Module 2 Transcript

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 MR Basics
Module 2 Equipment and Instrumentation

1. ASRT Animation

2. MR Basics – Instrumentation
Welcome to Module 2 of MR Basics – Equipment and Instrumentation. This module was written
by Jackie Turk, B.S., R.T.(R)(CT)(MR).

3. License Agreement and Disclaimer

4. Module Objectives
After completing this module, you will be able to:
 Identify the major hardware components in magnetic resonance (MR) imaging.
 Understand magnetism and magnetic properties.
 Define gauss and tesla.
 Describe the 3 basic types of magnets.
 Discuss the differences in low-, mid-, high- and ultra-high field systems.
 Explain the functionality of the shim system in MR imaging.

5. Equipment
To produce an MR image, a specific process must take place with specialized equipment. There
are 3 main pieces of equipment involved in this process: the MR gantry, the operator’s console
and the computer. The computer houses the array processor and is responsible for image
reconstruction. Image acquisition parameters are input and reformatted images are processed at
the operator’s console. These systems work together to produce an MR image.

6. Gantry
Let’s first look at some of the basic hardware components of the MR scanner before moving into
the advanced system components. The gantry is the focus of this module; it contains the main
magnet, also called the magnet bore; shim coils; gradient coils; and radiofrequency (RF) coils. As
you can see from the image, the RF coil is located closest to the patient inside the magnet bore.
The next coil, working our way out from the patient, is the gradient coil, followed by the shim coil
and then the main magnet coil. It’s important to identify the order of these coils as they occur in
the magnet. A mnemonic that may be helpful to remember the order is Many Stars Glow
Radiantly, for magnet, shim, gradient, RF.

The magnet is responsible for aligning the nuclei in the patient’s body, with the adjacent shim coil
maintaining the homogeneity of the magnetic field. The RF coil is responsible for exciting the
nuclei. The gradients are used to decipher the exact location of excited nuclei. In this module,
we’ll look specifically at the magnet and shim. The RF and gradient coils will be discussed in
greater detail in a later module.

7. Coordinates
The gantry is the opening into the bore of the magnet.

When describing spatial localization, we use x, y and z coordinates to indicate the plane of
interest. The x coordinate describes the plane that divides the gantry into left and right
hemispheres. The y coordinate divides the gantry from top to bottom. The z coordinate lies along
the long axis through the MR unit. The x-y plane is the gantry aperture, which generally measures
50 to 70 cm in all directions. This relatively small opening in the MR scanner helps maintain
magnetic field strength and homogeneity, but can limit the size of the patient who can comfortably
fit in the machine. The MR gantry opening is especially small compared with some computed
tomography (CT) units that have a bore of 80 cm or larger.

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 As we’ll see throughout this module, not all MR units are cylindrical in design with a limited gantry
opening. Some open units allow for 360° viewing, and others are shaped like a C. These open
units are less restrictive and can accommodate larger patients.

8. Knowledge Check

9. Knowledge Check

10. MR Unit Length

The length of the MR unit, along the z or long axis of the patient, is typically between 125 and 175
cm. As you can see, the length of an MR unit can vary greatly. Units at the lower end, around 125
cm, often are referred to as short-bore MR scanners. The short-bore configuration was designed
to be less restrictive and more comforting for claustrophobic patients. Older units and certain
research units are much longer and can be more than 175 cm in length.

11. Laser Positioning Lights

On the outside of the gantry are laser positioning lights. These lasers allow the MR technologist
to position the anatomy of interest to the isocenter of the magnet. The isocenter is where the best
signal collection takes place and where the field is most homogeneous. If anatomy is positioned
incorrectly, imaging artifacts may occur.

12. Patient Table

The gantry is coupled with a table, or couch, to transport patients through the MR unit. The table
often is hydraulic and can be lowered to load the patient and raised to be transported through the
gantry. Depending on the manufacturer, the table sometimes can be undocked and taken out of
the MR suite for loading and unloading.

The table is responsible for supporting the patient in the proper position for the exam. The weight
limit for tables is approximately 300 pounds (136 kg), although many units can accommodate
patients heavier than 500 pounds (226 kg). Weight limitations vary among manufacturers, and
MR technologists should know the exact limits of their tables. An overloaded table may not
function properly and could contribute to a misalignment of the patient for the exam. Patients
should be weighed on an accurate scale if there is any doubt about their weight. The MR
technologist must have a patient’s accurate weight not only to adhere to the table limitations, but
also for proper specific absorption rate (SAR) calculations and parameter selection.

