1

ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS – ALL DERIVATIONS

1. ELECTRIC FIELD AT A POINT ON AXIAL LINE

Consider an electric dipole consisting of two charges +q and – q as shown. We have to find
electric field due to this dipole at a point P on axial line at distance r from the centre of this
dipole. Clearly, the distance of P from – q is (r + a) and from +q is (r – a).

Electric field at P due to +q is

q 1
E q 
4πε o  r  a 2

And electric field at P due to – q is

q 1
E q 
4πε o  r  a 2

Therefore, net field at P is

q  1 1 
Eaxial  E  q  E  q    
4πε o   r  a 2  r  a 2 
 
 2
q  r  a   r  a  
2


4πε o   

2

 r 2
 a 2



 2

q  r  a  2ar  r  a  2ar
2 2 2
   
4πε o    
2

 r 2
 a 2

2aq  2r 

 
2
4πε o r 2  a2
2pr
 [p  2aq]
 
2
4πε o a2  r 2
 2


 2

q  r  a  2ar  r  a  2ar
2 2 2
 
4πε o    
2

 r 2
 a 2

q 4ar


4πε o r 2  a2 2 
For short dipole r  a
2rp
E
4πε or 4
2p
 E
4πε or 3

2. ELECTRIC FIELD AT A POINT ON EQUATORIAL LINE

Consider an electric dipole consisting of two charges +q and – q as shown. We have to find
electric field due to this dipole at a point P on axial line at distance r from the centre of this
dipole. Clearly, the distance of P from – q is (r + a) and from +q is (r – a).

Due to symmetry electric field at P due to both +q and – q will be same which is given by

q
E  q  E q 

4πε o r 2  a2 
 3

The directions of E  q and E  q are as shown in the figure. The components normal to the

   
dipole axis E  q sinθ and E  q sinθ cancel out and E  q cosθ and E q cosθ will add up

Eeq  E q cosθ  E q cos θ

 Eeq  2E q cosθ
2q
 Eeq  cosθ

4πε o r 2  a2 
2q a
 Eeq  
2

4πε o r  a 2

r  a2
2

2aq
 Eeq  3


4πε o r 2  a2  2

p
 3


4πε o r 2  a2  2

For short dipole r  a

p
 E
4πε or 3

3. TORQUE ACTING ON AN ELECTRIC DIPOLE IN EXTERNAL ELECTRIC

FIELD

Consider an electric dipole consisting pf charges – q and + q and of length 2a placed in a

uniform electric field making an angle θ with electric field.

Force on charge – q = qE acting opposite to the field

 4

Force on charge +q = qE acting along the field

Electric dipole is under the action of two equal and unlike parallel forces, which give rise to a
torque on the dipole.

τ  Force  perpendicular distance between the two forces

τ  qE  AN
 τ  qE  2a sin θ
‘  τ   q  2a  E sinθ
 τ  pE sinθ
  
 τ  pE

SPECIAL CASES

1. If θ  0o , sin0o  0,  τ  0 , this condition is called stable equilibrium. When

the dipole is displaced from this orientation it always comes back to the same
configuration.
2. θ  180o , sin180o  0,  τ  0
this condition is called unstable equilibrium because once displaced the dipole
never comes back to this orientation instead it aligns itself parallel to the field.
3. θ  90o , sin90o  1,  τ  pE (maximum)

Please note: - In a non-uniform electric field Fnet  0, τ  0 , therefore dipole executes both

translation and oscillation.

4. DERIVATION OF COULOMB’S LAW FROM GAUSS LAW

Consider an isolated positive point charge q at O.
Imagine a sphere of radius r with centre O. the
magnitude of electric field intensity E at every point on
the surface is the same and it is directed radially
outwards.

Therefore, the direction of vector ds representing a

small area element on the surface of sphere is along E
only i.e. θ  0o .
 5

According to Gauss law

 
q
 E.ds  εo
q

 Eds cos0 
o

εo
q
 E  dscos0o 
εo
q

 E 4πr 2   εo
q
E
4πr 2

This is the electric field intensity at any point P distant r from an isolated point charge
q at the centre of the sphere. If another point charge qo were placed at point P, then

force on qo would be

F  qo  E
qqo
F
4πε or 2

Which is Coulomb’s law.

5. ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A STRAIGHT LONG CHARGED CONDUCTOR

Consider a straight charged conductor of length l as shown. Consider a cylindrical

Gaussian surface of radius r around this conductor. Let ds be small area on this
surface. As conductor is positively charged, electric field due it is outwards. Therefore,
electric field and area vector are in same direction. Applying gauss theorem, we have
 6

  q
 E.ds 
εo
q
  Edscos0o 
εo
q
  Eds 
εo
q
 E  2πrl 
εo
q
E
2πε orl
λ
 E
2πε or

q
λ  , λ is called linear charge density
l

1
Clearly, E  . Therefore, the variation of E with r is shown graphically in the figure
r
shown below:

6. ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO SPHERICAL SHELL

 7

When point P lies outside the spherical shell

Suppose that we have to calculate electric field at the point P at a distance r (r > R)
from its centre. Draw the Gaussian surface through point P so as to enclose the
charged spherical shell. The Gaussian surface is a spherical shell of radius r and
centre O.

Let E be the electric field at point P. Then, the

electric flux through area element ds is given by,
 
dφE  E.ds


Since ds is also along normal to the surface,

dφ  Edscos0o  Eds

∴ Total electric flux through the Gaussian surface is given by,

φ   Eds  E 
 ds
Now,

 ds  4πr
2

 φ  E  4πr 2 ........(i)

Since the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is q, according to Gauss theorem,

q
φ ..........(ii)
εo

From equations (i) and (ii), we obtain

q
E  4πr 2 
εo
q
E (for r  R)
4πε or 2

When point P lies inside the spherical shell

In such a case, the Gaussian surface encloses no charge.

 8

According to Gauss law,

E  4πr 2  0
E 0

Hence, the field due to a uniformly charged spherical shell is zero at all points inside
the shell. The variation of electric field intensity E with distance from the centre of a
uniformly charge spherical shell is shown:

7. ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO INFINITE PLANE SHEET OF CHARGE

Consider an infinite thin plane sheet of positive charge having a uniform

surface charge density σ on both sides of the sheet.
 9

Let P be the point at a distance ‘a’ from the sheet at which electric field is required.

Draw a Gaussian cylinder of area of cross-section A through point P. The electric flux
crossing through the Gaussian surface is given by,

Φ = E × Area of the circular caps of the cylinder

Since electric lines of force are parallel to the curved surface of the cylinder, the flux
due to electric field of the plane sheet of charge passes only through the two circular
caps of the cylinder.

φ  E  2A ......(i)

According to Gauss theorem, we have

q
φ
εo

Here, the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface,

q  σA where σ is the surface charge density (q/A)

σA
φ  ..........(ii)
εo

From equations (i) and (ii), we obtain

σA σ
E  2A   E
εo 2ε o
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 1

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE

ALL DERIVATIONS

Electric potential at a point due to a point charge

Let a charge of 1 C be placed at a distance x from a charge q. Work done by electrostatic
force if we move this charge from A to B towards q through small distance dx

dW  Fdx cos180o
kq 1
 dW   dx
x2
Work done to move this charge from x   to x  r is

kq
r
W   dx
 x2

r
 x 1 
 W  kq  
 1  
r
 1
 W  kq  
 x 
1 1 
 W  kq   
r 
kq
W
r
By definition, this is the potential at P. Thus potential at a distance r due to a charge q is

1 q
V
4πε o r

_________________________________________________________________________
Electric potential energy
Consider a charge kept at A. Let another charge q2 be brought from infinity to point B at a
distance r from it, then work done to bring it at P is
 2

W  q2 V
 1 q1 
 W  q2  
 4πε o r 
1 q1q2
W
4πε o r

This work is stored in the system of two charges as electric potential energy. Thus

1 q1q2
U
4πε o r

_________________________________________________________________________
Relation between electric field and electric potential (potential gradient)
Consider a charge q moving from A to B in the direction of electric field as shown

Small amount of work done is

dW  q  VB  VA 
 dW  q  V  dV  V 
 dW  qdV
 dW  Fdr  qEdr
 qdV  qEdr
dV
 E
dr
 
Or dV   E.dr
_________________________________________________________________________
POTENTIAL DUE TO DIPOLE
At a point on axial line
 3

Potential at P due to +q
kq
V q 
r  a
Potential at P due to –q
kq
V q 
r  a
Therefore, total potential at P is

Vaxial  V q  V q
kq kq
 Vaxial  
r  a   r  a 
kq  r  a   kq r  a 
 Vaxial 
r 2  a2
kqr  kqa  kqr  kqa
 Vaxial 
r 2  a2

 Vaxial
 2aq k
 2
r  a2
kp
 Vaxial 
r  a2
2

For short dipole a<<r

kp
Vaxial  
r2
________________________________________________________________________
At a point on equatorial line
As shown in the diagram, potential at P due to +q
kq
V q 
a2  r 2
 4

Potential at P due to –q
k(q)
V q 
a2  r 2
Therefore, total potential at P is
Veq  V q  V q  0

_________________________________________________________________________
Potential at any arbitrary point
Consider a point P at a distance along a line making an angle θ with the dipole axis. If we

resolve p into two rectangular components as shown.
Point P lies on the axial line of the dipole with dipole moment pcosθ and on equatorial line
of the dipole with the dipole moment psinθ
 5

kpcosθ
V 0
r2
kpcosθ
V
r2

CAPACITANCE
Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor
Consider a parallel plate capacitor as shown.

