COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE AND ORGANIZATION

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

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 CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
OUTLINE
1.1 Computers
1.2 Generation and types of computers
1.3 Hardware and software parts of computer
1.4 Architecture and organization
1.5 Functional units
1.6 Operations and structure of functional units
1.7 Interconnection of functional units
1.8 Bus and its structure
1.8.1 Bus design considerations
1.9 Performance and performance affecting factors
1.10Current trends in computer hardware
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 1.1 Computers
 What is a “computer”?

 “An automatic electronic apparatus for making calculations or controlling operations

that are expressible in numerical or logical terms”

 Its name Comes from the word compute == calculate, hence means a device that

calculates some mathematical operations

 Generally, a computer is an electronics device that does the following basic functions.

 Accepts data

 Processes the data according to specified rules

 Provides result

 Stores data and results for further use

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 1.2 Generation and Type of computers
 Computers in today’s world come through many evolutions (generations)
 There are 5 generations of computers in which each generation have some
improvements over the other.
 Computers are classified based on the parameters like
 Speed of operation
 Cost
 Computational power
 Type of application
 There are different types of computers based on the above parameters.
 Reading Assignment:
About generation(1st up to 5th generation) and types of computers!!!
N.B. focus on the basic differences and improvements of each generation and type.
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 History of Computers:
First Generation: Vacuum Tubes(1942-1954)

 Vacuum tubes were used for digital logic elements and memory
 Characteristics of the 1st Generation of Computer:
 Vacuum tubes and diode valves were used as the main electronic component in the first
generation computers.
 Punch cards, paper tape utilized for input and output operations.
 Magnetic drums used for storage.
 Huge in size and weight with a lot of power consumption.
 Very expensive in price also not reliable.
 Computers were programmed with low-level machine language
also has low operating speed

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 Examples of First-Generation Computers: ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Computer),UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer), EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage
Automatic Calculator), EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)IBM 701 and
IBM 650

 The main application : scientific, military, and industrial purposes

 ENIAC was the first general-purpose electronic digital computer, using over 18,000 vacuum tubes.
It was massive, occupying more than 1,000 square feet and weighing 30 tons.

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 History of Computers:
Second Generation: Transistors(1952-1964)
 replaced the vacuum tubes with a reliable component called transistors
 Characteristics of the 2nd Generation of Computer:
 Computers based on transistors instead of vacuum tubes.
 Magnetic Tape was used to store data.
 Relatively small in size and reduced weight with low energy consumption than 1st gen
computers.
 Higher-level languages like COBOL, ALGOL, SNOBOL, and FORTRAN were developed
and used.
 Faster, reliable, and less expensive than the first generation.
 Use of storage devices, printers, and operating systems, etc.
 Examples : IBM 1620, CDC 1604, IBM 7094, UNIVAC 1108,
IBM 620, CDC 3600, IBM 4044, Honeywell 400, IBM 1401
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 History of Computers:
Third Generation: Integrated Circuits(1964-1972)
 Use integrated circuits (IC) instead of transistor
 Characteristics of the 3rd Generation of Computer:
 Integrated Circuit was more powerful than the transistor.
 The size of the computers was likewise
 More reliable, inexpensive, faster, energy-efficient, as well as very light in weight than 2nd
gen computers.
 The first Computer Mouse and Keyboard were appeared and used in the 3rd generation of
computers
 Use of new versions of high-level languages like BASIC,
COBOL, FORTRAN, PASCAL, and ALGOL
 Example: ICL 2903, ICL 1900, TDC-B16, IBM 360 and 370,
Honeywell 6000, UNIVAC 1108, PDP-8, and PDP-11

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 History of Computers:
4th Generation: VLSI(1972-1990)
 Use VLSI technology
 Characteristics of the 4th Generation of Computer:
 computers based on microprocessors and VLSI technology.
 small in size, lightweight, and almost portable computers.
 The integrating of multi cores in processors like Dual core, Octa core, etc has began.
 The processing speed much faster and reliable than the previous three generations.
 The size and cost of power supply units has reduced.
 Use of languages like C, C ++, .Net, Java, PHP, Python, Visual Basic.
 Use of GUI Based OS with more memory capacity.
 Accessible to the Internet.
 Due to the low cost of these computers, they were available to
every common man.
 Example: Desktops, Laptops, Workstations, Tablets, Chromebooks,
and Smartphones