The photo in this slide shows a table that can be undocked and transported out of the MR room.
A release pedal undocks the table and additional pedals raise and lower the table. The MR
technologist can manually operate table controls either at the console or from the gantry.

13. Operator’s Console

The MR technologist communicates with the computer and MR unit through the operator’s
console; all the instructions for an MR scan are entered into the console. From the operator’s
console, the technologist can control the start-up and shut-down procedures, prescan
calibrations, image acquisition parameters, postprocessing functions and display. Technologists
should know how to correctly manipulate the technical and image processing parameters
because these characteristics have a significant impact on image quality and the diagnostic
potential of the exam.

14. MR Computer
Image reconstruction in MR requires a designated computer system to solve the complex
equations used for reconstruction. A minicomputer with a large memory capacity solves these
equations quickly and accurately. The minicomputer contains information for system initialization
and software modifications. The computer system also includes an array processor and image
processor, which handle image reconstruction. The array processor is responsible for image

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 reconstruction using special computer algorithms. The image processor takes the data and
reconstructs it into image data.

Once images have been reconstructed, they are displayed on either a cathode ray tube (CRT) or
liquid crystal display (LCD). Image files typically are compressed and stored on a disk or CD,
which allows a greater number of images to be stored. In addition, many institutions have shifted
to filmless operation and store their images on a picture archiving and communication system
(PACS).

15. Magnetism
Now that we’ve reviewed some of the basic system hardware, let’s discuss the key component of
the MR system — the magnet.

Before we can appreciate the magnet itself, let’s review some of the characteristics of magnetism.
Magnetism is a fundamental property of matter. All substances have some degree of magnetism
related to moving electrons. To determine what degree of magnetism exists, we measure the
magnetic susceptibility of the substance. There are 4 principle degrees of magnetic susceptibility:
diamagnetic, paramagnetic, superparamagnetic and ferromagnetic.

16. Diamagnetic Substances

Diamagnetic substances have no net magnetic moment because they have no unpaired orbital
electrons. When exposed to a magnetic field, diamagnetic substances actually demonstrate a
negative magnetic susceptibility, which means they are repelled by the magnetic field. As a result,
the magnetic field is reduced.

Examples of diamagnetic substances include silver, copper and mercury.

17. Paramagnetic substances

Paramagnetic substances, on the other hand, have unpaired orbital electrons. When exposed to
a magnetic field, paramagnetic substances demonstrate a small positive magnetic susceptibility
of less than 1. When exposed to the magnetic field, paramagnetic substances are slightly
attracted, increasing the field slightly. As a result, the magnetic field is greater.

Examples of paramagnetic substances include tungsten, platinum and gadolinium.

18. Superparamagnetic Substances

Superparamagnetic substances are individual elements that have ferromagnetic properties in
bulk. They behave in the same way as paramagnetic substances, except that instead of
each individual atom being independently influenced by an external magnetic field, the
magnetic moment of the entire substance reacts to it. When exposed to the magnetic field,
superparamagnetic substances are attracted to the magnetic field, demonstrating a magnetic
susceptibility much stronger than paramagnetic substances.

An example of a superparamagnetic substance is an iron-containing contrast agent.

19. Ferromagnetic Substances

When exposed to a magnetic field, ferromagnetic substances demonstrate a positive magnetic
susceptibility greater than 1. Ferromagnetic substances are highly attracted to the magnetic field
and become permanently magnetized when exposed to the field. Once magnetized, these objects
can become projectiles and very dangerous.

Ferromagnetic substances that have been exposed to a magnetic field retain their magnetism,
even after the magnetic field is removed. This magnetic field can be much larger than the applied
magnetic field.

Examples of ferromagnetic substances include iron, steel, nickel and cobalt.

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20. Knowledge Check

21. Knowledge Check

22. Knowledge Check

23. Knowledge Check

24. Magnetic Field Strength

The unit of measure for magnetic field strength is gauss (G) or tesla (T). The tesla was named
after Nikola Tesla, an engineer who demonstrated alternating current and discovered the rotating
magnetic field.

One tesla is equal to 10,000 gauss, or 10 kilogauss. When measuring small fields, it is
appropriate to use gauss as the unit of measure. For instance, the strength of the magnetic field
associated with the earth is 0.6 G. Tesla is used for larger field strengths, such as those in clinical
magnets that typically operate between 0.2 and 3.0 T.

