstall:

• Increases with altitude (ρ↓ as h↑)
• Increases with wing loading (W/S)
• Reduces with increase in CL,max
• CL,max is the only aerodynamic parameter affecting Vstall
We can draw the stall boundary of the aircraft showing variation of Vstall with h as shown in
the figure.

Aircraft Flight Envelope for Level Flight – Analytical

By equating aircraft thrust required TR or drag D (= AV2+B/V2) to thrust available TA at full
throttle at any altitude (TA= TASL σm), we can obtain possible level flight speed/s.
TASL is sea level thrust, σ is density ratio, m ≤ 1,
CD0 ρS 2KW 2
A= and B =
2 ρS
For steady level flight we have TR = TA
 B
AV 2 + = TSL σm
V2
We get a quadratic in V2

AV 4 − (TSL σm )V 2 + B = 0
Solving this we can get two values for V2 as

(TSL σm ) ± √(TSL σm )2 − 4AB

V2 =
2A
Thus, we get two flight speeds Vmin and Vmax in terms of aircraft W, S, CD0, K, engine thrust at
sea level TASL and density ρ (or σ) at flight altitude.
1 ρ m 2KW 2
ρSCD0 V 4 − Tmax
s
( ) V2 + =0
2 ρSL ρS
This can also be expressed in terms of thrust to weight ratio (T/W), wing loading (W/S) and
drag polar (CD0 and K) at different altitude (ρ) as below
1⁄2
2
[TA,max ⁄W](W⁄S) ± (W⁄S)√[TA,max ⁄W] − 4CD0 K
V=
ρCD0
( )
Speed Instability – Thrust Required Curve:

Stability of a system in equilibrium is its tendency to return to the equilibrium when disturbed
over a short time.
• At velocity V2, excess thrust (TA-TR) > 0 – Aircraft accelerates
• At velocity V3, excess thrust (TA-TR) > 0 – Aircraft accelerates
• At velocity V4, excess thrust (TA-TR) < 0 – Aircraft decelerates
Power required in cruise flight:
The Power Required in Kilowatts is given by
TR V
PR =
1000
where TR is in Newtons and V in m⁄s
TR = W(CD ⁄CL )

2W W CD 2W 1 2W 3 CD
V=√ ⟹ PR = √ = √
ρSCL 1000 CL ρSCL 1000 ρS C3⁄2
L

⁄ ⁄
Power required is minimum when (CL3 2 ⁄CD ) is maximum or (CD ⁄CL3 2 ) is minimum.

Minimum Power Required for Level Flight (Propeller Driven):

The conditions for minimum thrust and minimum power required are not the same. Power is
force times velocity, which in steady level flight equals the drag times the velocity.
P = DV = qS(CD0 + KCL2 )V = qSCD0 V + qSKCL2 V
We know that 𝐖 = 𝐋 = 𝐪𝐒𝐂𝐋, then
KW 2 V 1 KW 2
P = qSCD0 V + ⟹ P = ρSCD0 +
qS 2 1⁄2 ρVS
The velocity for flight on minimum power is obtained by setting the derivative of this equation
to zero.
1 1 3
PR = ρV S[CD0 + KCL2 ]
1000 2
1 3 KW 2
𝜕P 𝜕 ( ρSCD0 V + )
2 1⁄2 ρVS
=0⟹ =0
𝜕V 𝜕V
1 KW 2
𝜕 (2 ρSCD0 V 3 + ) 3 KW 2
1⁄2 ρVS 2
= 0 ⟹ ρSCD0 V − =0
𝜕V 2 1⁄2 ρV 2 S

2 4
W 2 2W K
3ρ V CD0 = 4K ( ) ; then Vmin Power = √ √
S ρS 3CD0

2 W 2W K 2 W
We had: V = √ ( ) ; So we can write: √ √ =√ ( )
ρCL S ρS 3CD0 ρCL S
 K 1 3CD0
√ = ⟹ CL min Power = √
3CD0 CL K

D = qS(CD0 + KCL2 )
2
3CD0
CD min Power = (CD0 + K (√ ) ) = (CD0 + 3CD0 ) = 4CD0
K

It shows that velocity for minimum power required is approximately 0.76 times the velocity
for minimum thrust (1/3)^1/4. The aircraft is flying at a lift coefficient for minimum power,
which is about 76% higher than the lift coefficient for minimum drag. In addition, the total
drag at the lift coefficient for minimum power will then be exactly four times the zero-lift drag.
Power required:
1 1 KW 2
PR = ρV 3 SCD0 + = Parasite power + Induced power
2000 500 ρVS

⁄𝟐
At what 𝐂𝐋 , 𝐂𝐃 ⁄𝐂𝐋𝟑 will be minimum?