Let
V = potential difference between the plates
Q = charge on the capacitor
E = potential difference between the plates
σ = Surface charge density of the plates
d = distance between the plates

Q σA Q
As C   [ σ  ]
V V A
 V  Ed
σA
C
Ed
σ
field between plates capacitor is E 
εo
σA ε A
C  C o
σ d
d
εo

If there is a medium of dielectric constant k between the plates, then

 6

ε
k  ε  kε o
εo
kε o A
C
d

_______________________________________________________________________________
Energy stored in capacitor (not in syllabus for session 2022-23)
Let dW be the small amount of work by the battery to store small charge dq
So, dW = Vdq, where V is the voltage of the battery

q
V 
C
q
dW  dq
C
Then, the total work done to store charge Q is
Q q
 dW  
0 C
dq

1 Q
C 0
W qdq
Q
1  q2 
W  
C  2 0
1  2
Q  0 
2
W
2C  
Q2
W
2C
This work is stored in the capacitor in
the form of electrostatic energy
Q2
 U
2C
 Q  CV
C2 V 2
U 
2C
 7

1
U CV 2
2
Q Q2
or C  U 
V Q
2
V
1
U QV
2
_______________________________________________________________________________
Energy density (u)

Energy stored
u
volume
1
CV 2
2
Ad
1 ε o A E2d2

2 d  Ad

1
u ε oE2
2
_______________________________________________________________________________
Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor with dielectric slab between the plates
Consider a slab of thickness t inserted between the plates as shown
 8

Potential difference between the plates is given by

V  Eo  d  t   Et
Eo
 V  Eo  d  t   t
k
 t
 V  Eo  d  t  
 k

Let new capacitance be C'

Q
C' 
V
Q
 C' 
 t
Eo  d  t  
 k
εo A
 C' 
 1
d  t 1 
 k

_______________________________________________________________________________
Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with conducting slab between the plates
Consider a conducting slab placed between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor as shown
Since, electric field inside the conducting slab is zero, potential difference between the plates is
given by
 9

V  Eo  d  t   Et
 V  Eo  d  t    0  t
 V  Eo  d  t 
σ
V d  t
εo

σ
V d  t
εo
Q Q ε A
 C'    C'  o
V Q dt
d  t 
Aε o

_______________________________________________________________________________
COMBINATION OF CAPACITORS
Series combination
Consider three capacitors of capacitances C1, C2 and C3 connected in series as shown. Let
potential difference across them be V1, V2 and V3 and charge stored by each is Q.

If V is applied voltage, then

V  V1  V2  V3
Q
V 
C
Q Q Q
V   
C1 C2 C3
 10

If equivalent capacitance is Ceq

Q Q Q Q
  
Ceq C1 C2 C3
Q  1 1 1 
  Q   
Ceq  C1 C2 C3 
1 1 1 1
   
Ceq C1 C2 C3

_______________________________________________________________________________
Parallel combination

Figure shown three capacitors connected in parallel, let charge stored by each is Q1,Q 2 and Q 3
and potential difference across each is V. If charge supplied by battery be Q, then

Q  Q1  Q 2  Q3
 Q  Ceq V, Ceq  equivalent capacitance

Q  C1V  C2 V  C3 V
 Ceq V  V  C1  C2  C3 
 Ceq  C1  C2  C3

_______________________________________________________________________________
Common potential
 11

If two capacitors of capacitances C1 and C2 are charged to potential V1 and V2 and are connected
together, then, the charge flows from the capacitor at higher potential to the other at lower potential
till the potential of both become equal, this equal potential is called common potential.
Since total charge before and after remains same, therefore

C1V  C2 V  C1V  C2 V
C1V1  C2 V2
 V
C1  C2

_______________________________________________________________________________
Loss of energy on sharing of charges
When charge is shared between the capacitors, energy is lost in the form of heat
Total energy before sharing