25. Magnetic Field Strength

Magnets often are categorized by their field strength. There are 5 categories of field strength:

Ultra-high field magnets generally range from 4.0 to 7.0 T, but can be up to 11.0 T and higher.
High-field magnets are 1.5 to 3.0 T, while a midfield magnetic field strength ranges from 0.5 to 1.4
T.
Low-field strength is from 0.2 to 0.4 T, and ultra-low field includes any magnet operating at less
than 0.2 T.

The current U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) limit on field strength is 4.0 T for patients
up to 1 month old, and up to 8.0 T for patients older than 1 month.

26. Ultra-high Field Magnets

Ultra-high field magnets generally are used for research. Their magnetic field strength ranges
from 4.0 to 7.0 T or higher; in fact, the University of Illinois at Chicago has a 9.4 T research
magnet.

Ultra-high field magnets have a closed, cylindrical design. Most of them have a small gantry
aperture, or opening, to maximize the homogeneity of the magnetic field. These research
magnets are often very heavy, have large fringe fields and expose the body to RF energy that
can lead to unacceptable SAR values. The fringe field is the magnetic field that exists beyond the
center of the magnet bore.

Research performed with these ultra-high field magnets has shown improved signal-to-noise ratio
for MR imaging. This signal-to-noise improvement can be used for high-resolution imaging or
traded off for faster scan times.

Some of the challenges associated with high-field imaging involve SAR, chemical shift, dielectric
effect and magnetic susceptibility.

27. Specific Absorption Rate (SAR)

SAR is a measure of RF energy absorbed by the body. Expressed in watts per kilogram (W/kg),
SAR characterizes the increased heating of tissue due to RF exposure. In ultra-high field
magnets, the SAR can exceed FDA limits if protocols are not adjusted. To reduce SAR, it often is
necessary to increase the repetition time, reduce the number of slices, decrease the flip angle or
reduce the echo train length.

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 Other methods are being investigated to reduce SAR in high-field imaging, such as using an MR
scanner with a short bore. A short-bore scanner is a full-body emitting coil covering a smaller
volume and delivering less RF energy. Other techniques include parallel RF emission,
which uses shorter, better-targeted pulses, and corrects inhomogeneities in the magnetic
field. Finally, researchers are evaluating specialized receiver surface coils and optimized
pulse sequences.

Although SAR levels have been researched extensively, the clinical management of SAR is
largely less well investigated. MR technologists can use simple techniques such as being
aware of the SAR levels of individual scans, avoiding performing consecutive high-SAR
scans and turning on the gantry fan to help keep patients comfortable. More research is
needed in this area to minimize tissue heating while maximizing image quality.

28. Chemical Shift

Because of their chemical makeup, protons resonate at different frequencies in the magnetic
environment, a phenomenon known as chemical shift. For example, the chemical makeup of fat
causes it to precess at a lower frequency than water at certain magnetic field strengths; the
difference in precessional frequency is proportional to the field strength. At 1.5 T, fat precesses
220 Hz less than water.

Chemical shift is a problem in clinical imaging, because it leads to misregistration and poor
localization of the signal. As a result of misregistration, data is mismapped in image
reconstruction. One way to compensate for problems caused by chemical shift is to increase the
bandwidth, although this will result in a reduced signal-to-noise ratio, which affects image quality.

However, chemical shift can be advantageous in spectroscopy because the spectral peaks are
farther apart and more easily distinguishable. A large chemical shift also improves chemical
saturation.

29. Dielectric Effect

The dielectric effect can be found at all magnetic field strengths, but increases with stronger
magnets. The effect is caused by the shortening of RF wavelengths inside the body at higher field
strengths. The high signal-to-noise ratios of ultra-high magnets result in an inhomogeneous
signal. The effect produces shading on MR images that is more pronounced in some tissues than
others. The dielectric effect is seen predominantly in muscle because the wavelength of muscle is
4 times shorter than that of fat.

30. Dielectric Effect

Dielectric effects are unavoidable in MR imaging. Dielectric pads consisting of dilute manganese
chloride can be placed between the patient and coil to help reduce or eliminate this effect. Look at
this illustration. It shows an example of how a pad would be placed on a patient if the technologist
wanted to reduce or eliminate the dielectric effect.

31. Magnetic Susceptibility

Magnetic susceptibility is the ability of a material to become magnetized. When magnetized, a
substance precesses at a frequency and phase independent of the adjacent surrounding tissue,
causing an artifact on the image. Magnetic susceptibility in ultra-high field imaging produces large
signal voids and distortion in areas that contain metal or regions with fresh blood, which is high in
iron content.