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 History of Computers:
5th Generation: (1990-onwards)
 based on ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology, features the integration
of millions of transistors on a single silicon chip, enabling advancements in artificial
intelligence
 Characteristics of the 5th Generation of Computer:
 The main focus on AI-based computers.
 Computers made of microprocessors based on ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology.
 The processing speed is quite high can perform billions of calculations in a second.
 Computers are portable, cheap, reliable, fast, and available in
various forms and sizes like a Desktop, Laptop, Smartphone, Smartwatches, etc.
 Invention of the operating system such as Windows, Macintosh and
ChromeOS of Chromebooks.
 Multimedia has evolved in this generation by combining Sound, Graphics,
or Picture and Text.
 Development of Internet of Things.
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 Note: In each generation
 Each new generation is characterized by
1. Greater processing performance

2. Larger memory capacity

3. Smaller size

4. Lower cost

5. Decreasing of memory access time

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 1.3 Parts of computer

Hardware Software

 Refers to the physical components that make up a  Refers to a series of instructions that
computer system. These include: tells the computer what tasks to
 Input devices eg. Mouse, keyboard, perform and how to perform them.
scanner  System software eg. OS(Windows 7,

 Output devise eg. Printer, speaker, monitor Ubuntu, windows 8), Complier, Assembler,
Linker, Loader
 Storage devices eg. Primary storage,
 Application software eg. VLC player,
secondary storage
games, paint, web browser
 Communication devices eg. cable, modem
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 Hardware and software examples

Hardware Software

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 Data in computers
 In modern digital computers data is represented in binary form by using two
symbols 0 and 1.
 Each digit is called a binary digit or bit.

 A collection of 8 bits is called byte.

 Word a unit of information, which a computer can process, or transfer at a time.

A word may be equal to 8, 16, 32 or 64 bits.

 Since, computers only work with binary digits, characters and symbols are
represented by a byte.
 Single character is represented by one byte internally.

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 1.4 Organization and Architecture

 Computer Organization and Architecture is the study of internal working,

structuring, and implementation of a computer system.

 Architecture in the computer system, mean the way a system is visible to the logic
of programs (not the human eyes!).

 Computer architecture is the design of a computers, including their instruction

sets, hardware components and system organization.

 Organization of a computer system is the way of practical implementation that

results in the realization of architectural specifications of a computer system.

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 1.4 Organization and Architecture

Computer Architecture Computer Organization

 Refers to those attributes of a system visible to a  Refers to the operational units and their interconnections
programmer or those attributes that have a direct that realize the architecture specifications.
impact on logical execution of a program.
 Organizational attributes include those hardware details
 Examples of architecture attributes:
transparent to the programmer, such as:
 instruction set
 Control signals
 number of bits used to represent various data
 I/O mechanism and techniques for addressing  interfaces between the computer and peripherals
memory
 the memory technology used
 The science of integrating the components to
 The components from which computers are built
achieve a level of functionality and performance.
 It is an organizational issue whether multiply instruction
 It is an architectural design issue whether a computer
will have a multiply instruction. will be implemented by a special multiply unit or done by
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 Cont’d…
Computer architecture Computer organization

 Focus on the structure and behavior of  Addresses issues such as control signals (how
the computer system the computer is controlled), signaling
 Refer to Logical aspects of system methods and memory types
implementation as seen by the  Encompasses all physical aspects of computer
programmer. systems.
 E.g., instruction sets, instruction  E.g., circuit design, control signals, memory

formats, data types, addressing modes. types.

 Deals with How do I design a computer?  Deals with How does a computer work?