1 1
Ui  C1V12  C2 V22
2 2
total energy after sharing
1
Uf   C1  C2  V 2
2
 Heat loss, U  Ui  Uf

1
U 
2

C1V12  C2 V22   C1  C2  V 2 
1    C1V1  C2 V2 2  
U  C1V1  C2 V2   C1  C2  
2 2

 
2
2  C  C 
  1 2  
1  C1V1  C1  C2   C2 V2  C1  C2    C1V1  C2 V2  
2 2 2

 U   
 C1  C2 
2
2
 
1  C1 V1  C1C2 V1  C1C2 V2  C2 V2  C1V1  C2 V2  2C1C2 V1V2 
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

 U   
2 C1  C2 


1  V 2  V22  2V1V2 
 U  C1C2  1 
2  C1  C2 
1 C1C2  V1  V2 
2

 U 
2 C1  C2
12
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY
ALL DERIVATIONS

DRIFT VELOCITY
We may define drift velocity as the average velocity with which electrons get drifted towards the
positive terminal of the battery under the influence of an external electric field.

Let the initial velocities of electrons (in the absence of battery) be u1,u2 ,u3 .............un , then,
u1  u2  u3 .............  un
 0.
n
eE
When the battery is applied, acceleration of each electrons is a  . When electrons move in a
m
conductor, they keep colliding with the heavy ions present in it and come to a momentary rest. Time
gap between two successive collisions is called relaxation time ( τ ).

Thus, if v1, v 2 ..........v n be the final velocities of electrons then, by definition, drift velocity is

v1  v 2 ..........  v n
vd  .
n

Since, v1  u1  aτ1, v 2  u2  aτ 2 , v 3  u3  aτ 3 .........v n  un  aτn . Therefore vd becomes

vd 
 u1  aτ1    u2  aτ2   u3  aτ3  .........  un  aτn 
n

 u  u2 ........  un   τ  τ ............  τn 
 vd   1   a 1 2 
 n   n 

eE
Or v d  τ , where τ is average relaxation time.
m

RELATION BETWEEN CURRENT AND DRIFT VELOCITY

Consider a conductor of length  and area of cross section A connected to battery of potential
difference V. Then, volume of the conductor is A  . If number density of electrons in the conductor
(number of electrons per unit volume) is n, then total number of electrons in conductor is A  n. Hence,
q A n e
total charge is, q = A  ne. Therefore, current in the conductor is given by I   I  .
t   
 
 vd 

or I  Anev d .

PROOF OF OHM’S LAW AND FORMULA FOR RESISTANCE:

eE
 I  Anev d and v d  τ
m

 eE 
 I  Ane  τ
m 
Ane2E
I τ
m
Ane2  V 
I= τ
m   
m
V= I
Ane2 τ

m
If physical conditions are constant is constant. Therefore, V  I.
Ane2 τ

m
Comparing (i) and (ii), we get R 
Ane2 τ

Microscopic or vector form of ohm’s law.

I
J 
A
Anev d  eE 
J   J  ne  τ
A  m 
ne2 τ
J E
m
 
or J  σE

COMBINATION OF RESISTORS (NOT IN SYLLABUS FOR SESSION 2022-23)

Series Combination

Consider two resistors R1 and R 2 in series. The charge which leaves R1 must be entering R 2 .
Since current measures the rate of flow of charge, this means that the same current I flows through
R1 and R 2 . By Ohm’s law:

Potential difference across R1  V1  IR1 , and

Potential difference across R 2  V2  IR 2 .

Potential difference across R3  V3  IR3

The potential difference V across the combination is V1  V2  V3 . Hence,

V  V1  V2  V3  I R1  R2  R3  This is as if the combination had an equivalent resistance Req ,
which by Ohm’s law is

Re q  R1  R2  R3

This obviously can be extended to a series combination of any number n of resistors R1,R 2 ...........,Rn
. The equivalent resistance Re q is

Re q  R1  R2  R3 ................  Rn

Parallel combination.