Magnetic susceptibility in high fields is advantageous for detecting hemorrhages, for perfusion
imaging, and for functional MR using blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) sequences. These
advanced imaging techniques will be discussed in greater detail in other modules. When
magnetic susceptibility is not desirable, such as in cases in which metal causes severe distortion,
the echo time (TE) can be decreased, the voxel size can be reduced or the bandwidth can be
increased to minimize the artifact.

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32. Magnetic Susceptibility
This image is a visual representation of magnetic susceptibility.

33. Ultra-high Field Imaging

Ultra-high field imaging is on the horizon, but some issues need to be resolved. In addition to the
problems we’ve already discussed, including SAR, chemical shift, the dielectric effect and
magnetic susceptibility, there are issues with the weight of the scanner, the cost of the equipment
and the need for safety testing and training. Brain imaging with ultra-high field equipment has
demonstrated superior results, but other applications still are being investigated. Also, the effect
of ultra-high fields on current contrast media will require the development of a new
superconducting contrast agent. Finally, T1 and T2 relaxation times differ in these fields, which
affects parameter selection and sequence availability.

Longitudinal relaxation, or T1, time increases in high- to ultra-high field strengths, so sequences
require a longer TR. As the TR becomes longer, the scan time increases and T1 weighting
becomes more difficult to obtain. At ultra-high field strengths, transverse relaxation, or T2, time
decreases only slightly.

Research continues to be conducted on the clinical field strength of MR scanners. Additional

clinical applications must be developed to warrant the cost of very expensive ultra-high field
equipment in clinical settings.

34. High-Field Imaging

High-field magnets are the most common magnets in the clinical setting, accounting for about
70% of the market. They range from 1.5 to 3.0 T. The high-field magnet is the work horse of MR
imaging.

At 1.5 T, the magnet can have either a closed, cylindrical design or a more open configuration. At
3.0 T, the magnet generally is closed.

Open MR equipment is advantageous for intraoperative scanning and to image certain patients.
For example, the open design allows claustrophobic patients to see outside the scanner. During
interventional procedures, surgeons can take images and perform surgery while the patient is in
the scanner.

High-field magnets have numerous applications. They can perform high-resolution imaging
throughout the body, including neurovascular studies; musculoskeletal, abdominal and cardiac
imaging; contrast enhancement studies; functional MR imaging; chemical saturation techniques;
and spectroscopy. High-resolution can be traded for faster imaging time, making breath-hold
sequences possible as well.

Since their introduction, high-field magnets have become very versatile. Although scanners often
are sold as a basic package, numerous upgrades are available. For instance, some newer 1.5 T
MR units have the ability to be “ramped up” to 3.0 T. This means a site can install the magnet,
operate the scanner at 1.5 T and then choose to upgrade at a later time to 3.0 T. Once the
magnitude changes, all protocols must be reconfigured and new safety measures put in place.

35. Midfield Magnets

Midfield magnets vary in field strength from 0.5 to 1.4 T. These magnets also can be an open or
closed configuration. Midfield magnets below 1.0 T don’t have the superior resolution offered by
high-field systems. At lower field strengths, advanced imaging applications, such as cardiac
imaging, functional MR and spectroscopy, cannot be performed. In addition, chemical saturation
is more difficult because the frequencies of fat and water are harder to distinguish.

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 Midfield magnets are still appropriate for routine examinations such as brain, spine and
musculoskeletal studies. Although midfield encompasses a wide range of field strength, it’s
important to understand that more applications are possible with increasing field strength.
Although a 0.5 T magnet may not be capable of chemical saturation, a 1.0 T magnet most likely
can create a chemically saturated image.

Since these systems can be open in design, they are also useful for intraoperative scanning and
for the claustrophobic patient.

36. Low-Field Magnets

Low-field magnets range in field strength from 0.2 to 0.4 T. Low-field magnets have limited
applications in clinical imaging. They may be sufficient for orthopedic cases that don’t require
chemical saturation techniques and may generate enough power for some routine
musculoskeletal imaging; however, if resolution is critical, which is the case for some
neurovascular studies, low-field units may not be adequate.

In addition to inferior image quality, low-field imaging is very time consuming. To complete these
exams, more time is necessary to gain increased signal. Low-field exams can take double the
time or more to complete.

Although there are several limitations to low-field MR imaging, it is an option for individuals with
an implanted device that is contraindicated at high fields. Many implants have conditional
approval at a lower field strength.