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 1.5 Functional Units
 A computer consists of four main parts:
 A processor (CPU)
 Main-memory system
 I/O system (peripherals)
 Interconnections (Bus)
 The CPU consists of:
 Control unit
 Registers
 Arithmetic and logic unit

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 Functional Units …

Arithmetic
Input and
Logic
DB Memory AB

Control Unit
Output DB

I/O Processor

.
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 1.6 Structure and Function of Computer Components
 Structure is the way in which components relate to each other

 Function is the operation of individual components as part of the structure

 All computer’s functions are:

 Data Processing
 Data storage

 Data movement

 control

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 Functional view (Data Movement )
The computer can
function as a data Movement
movement device,
transferring data from
one peripheral or
communications line
to another.
Control

Storage Processing

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 Functional view ( Data Storage )

It can also function as a

Movement It can also
data storage device with function to
. data transferred from the
external environment to
transfer data from
computer storage its internal storage
to external
devices
Control

Storage Processing
 Functional view ( Data Processing )…

Movement
Operation
Processing from/to
storage

Control

Storage Processing
 Structure - Top Level

Peripherals Computer

Central Main
Processing Memory
Unit

Computer Systems
Interconnection

Input
Output
Communication
lines

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 Structure – The CPU

CPU

Computer Arithmetic
Registers and
I/O Login Unit
System CPU
Bus
Internal CPU
Memory Interconnection

Control
Unit

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 Structure – The Control Unit

Control Unit

CPU
Sequencing
ALU Login
Control
Internal
Unit
Bus
Control Unit
Registers Registers and
Decoders

Control
Memory

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 1.7 Connection of Functional Units of a Computer
 CPU communicates with memory and I/O.
o ALU
o CU
o Operational registers
o PC
o Cache memory
 Bus
o Address bus
o Data/instruction bus
 Instruction set  the overall instructions that
make the computer work
 I/O system
o Peripherals connected to computers for data exchange
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 1.8 Bus and its Structure
 The hardware of a microcomputer system can be
divided in four functional sections
1. The input unit
2. The microprocessor unit
3. The memory unit
4. The output unit
 Each unit has a special function

 There is a communication device that connects these

functional sections and help them as a communication
path for information exchange in between these
sections.

 It is called system bus

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 Bus structure…
 The bus includes three main parts:

1. The address bus

2. The data bus

3. The control bus

 There is also a power bus, and some architectures may also have a separate I/O

bus.

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 Computer Bus

Control lines include:

 Clock(s)
 Interrupt Support
 Bus Control
 R/W
 etc…
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 Computer Bus…
The three buses which carry signals around the computer system each
have their own particular function.

1. Address Bus

 This is used by the Processor to indicate which location has to be

accessed
 It is a one-way bus from the processor as the processor dictates all
movement of signals.
 The number of lines on the address bus determines the maximum
amount of memory locations which can be accessed.

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 Address bus width and Addressable memory 2 lines
00
A 2 line address bus would allow 4 addresses. 01
10
because 22 = 4. 11
A 3 line address bus would allow 8 addresses.
3 lines
because 23 = 8. 000
X lines on the address bus allows 2x addresses. 001
010
A 24 line address bus allows 011
224 = 16Mb of addresses. 100
101
A 32 line address bus allows
110
232 = 4Gb of addresses.
111
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 2. Data bus

 This is the bus which is used to transfer the actual data to and from the
locations.
 It is a two-way bus as data may be going to the processor (Read ) or
coming from the processor (Write ).

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  With both the data and the address buses, each of the
lines operate together, in parallel, at the same time, or as
a unit.
 E.g. It would not make sense to look at one of the
lines on the address bus.
 You have to look at them all to see the full address.

3. Control bus
 The Control bus is a collective name for a number of
discrete lines each of which has a different function and
operates at different times.
 They are best viewed as a number of individual lines.

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 We’ll start with three of the lines on the control bus:
1. Read line
• The processor activates this line to show that it wants to be
sent (read) data from another part of the computer system.
2. Write line
• The processor activates this line to show that it wants to
send (write) data to another part of the computer system.
3. Clock line
• This line. sends a regular series of pulses at a speed measured in
Hertz(Hz)
• Every event in the computer is timed to take place at particular
points within the on/off cycle of each pulse.
• It controls the speed and timing of all operations in the computer.
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 Other lines on the control bus include:
4. Reset line
• This line resets (clears the contents of all) the registers
inside the processor. This prepares it for carrying out a
new task.

5. Interrupt line
• Devices send a signal on this line to interrupt the processor
when they need attention.
• e.g. the printer may be out of paper.