The currents I,I1,I2 and I3 shown in the figure are the rates of flow of charge at the points indicated.
Hence,
I  I1  I2  I3

The potential difference between A and B is given by the Ohm’s law applied to R1

V  I1R1

Also, Ohm’s law applied to R 2 and R3 gives

V  I2R 2 , V3  IR3

 I  I1  I2  I3
V V V V
   
Req R1 R2 R3

1 1 1 1
Or   
Req R1 R2 R3

If n resistors are connected in parallel, then,

1 1 1 1 1
   ................ 
Req R1 R2 R3 Rn

RELATION BETWEEN INTERNAL RESISTANCE, TERMINAL POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE AND

EMF

Let ε be emf of the cell, V be the terminal potential difference, r be the internal resistance, R be
external resistance and I be the current flowing in the circuit then, potential drop across internal
resistance is Ir. Therefore, potential drop across external resistance is,

V  ε  IR

 Ir  ε  V
εV
r 
I
εV
r 
V
R
εV
r  R
 V 

ε 
Or r    1  R
V 

Charging. During charging of a cell, current flows in reverse direction with the help of external agency,
so the terminal potential difference becomes V = ε + IR
COMBINATION OF CELLS
Like resistors, cells can also be connected in series and parallel combination.

Series combination. Consider two cells of emfs ε1 and ε 2 and internal resistances r1 and r2 are
connected in series.

If V1 and V2 be the terminal potential differences of the two cells, then V = V1  V2

 V   ε1  Ir1    ε 2  Ir2 
 V   ε1  ε 2   I  r1  r2 

Comparing this with V  ε eq  Ireq we get

ε eq  ε1  ε2

This result can be extended to series combination of n cells as

ε eq  ε1  ε 2  ε3 .............εn

Parallel combination
If two cells are connected in parallel, terminal potential difference across them is same but current is
different, ∴ total current

I  I1  I2
ε1  V ε1  V
I 
r1 r2
ε1 ε 2 1 1
I   V  
r1 r2  r1 r2 
 r  r  ε r  ε 2r1
 V 1 2   12 I
 r1r2  r1r2
ε r  ε 2r1  r1r2 
V  12  I 
r1  r2  r1  r2 

Comparing this with V  ε eq  Ireq we get

ε1r2  ε 2r1
ε eq 
r1  r2

This result can be extended to parallel combination of n cells as

 ε1 ε 2 ε 3 ε
ε eq    ............  n
r1 r2 r3 rn

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
Wheatstone bridge is a circuit which is used to measure accurately an unknown resistance.

Principle. It states that when the bridge is balanced (i.e. when Ig  0 ), the product of resistances of
opposite arms is equal.

. Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to loop ABDA, we get

I1P  IgG  I  I1  R  0
SInce Ig  0
I1P  I  I1`  P  0
 I1P  I  I1  R ..........(i)

Applying second law in loop BCDB, we get

I
1  Ig  Q  I  I1  Ig  S  IgG  0
 Ig  0
 I1Q  I  I1  S  0
 I1Q  I  I1  S ..........(ii)

From (i) and (ii) we get

P R

Q S

Or PS  QR
FINDING UNKNOWN RESISTANCE USING SLIDE WIRE BRIDGE (NOT IN SYLLABUS
FOR SESSION 2022-23)
It a practical form of a Wheatstone bridge which is used to find an unknown resistance. Its operation
is based on the principle of wheat stone bridge.

As shown in the figure introduce a suitable value of R and close key K. Move the jockey on the wire
AC to obtain the null point (i.e. zero reading of the galvanometer). Let point B be the null point on the
wire AC. Let length AB be  , therefore length BC is 100   . As the bridge is balanced, therefore, by
Wheatstone bridge principle, we have

P R

Q S

If r be the resistance per cm length of the wire, then

P = resistance of length  of the wire =  r

Q = resistance of length 100   of the wire = 100    r

r R
 
100    r S
 100   
Or S    R
  

Knowing  and R, S can be determined.

PROOF OF WORKING PRINCIPLE OF POTENTIOMETER (NOT IN SYLLABUS FOR

SESSION 2022-23)
Principle. The working of potentiometer is based on the fact that the fall of potential across any
portion of the wire is directly proportional to the length of that portion provided the wire is of uniform
area of cross section and a constant current is flowing through it.
Proof. Let A be the area of cross section, ρ be the resistivity of the material pf the wire, V be potential
difference across length  whose resistance is R. Let I be the current flowing through the wire, then
by Ohm’s law

V  IR

As R  ρ
A

we have V  Iρ
A

 Iρ 
or V    
A

or V  

V
is called potential gradient of the wire i.e. fall in potential per unit length of the wire.


DETERMINING A POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE USING POTENTIOMETER (NOT IN

SYLLABUS FOR SESSION 2022-23)
Close key K and adjust the value of R so that fall of potential across the potentiometer wire is greater
than the potential difference to be measured. Close key K 1 . Adjust the position of jockey on
potentiometer wire where is pressed, the galvanometer shows no deflection. Let that position be J.
Let length AJ be  . If k is the potential gradient of potentiometer wire, then potential difference across
R1 i.e.