37. Ultra-low Field Magnets

Ultra-low field magnets have a field strength less than 0.2 T and can even go as low as 0.01 T.
These magnets are designed for very specific applications such as orthopedic imaging. As you
can see from the design of the unit shown on this slide, only the body part being imaged is
enclosed in the bore. This is advantageous for patients with severe claustrophobia. In addition,
patients with implanted devices that are contraindicated in traditional high-field systems may be
scanned under the ultra-low field conditions. Of course, any implant must be checked for safety
and documented, indicating the safety of the device at the applicable field strength.

Because of the extremely low field strength of these magnets, the signal-to-noise ratio is
inherently low. To make up for the low signal, the MR technologist must increase other
parameters, which equates to longer scan times.

38. High-Field vs. Low-Field

There’s often debate concerning high-field vs. low-field imaging. The key is to understand the
capabilities and limiting factors of each type of scanner and the proposed imaging application. If
advanced imaging is necessary, a high-field MR unit is indicated. If the patient is claustrophobic
or has safety considerations, a lower-field scanner may be necessary. If limited imaging is
required or routine musculoskeletal scanning is ordered, low-field MR is appropriate.

39. Magnet Configurations

Two main types of magnet configurations are used for MR imaging: a permanent magnet and an
electromagnet. MR electromagnets can either be resistive or superconducting. The most common
type is the superconducting electromagnet configuration.

Each magnet configuration offers advantages and disadvantages, which we’ll discuss. The main
factors used for comparison are the cost, available field strength, energy requirements, and the
direction of the magnetic field and associated fringe field.

40. Permanent Magnet

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 A permanent magnet is usually constructed of magnetized ceramic bricks or a magnetized alloy
of aluminum, nickel and cobalt called alnico. Permanent magnets are very heavy and their
installation often is limited to a ground floor. Once the permanent magnetic field is established, it
cannot be turned off. The only way to discontinue a permanent magnetic field is to disassemble
the magnet.

A typical permanent magnet has an open configuration, which makes it ideal for claustrophobic
patients and interventional procedures.

The magnetic field, or static magnetic field, of a permanent magnet runs vertically from ceiling to
floor of the magnet room. This orientation keeps the associated fringe field to a minimum and is
not disruptive to adjacent areas.

The fringe field is the magnetic field that extends beyond the center of the magnet bore. It is a
significant hazard in the MR environment because these fields can magnetize and attract metallic
objects with significant force. The fringe field associated with permanent magnets is very small.

41. Permanent Magnet

Permanent magnets do not require a power supply or cryogenic cooling mechanism. This is
advantageous to keep operational cost at a minimum.

In addition to weight, the disadvantages of the permanent magnet are low field strength and
inherently low signal. Although they theoretically can achieve field strengths of up to 1.2 T,
permanent magnets generally are limited to field strengths below 0.4 T. Low field strength
produces inherently low signal-to-noise ratio and long imaging times.

42. Resistive Electromagnet

Resistive magnets operate much differently than permanent magnets. A resistive magnet is
composed of coils of wire; an electric current runs through the coil to create the magnetic field.
The strength of the magnetic field is proportional to the current running through the wire, as
demonstrated by the equation B0 = KI, where B0 is the magnetic field strength, K is the
proportionality constant and I is the current. From this equation, you can see that magnetic field
strength is directly proportional to the current: the higher the current, the higher the field strength.

To operate a resistive magnet, a constant current must run through the coil to maintain the
magnetic field. Because of this steady demand, the magnetic field is again below 0.4 T. Although
considered low field, resistive magnets can produce significant fringe fields, generally found in the
horizontal direction.

43. Magnetic Field

To determine the direction of the magnetic field and associated fringe field, we use the right-hand
thumb rule. Using your right hand, point your thumb in the direction of the current, and curl your
fingers into a half-circle around the wire. Your fingers point in the direction of the magnetic field,
B0.

44. Resistive Magnet

There are both advantages and disadvantages to a resistive magnet. Although resistive magnets
tend to be inexpensive to purchase, their operating costs are high because of the power supply
required to keep the magnet functioning. Along this same line, because the magnetic field is
maintained by a power supply, it can be shut off easily by discontinuing the power. This is a
feature unique to resistive magnets and should never be assumed of any other magnet.

45. Superconducting Electromagnet

The superconducting electromagnet is like the resistive magnet in that an electrical current is run
through coils of wire to produce a magnetic field. However, in this case the coils are composed of
an alloy of titanium and niobium. In addition, the wire is cooled to a temperature of near absolute

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 zero, or 4 kelvin. The combination of the alloy wires and supercool temperatures provides
minimal resistance and a higher field strength.