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  Bus design
 What are the Bus design considerations?
 Accessibility
 Speed
 Reliability
 Noise (electrical)
 Flexibility
 Ease of Interfacing
 Power
 Share ability
 Communication Protocol
 Length
 And others
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 1.9 System’s Performance Factors
 The type of processor used plays a large part in determining system
performance.

 However, other parts of the computer also have an effect on how well the
computer performs.

 We will be looking at three factors which have an effect:

I. Data bus width

II. Cache memory

III. Data transfer rate to/from peripherals.

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 1. Data bus width
2. Cache memory
3. Data transfer rate
to/from peripherals
• Data and instructions are transferred using the data bus. A
64 bit data bus can carry twice as much data at a time as a
32 bit data bus.

• A wider data bus means that more data can be transferred

at a time and this therefore improves system performance.

• This assumes that the other components e.g. registers can

cope with the larger amounts of data.

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 1. Data bus width
2. Cache memory
3. Data transfer rate
to/from peripherals
• Cache memory is a small fast type of RAM which sits
between the Processor and the main memory (RAM).

• Level 1 Cache is the fastest type of cache as it is physically

on the same chip as the processor.

• Level 2 Cache is on a separate chip and so it is slower to

access than Level 1. Both types are much faster than main
memory RAM.
• Increasing the amount of cache memory improves the system
performance.

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 1. Data bus width
2. Cache memory
3. Data transfer rate
to/from peripherals

• A peripheral is any device that is not part of the essential computer(the

processor, memory, and bus paths).
• Some peripherals are mounted in the same case with the main part of the
computer,
 E.g. the hard disk drive, DVD drive, and network interface card (NIC)
• Other peripherals are outside the computer case,
 E.g. the printer, mouse, keyboard, scanner, attached by a wired or
wireless connections.

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 Cont’d…
 The processor communicates with peripheral devices. e.g. loading a file
from a hard disk, scanning an image etc.
 Peripheral devices transfer at different speeds and so these can have an
effect on system performance too. Peripheral device interfaces also
transfer at different speeds.
 Using peripherals with fast data transfer rates will improve system
performance.

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 1.10 Current trends in Computer Hardware

Computer technology is constantly improving with new ideas

and techniques to improve performance.

The following three trends have been seen for many years:

1. Increasing clock speeds

2. Increasing main memory
3. Increasing backing storage
capacity.

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 1. Increasing clock speeds
2. Increasing main memory
3. Increasing backing storage
capacity.
• Clock speeds have increased rapidly over the years and
are now measured in Gigahertz .

• A new desktop or laptop computer will have a processor

with a clock speed of around 2.8 to 3.4 GHz.

Have a look at the websites for current figures and

products. www.intel.co.uk www.amd.com

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 1. Increasing clock speeds
2. Increasing main memory
3. Increasing backing storage
capacity.
 The technology for making Main memory (RAM)
continues to improve and capacity has increased while
costs continue to fall.
 A new desktop or laptop computer will have between 1 Gb
and 16 GB of RAM fitted as standard.
 Increasing the amount of main memory(RAM) is a very
effective way of improving system performance.
 If a computer does not have enough RAM then it has to
make use of the Hard disk drive for temporary storage
too.
 This is called Virtual Memory and is much slower to
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access than RAM. 46
 1. Increasing clock speeds
2. Increasing main memory
3. Increasing backing storage
capacity.

 The technology for making Backing storage also continues to

improve and capacity has increased while costs continue to fall.

 A new desktop computer will have a Hard disk drive of

anywhere between 250 GB and 1 TB fitted as standard.
 Laptop computers tend to have smaller Hard disk drives
with capacities from 150 GB to 1000 TB

 DVDs and solid state storage devices such as flash cards,

memory sticks and memory cards also continue to increase
in capacity while decreasing in price.
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 Summary Basic Concepts and
Computer Evolution
Chapter 1
 Organization and
architecture  computer structural component
 Computer  CPU(ALU, CU, register, bus)
 Brief history of computers  Main memory
 The First Generation:  I/O
Vacuum tubes  system Interconnection(system
 The Second Generation: bus)
Transistors  Computer performance
 The Third Generation:  Data bus width
Integrated Circuits  Cache memory
 Data transfer rate to/from peripherals.
 Later generations

 Computer function
 processing, storage
 Control, movement

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

 End of Chapter One

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