CD CD0 + KCL2 CD0 ⁄2

( 3⁄2
)= ⁄
= ⁄
+ KCL1
CL CL3 2 CL3 2
⁄
∂(CD ⁄CL3 2 ) 3 CD0 1 K
= 0 ⟹ − 5⁄2 + =0
∂CL 2C 2 C1⁄2
L L

3KCD0
CL mp = (3CD0 ⁄K)1⁄2 ; CD mp = CD0 + = 4CD0
K
1⁄4
CD CD mp 4CD0 256 3
( ) = = =( C K )
⁄2
CL3 CL mp (3CD0 ⁄K)3⁄4 27 D0
min
 1⁄2
2W 2W 1⁄2 K 1⁄4
Vmp =( ) =( ) ( )
ρSCL mp ρS 3CD0
1⁄2 ⁄4
1
1 2W 3 256 3
PR min = ( ) ( C K )
1000 ρS 27 D0

2W 1⁄2 K 1⁄4 1
Vmp =( ) ( ) = 1⁄4 Vmd ≈ 0.76Vmd
ρS 3CD0 3
⁄
At what 𝐂𝐋 , 𝐂𝐋𝟑 𝟐 ⁄𝐂𝐃 will be maximum?
⁄
∂(CL3 2 ⁄CD )
=0
∂CL
⁄ ⁄
CL3 2 CL3 2
=
CD CD0 + KCL2
If y = u/v, then from quotient rule
𝐝𝐲 𝐝 𝐮 𝐯. (𝐝𝐮⁄𝐝𝐱) − 𝐮. (𝐝𝐯⁄𝐝𝐱)
= ( )=
𝐝𝐱 𝐝𝐱 𝐯 𝐯𝟐
Similarly,
3
(CD0 + KCL2 ) ( CL1⁄2 ) − (CL3⁄2 )(2KCL )
2 =0
(CD0 + KCL2 )2
3
(CD0 + KCL2 ) ( CL1⁄2 ) − (CL3⁄2 )(2KCL ) = 0
2
3 1
CD0 = KCL2
2 2
3CD0 = KCL2

3CD0
CLopt = √
K

Minimum Thrust and Power Required for Level Flight:

 CD
TR min = W ( )
CL min

1 2W 3 ⁄
PR min = √ (CD ⁄CL3 2 )min
1000 ρS

1⁄2 1 ⁄4
1 2W 3 256 3
PR min = ( ) ( C K )
1000 ρS 27 D0

Effect of altitude on power required (fixed weight):

Power Required (one particular AOA):
PR = Drag × Velocity
PR = DV
PRH1 < PRH2 when VH2 > VH1

DH1 = DH2

W2 1
V=√
S ρ CL

PRH1 DH1 VH1 ρH1 PR VH2

= ⟹ PRH2 = PRH1 √ ⟹ H2 =
PRH2 DH2 VH2 ρH2 PRH1 VH1

Ratio of power and velocity remains constant.

Maximum and Minimum Flight Speeds:

The maximum power that an internal combustion engine can provide limits the possible air
speeds for which the aircraft can maintain steady level flight. In particular, at full throttle, the
power required for steady level flight is equal to the maximum power that the engine can
provide; this leads to the equation
1 3 2KW 2 s
ρ m
ρV SCD0 + = ηPmax ( )
2 ρVS ρSL
this equation typically has two positive solutions. The high-speed solution denotes the
maximum possible air speed of the aircraft; the low speed solution denotes the minimum
possible airspeed of the aircraft.
Flight Ceiling:
The analysis is based on steady flight analysis at a fixed altitude. It is possible to assess the
dependence of the steady level flight conditions on the altitude. Note that as the altitude
increases the maximum power provided by the internal combustion engine decreases; this
implies that the maximum air speed due to the internal combustion engine limit tends to
decrease and the minimum air speed due to the internal combustion engine limit tends to
increase. The air speed at the stall limit also tends to increase. These facts mean that there is a
maximum altitude, referred to as the flight ceiling, at which steady level flight can be
maintained. This leads to the mathematical equation

4 2W 3 s
ρ m
√ √3K 3 CD0 = ηPmax ( )
3 ρS ρSL

Effect of Altitude on Velocity Required and Power Required:

Velocity required,

2(W⁄S)
V=√
ρCL

Power required,

2W 3 CD2
PR = √
ρSCL3

At sea-level,

2(W⁄S) 2W 3 CD2
V0 = √ and PR,0 = √
ρ0 CL ρ0 SCL3
At an altitude h,

2(W⁄S) 2W 3 CD2
Vh = √ and PR,h = √
ρh CL ρh SCL3

For the same lift coefficient,

Vh ρ0 1 Ph ρ0
= √ = √ and =√
V0 ρh σ P0 ρh

Summary (Parabolic drag polar with constant parameters):

Minimum Drag Minimum Power Required

Lift coefficient √CD0 ⁄K √3CD0 ⁄K

Drag coefficient 2CD0 4CD0

1 3
Lift-to-Drag ratio 1⁄(2√CD0 K) √
4 CD0 K

1⁄4 1⁄4
W K W K
Velocity √ ( ) √ ( )
(1⁄2)ρS CD0 (1⁄2)ρS 3CD0