V = k

If r is the resistance of potentiometer wire of length L, then current through potentiometer wire is ,
ε
I
Rr

 ε 
Potential drop across potentiometer wire = Ir =  r
R r 

 ε r
Potential gradient of potentiometer wire k   
R r L

 ε r
∴V  
R r L

COMPARING EMFS OF TWO CELLS USING POTENTIOMETER (NOT IN SYLLABUS

FOR SESSION 2022-23)

Two cells whose emfs are to compared are connected as shown in the figure. First connect terminal
1 with terminal 3 such that cell with emf ε1 comes in the circuit. If  1 is the balancing length in this
case, we can write

ε1  k  1 ……….(i)

Now disconnect 1 and 3 and connect 2 and 3. Now cell with emf ε 2 comes in the circuit. If  2 is the
balancing length in this case, then

ε 2  k 2 ……….(ii)
 ε1  1
From (i) and (ii) we get 
ε2  2

DETERMINING INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A CELL (NOT IN SYLLABUS FOR

SESSION 2022-23)
Close key K and note the balancing length. Let it be  1 . Now, emf of the cell, ε = potential
difference across length  1 of the potentiometer wire

Or ε  k  1

Now close key K 1 so that the resistance R is introduced in the circuit. Again, find the position of null
point. Let balancing length in this case be  2 . Then, potential difference between two terminals of the
cell, V = potential difference across length  2 of the potentiometer wire

i.e. V  k  2

ε 1

V 2

ε 1
∴ 
V 2

ε 
 r    1  R v
V 

 
∴ r   1  1  R
 2 

Knowing the values of  1 ,  2 and R, internal resistance of the cell can be determined.
 MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF CURRENT
ALL DERIVATIONS

(1) Magnetic field at the centre of a circular loop carrying current

Consider a circular current carrying loop carrying current I. We have

to find magnetic field at the centre of this loop. Consider a small
current element dl on the circumference of this loop. Clearly angle
between dl and r is 90o. Applying Biot Savart’s law, we get

μo  Idlsin90o 
dB   
4π  r2 
μo Idl
 dB 
4π r 2

Integrating both sides we get

μo Idl
 dB  
4π r 2
μ I
 B  o 2  dl
4π r
μ I
 B  o 2  2πr
4π r
μI
 B o
2r

_________________________________________________________________________

(2) Magnetic field due to arc

As complete circle is also an arc which subtends an angle 2π at the

centre so by applying the unitary method, we can find the magnetic
field at the centre of arc as follows:

Angle Magnetic field

2π μoI
2r
 1 radian  μoI  1 μoI
 2r   2π  4πr
 
Any angle θ μoI
B θ
4πr
_________________________________________________________________________

(3) Magnetic field due to a straight conductor

Magnetic field at point P at a perpendicular distance r from

from a straight cinductor carrying current I is

μoI
B  sinφ1  sinφ2 
4πr

Special cases

When length of wire is infinite (or very long) and distance r is very small then

 If P lies near one end , then φ1  90 o and φ 2  0 o

μoI
so, B 
4πr

sin90o  sin0o 
μoI
 B
4πr

 If P lies near centre, then φ1  90o and φ 2  90o

μoI
so, B 
4πr

sin90o  sin90o 
μoI
 B
2πr

_________________________________________________________________________

(4) Magnetic field on the axis of a circular loop

Small magnetic field due to current element Idl of circular loop of radius r at a point P at
distance x from its centre is

μo Idlsin90o μo Idl
dB  
4π s 2
4π r  x 2
2
 
Component dBcosφ due to current element at point P is cancelled by equal and opposite

component dBcosφ of another diagonally opposite current element, whereas the sine
components dBsinφ add up to give net magnetic field along the axis. So net magnetic field
at point P due to entire loop is

2πr μo Idl r
 dB sinφ   .
  
1/2
0 4π r  x
2 2
r 2  x2
μoIr 2πr
B 3  dl
 
0
4π r  x 2 2 2

μoIr
B 3
.2πr

4π r  x 2 2 2

μoIr 2
 B 3
.

2 r x
2

2 2

Which is directed along the axis (a) towards the loop if current in it is in clockwise direction
(b) away from the loop if current in it is in anticlockwise direction.