Liquid cryogens, composed of nitrogen and/or helium, are used to cool the wires to about -270
degrees Celsius. One cooling method is to place the alloy wires in a bath of liquid helium that is
insulated by a tank of liquid nitrogen. This slide shows a cross section of a magnet that uses this
method. The red circle represents the wire coil; the green corresponds to the liquid helium bath;
and the orange represents the liquid nitrogen surrounding the helium bath. The black circles
represent the vacuums insulating the gases from one another. An alternative option is to surround
the liquid helium with a refrigeration unit and eliminate the need for the liquid nitrogen for cooling
purposes.

46. Cryogens
After the wires have been cooled and the power has “ramped up” the magnetic field, the power is
discontinued and the field maintains itself in the cryogenic bath. Watch the animation on this
slide. As the liquid helium is poured onto the wires, the resistance goes down. Lower resistance
allows a higher field to be preserved.

Unfortunately, both liquid helium and liquid nitrogen tend to vaporize, despite efforts to maintain
their liquid state. Because these gases vaporize, the system must be replenished at regular
intervals. Advanced cryostats can go years without replacement, but some older units need more
frequent replenishment throughout the year.

You may be familiar with the chirping sound often heard in the MR suite. This sound emanates
from the cooling system. Problems with the cooling system, sometimes referred to as “the chiller,”
put the integrity of the magnet at risk. In other words, if you don’t hear the usual chirping sounds
when you enter the MR suite, there could be a malfunction, and service staff should be called.

A lack of liquid helium or some mechanical failure of the cooling system can trigger an
uncontrolled quench. A quench causes the cryogens to boil off, which makes the magnet lose its
superconductivity and become resistive again. This event can cause significant damage to the
magnet, resulting in substantial cost to replenish the cryogens and repair any damaged
equipment.

In the event of a quench, all people should be evacuated from the area. If the ventilation system
malfunctions, the gases can replace the oxygen in the room causing asphyxiation. In addition,
coming into direct contact with the liquid cryogens can cause thermal burns.

47. Superconducting Magnet

The superconducting magnet is the most common magnet used for clinical applications and
research. Superconducting magnets range in field strength from 0.5 to 4.0 T for clinical imaging
and 7.0 T and higher for research. They are expensive to purchase, at an estimated $1 million
per tesla, but generally operational costs are minimal. Although the cryogens are very expensive,
especially helium, with minimal boil off, they don’t often need to be replenished. In addition,
superconducting magnets need very little power to maintain them.

48. Superconducting Magnet

The direction of the magnetic field of a superconducting magnet is generally horizontal, running
along the long axis of the patient’s body. The fringe field associated with these magnets, if
unshielded, is generally very large.

49. High-Field Open MR

A newer model of superconducting electromagnets offers a higher field and open architecture.
We’ve talked about resistive and permanent magnets that provide access to the patient and
reduced risk of claustrophobia; we also noted the limitations in field strength of these units. To

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 overcome these limitations, manufacturers have stacked 2 permanent magnets, producing an
additive effect on the field strength. The field also can be enhanced with superconducting coils.
These high-field, open magnet configurations can create up to a 1.0 T MR unit.

50. Fringe Fields

We’ve seen that permanent magnets have a fringe field running vertically, and resistive and
superconducting magnets have fringe fields generally running in the horizontal direction. The
direction and size of the fringe field significantly affects the placement of MR equipment in the
clinical or hospital setting.

Fringe fields can interact with adjacent equipment, like CT or nuclear medicine scanners, or even
with patient devices such as pacemakers. The fringe field can affect the functionality of these
devices. In addition, neighboring equipment also can interfere and compromise the integrity of the
magnetic field, especially if extraneous RF signals enter the room. In this case, scanning errors
are likely to occur. For this reason, shielding mechanisms protect the homogeneity of the
magnetic field and adjacent areas from becoming compromised.

51. Shielding
Shielding is used to minimize the fringe field associated with the MR scanner. Two types of
shielding are used in MR: passive shielding and active shielding.

52. Passive Shielding

Passive shielding consists of steel plates installed within the magnet or throughout the magnet
room. When passive shielding is built into the magnet, the unit becomes very heavy. On its own,
the magnet weighs about 10,000 pounds (4,535 kg). When additional shielding is built in, the unit
must be installed on a ground floor or reinforced floors become necessary.

The weight of shielding is also an issue if a Faraday cage is used. A Faraday cage is a seamless
shield surrounding the MR room. The shield must completely enclose the MR scanner to block
RF frequencies from entering or leaving the room. As you can guess, this is an expensive
addition to an already very costly machine. Although not the most effective way to minimize the
fringe field or entirely eliminate extraneous frequencies, this type of shielding is commonly seen in
MR suites.