Special points

If point P is far away from the centre of the loop i.e. x >> r then magnetic field at point P is
μoIr 2 μoIπr 2 μ IA
B  3
or B  o 3 where A is the area of the circular loop.
2x 2πx 2πx
 μoNI
If circular loop has N turns then magnetic field strength at its centre is B  and at any
2r
μoNIr 2
point on the axis of circular loop is B  3


2 r x2 2 2

_________________________________________________________________________

(5) Ampere’s circuital law

It states that the line integral of magnetic field intensity over a closed loop is μo times the
total current threading the loop.

 
 B.dl  μoI

Proof:

Consider a straight conductor carrying current as shown in the figure. Consider a circular
 
Amperian loop of radius r around the conductor. As B and dl are in same direction so angle
between them is 0. Therefore

 
 B.dl

  Bdlcos 0o

  Bdl

 B  dl
μoI
  2πr
2πr
 μoI
 
  B.dl  μoI

_________________________________________________________________________

Applications of ampere’s circuital law

(6) Magnetic field intensity at the centre of a long solenoid

Let a solenoid consists of n no. of turns per unit length and carry current I. Then magnetic
field lines inside the solenoid are parallel to its axis whereas outside the solenoid the
magnetic field is zero. Line integral of magnetic field over a closed loop PQRS shown in the
figure is

  Q   R   S   P  
 B.dl   B.dl   B.dl   B.dl   B.dl
P Q R S

Q R P
  B.dlcos 0o   B.dlcos 90o  0   B.dlcos90o
P Q S
Q
 B  dl  0  0  0  BL
P

But by Ampere’s circuital law

 
 B.dl  μo  total current threading loop PQRS
 μo  number of turns in solenoid PQRS  I
 μonLI

Therefore

BL  μonLI
 B  μonI

1
Note: at the ends of the solenoid the magnetic field is B  μonI
2

_________________________________________________________________________

(7) Force acting on a charged particle moving in a magnetic field

If a charge q is moving with velocity v in a magnetic field of intensity B such that the angle
between velocity vector and magnetic field vector is θ, then a force F acts on the particle
such that

i) F  q
ii)F  v
iii) F  B
iv) F  sinθ

Combining all these, we get

F  qvB sinθ
 F  qvB sinθ

As the value of constant in this relation is 1 in SI units.

In vector form
  
 
F  q v  B , thus F is perpendicular to the plane containing v and B.

If a charge q enters perpendicularly into a magnetic field, then its path will be circular as
force always acts in a direction perpendicular to the direction of motion of motion of the
charge. Centripetal force required for circular motion is provided by the magnetic force
acting on the particle. Thus

mv 2
 q vB
r
mv
 qB
r
 1. Radius of the path (r)
mv
r
Bq
2. Velocity (v)
Bqr
v
m
3. Time period (T)
2πr 2π r 2πm
T  
v Bq r Bq
m
4. Frequency
1 Bq
v 
T 2πm
5. Angular frequency
Bq Bq
ω  2πv  2π  
2πm m
6. Kinetic energy
2
1 1  Bqr 
KE  mv 2  m 
2 2  m 
1 B2q2r 2 1 B2qr r 2
 KE  m 
2 m2 2 m

If charge particle enters at an angle with the direction of magnetic field then split its velocity
into rectangular components v cos θ along the field and v sin θ perpendicular the field as
shown. Due to these two components, the motion of the charge is helical.
Distance between two turns of the helix is called pitch(d) which is given by
2πm
d  v cosθ  time period  v cosθ 
Bq

_________________________________________________________________________

(8) Velocity selector or velocity filter

Consider a situation as shown in the figure in a charge is moving perpendicularly to both

electric and magnetic fields such the force the force acting on charge due to both the fields
is equal and opposite i.e.

qE = qvB

E
v 
B

This result is used in velocity selectors or

velocity filters in which we have to select a
particle with a particular value of velocity.

_________________________________________________________________________

(9) Force acting on a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field

Consider a conductor of length  and area of cross section A carrying current I placed in a
magnetic field at an angle θ as shown. If number density of electrons in the conductor is n
then total number of electrons in the conductor is An .

As force acting on one electron is f  ev dBsinθ where vd is the drift velocity of electrons.

So the total force acting on the conductor is

Anf  An  ev dB sinθ 
  Anev d  B sinθ
 F  IB sinθ

Direction of this force can be determined by Fleming’s left hand rule.

_________________________________________________________________________

(10) Force between two parallel straight conductors carrying current

When the currents are in same direction

When two current carrying conductors are placed parallel to each other,
each conductor produces a magnetic field around itself. So, one
conductor is placed in the magnetic field produced by the other. Using
Fleming’s left hand rule it can be easily shown that the forces on them
are such that they attract each other. Force acting on 1st conductor is
given as

F1  I1B2 sin90o
μoI2
F1  I1
2πr
F1 μoI1I2
 
 2πr

Now force acting on conductor 2 is given by

F2  I2B1 sin90o
μoI1
F2  I2
2πr
F2 μoI1I2
 
 2πr

Therefore F1  F2

Note: When the current is in opposite direction the conductors

will repel each other the magnitude of force will be same as
derived above.