53. Active Shielding

Active shielding is a more modern way to reduce the fringe field associated with the main
magnetic field. Active shielding involves the use of additional coils located within the cryogenic
tank. The coils create an opposing magnetic field at the end of the magnet that keeps the
magnetic field from extending much farther than the bore. This opposing magnetic field pushes
the fringe field back toward the bore. It acts in much the same way as when you push the positive
poles of 2 bar magnets together, and the magnets repel each other.

Actively shielded magnets are not limited as to where they can be installed. These magnets can
be found in mobile trailers and throughout any floor of a hospital or clinic, and will not interfere
with patient devices or other imaging equipment.

54. Magnetic Field

MR technologists should know how far the fringe field extends beyond the bore of the magnet. In
most modern, actively shielded magnets, the fringe field extends no farther than the end of the
MR table. In some older, less-shielded scanners, however, the fringe field may extend to the door
of the scanning room, or beyond. For example, for an unshielded 1.0 T magnet, the 5-G point
would be 10 m in all directions. Adding 2 cm of ferromagnetic shielding reduces the 5-G line in
half, to 5 m.

The general public must be warned at the point where the fringe field reaches 5 G, or 0.5 meters
per tesla (m/T). Access to this area should be restricted, and any patients, staff or visitors should

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 not enter without completing a safety questionnaire. Patients with pacemakers and other
implanted devices may not be safe within the 5-G line.

It’s always important to monitor and restrict access to the MR suite. MR technologists are
responsible to educate and protect all patients, visitors and staff from the dangers associated with
the magnetic field.

55. Gauss Range

You can see from the diagram on this slide at what point devices may be affected by the
magnetic field. At 100 G (10 m/T), items such as analog watches and credit cards may no longer
function properly or cease to function altogether. At 50 G (5 m/T), computer equipment may
interfere with scanning, or become compromised by the magnetic field. At 10 G (1 m/T), video
and camera equipment can be harmed, and as we’ve already discussed, at 5 G (or 0.5 m/T),
pacemakers and hearing aids can be compromised. Lastly, at 1 G (0.1 m/T), other imaging
equipment, such as CT units and nuclear medicine scanners, must be protected so as not to
contribute to or be subject to scanning errors.

56. Magnetic Moment

You might remember from basic MR physics that moving nuclei have an associated charge and
therefore a magnetic field around them. This field is referred to as the magnetic moment of the
nuclei. When placed in a magnetic field, these nuclear magnetic moments align to the field. In the
body, the majority of nuclei align with the magnetic field because they do not possess the energy
to oppose the field. Only high-energy nuclei align against the magnetic field. With increasing field
strength, more nuclear magnetic moments come into alignment with the magnetic field because
fewer nuclei have enough energy to go against it. The state by which low-energy nuclei align with
the magnetic field and high-energy nuclei align against the magnetic field is considered
equilibrium.

Magnetic moments are vector quantities. The size of the vector represents the magnitude of the
nuclear magnetic moment, and the direction of the vector represents the direction of the magnetic
moment. When evaluating the response of the nuclei to the magnetic field and subsequent
manipulations, we use vectors to represent a given sample.

57. Larmor Frequency

At a given field strength, say 1.5 T, the nuclei have an associated precessional frequency. That
frequency is determined by the Larmor equation, which states that a nuclei’s precessional
frequency at a given field strength is equal to the gyromagnetic ratio of the nuclei multiplied by the
field strength. For hydrogen in a 1.5 T magnet, that is equivalent to 42.58 MHz/T (the
gyromagnetic ratio for hydrogen) multiplied by 1.5 T, which equals 63.87 MHz. Thus, at 1.5 T,
hydrogen precesses at 63.84 MHz. The RF pulse must be delivered at the precise precessional
frequency of the nuclei to get the most signal. Understand that if the magnetic field is
compromised in any way, the entire imaging process and signal collection also will be
compromised.

The MR magnet is a key component of the entire MR imaging process. If the magnetic field is not
uniform, the precessional frequency of the nuclei is affected and signal collection is compromised,
which in turn creates imaging errors and degrades image quality. To maintain a homogeneous
field, the magnet must be shimmed before imaging sequences.

58. Shimming
Shimming is the process of creating a uniform, or homogeneous, magnetic field. The uniformity of
the magnetic field is determined by the field strength at various points within the magnet.
Magnetic field homogeneity is measured in parts per million, abbreviated ppm. Ideally, the
magnet would be perfectly homogeneous, with a 1.5 T magnet having ± 0 parts per million. At 0
ppm, all points in the magnetic field would be equal to 1.5 T.

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 A magnet delivered from the manufacturer has homogeneity of about 1,000 ppm. Once installed,
service engineers work to improve the homogeneity. For specialized exams, like spectroscopy,
further shimming is necessary to get the homogeneity to 1 ppm.

59. Passive Shimming

Field engineers perform gross shimming at the manufacturing site. Minor corrections are made
before delivery to the clinical site.

Upon delivery, shimming must be performed to adjust for imperfections associated with the site.
Interference with the magnetic field can be caused by structural issues in the building and even
the shielding of the MR suite. To compensate for these deficiencies, ferromagnetic blocks, often
made of steel, are placed within the magnet bore in a nonmagnetic assembly designed to hold
the plates in place. Remember from our earlier discussion that ferromagnetic materials become
magnetized when placed within a magnetic field. The location of the blocks inside the magnet
determines whether they add to or subtract from the main magnetic field. If placed inside the
walls of the magnet, the blocks reduce the magnetic field. If placed outside the wall of the
magnet, the blocks increase the area of the magnetic field. Homogeneity is created in the main
magnetic field as a result of the strategic placement of the bars.

The process of shimming the magnet by using metal bars is called passive shimming. It is
typically tested on a phantom by service engineers when installing a magnet for the first time and
again, if necessary, following a major hardware upgrade or room construction.

60. Active Shimming

Shimming also can be performed by adding additional coils to the cryostat. These coils are either
superconducting or resistive, depending on their placement. Running a current through the coils
creates an alternating magnetic field to either add or subtract from the main magnetic field. This
method of shimming is called active shimming and is a superior way of maintaining homogeneity
in the main magnetic field.

The MR technologist can actively shim individual exams and sequences. Magnetic field
homogeneity is affected when the patient is positioned in the bore. Patients reduce the
homogeneity of the main magnetic field because of their size, shape and magnetic susceptibility.
The process of active shimming creates a more individualized, homogeneous main magnetic
field. Often, active shimming is an automatic process completed during prescan operations, but
many MR units have a manual option as well. For routine spin-echo sequences, this type of fine
tuning usually is not necessary. However, for more advanced MR sequences, such as chemical
saturation and spectroscopy, homogeneity is critical to image quality and active shimming must
be performed.

61. Knowledge Check

62. The Future

New MR equipment is released each year. In essence, we are always trying to acquire images
with superior resolution and a high signal-to-noise ratio in the fastest time possible.
Manufacturers are designing equipment to meet those needs, as well as to accommodate the
needs of the patient and the limited budgets of clinics and hospitals. As you learn more about
MR, you will see the constant trade-offs in the modality.

So what does the future of MR imaging hold? Only time will tell. Research is being conducted
worldwide on ultra-high field strength MR and the results seem promising. One thing is certain,
MR will continue to evolve.

63. Conclusion
This concludes Module 2 of MR Basics – Equipment and Instrumentation. Having completed this
module, you should now be able to:

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  Identify the major hardware components in magnetic resonance (MR) imaging.
 Understand magnetism and magnetic properties.
 Define gauss and tesla.
 Describe the 3 basic types of magnets.
 Discuss the differences in low-, mid-, high- and ultra-high field systems.
 Explain the functionality of the shim system in MR imaging.

64. References
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Cohen MS. A selection of slides on MRI basics. BrainMapping.org website.

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Hashemi RH. MRI The Basics. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 2004.

Hoa DA. NMR signal and MRI contrast. IMAIOS website. www.imaios.com/en/e-Courses/e-

MRI/MRI-signal-contrast. Published February 15, 2009. Accessed November 20, 2010.

McRobbie DW, Moore EA, Graves MJ, Prince MR. MRI From Picture to Proton. 2nd ed.
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Mitchell D, Cohen M. MRI Principles. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders; 2003.

NessAiver M. All You Really Need to Know About MRI Physics. Baltimore, MD: University of
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MRI basic physics Q & A. ReviseMRI.com website. www.revisemri.com. Accessed November 20,
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Tanenbaum LN. Clinical 3T MRI: mastering the challenges. Medscape website.

www.medscape.com/viewarticle/551885_2. Published February 28, 2007. Accessed March 2,
2011.

Westbrook C, Roth CK, Talbot J. MRI in Practice. 3rd ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd;
2005.

Woodward P. MRI for Technologists. 2nd ed. Mill Valley, CA: McGraw Hill; 2000.

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