_________________________________________________________________________
 (11) Torque acting on a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field

When a rectangular loop PQRS of sides ‘a’ and ‘b’ carrying current I is placed in uniform magentic
field B, such that area vector A makes an angle θ with direction of magnetic field, then forces on the
arms QR and SP of loop are equal, opposite and collinear, thereby perfectly cancel each other,
whereas forces on arms PQ and RS of loop are equal and opposite but not collinear, so they give rise
to torque on loop.

Force on side PQ or RS of loop is F  IbBsin90  IbB

o

Perpendicular distance between two non collinear forces r  a sinθ

So, torque on the loop is

τ  F  IbBa sinθ  I  ab  B sinθ

or τ  IAB sinθ

If loop has N turns then τ  NIAB sin θ .

 
In vector form τ  M  B where M = NIA is called magnetic dipole moment of current loop abd is
directed in direction of area vector.

 If the plane of the loop is normal to the direction of magnetic field i.e. θ = 0o between
 
B and A then the loop does not experience any torque i.e. τmin  0
 If the plane of the loop is parallel to the direction of magnetic field i.e. θ = 90o between
 
B and A then the loop experience maximum torque τmax  NIAB

_________________________________________________________________________

(12) Conversion of galvanometer into ammeter

A galvanometer can be converted into ammeter by connecting a low shunt resistance in parallel with
it, so that most of the current by passes through the shunt resistance, enabling the galvanometer to
measure much larger currents.

Thus if a galvanometer of resistance Rg which gives full scale deflection at Ig is to be used to convert

into an ammeter capable of measuring a maximum current I , we connect a shunt resistance R in

parallel with it which is obtained as

VR  VG
 I  Ig  R  IgRg
IgRg
 R
I  Ig

_________________________________________________________________________

(13) Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter

A galvanometer can be converted into voltmeter by connecting high resistance in series with it, so
that most of the voltage applied drops across it, enabling the galvanometer to measure much larger
voltages.

Thus is the galvanometer of resistance R g which gives full deflection at current Ig , is to be converted

into voltmeter capable of measuring maximum voltage up to V volts, then a high resistance R is
connected in series with it which is given by
V  IgRg  IgR or V  IgRg  IgR
V
or R   Rg
Ig
 MAGNETISM AND MATTER – ALL DERIVATIONS

Magnetic field of a bar magnet at an axial point

Let NS be a bar magnet of length 2l and of pole strength qm. Suppose the magnetic field is
to be determined at a point P which lies on the axis of the magnet at a distance r from its
centre, as shown.

Imagine a unit north pole placed at point P. Then from Coulomb’s law of magnetic forces,
the force exerted by N- pole of strength qm on unit north pole will be

μo qm 
FN  , along NP
4π  r   2

Similarly, the force exerted by S pole on unit north pole is

μo qm 
FS  , along PS
4π  r   2


Therefore, the strength of the magnetic field B at point P is

Baxial = FN  FS ( FN  FS )

μo qm  1 1 
   
4π   r   2  r   2 
 

μo qm 4r
 .
 
2
4π r   2
2

But qm 2  M (magnetic dipole moment)

 μo 2Mr
So, Baxial  .
 
2
4π r 2   2

For short bar magnet   r , therefore , we have

μo 2M
Baxial 
4π r 3

Magnetic field of a bar magnet at an equatorial point

Consider a bar magnet NS of length 2 and of pole strength qm . Suppose the magnetic
field is to be determined at a point P lying on the equatorial line of the magnet NS at a
distance r from its centre as shown.

Imagine a unit north pole placed at point P. Then from Coulomb’s law of magnetism, the
force exerted by north pole of the magnet on unit north pole is

μo qm
FN  . along NP
4π x 2

Similarly, the force exerted by the S pole of the magnet on unit north pole is

μo qm
FS  . along PS
4π x 2
As the magnitude of FS and FN are equal, so their vertical components get cancelled while
the horizontal components add up along PR.

Hence, magnetic field at the equatorial point is

Beq  FN cosθ  FS cosθ

 Beq  2FN cos θ
μo qm 
 Beq  2
4π x 2 x
μo M
 Bq  3
4π
r 2
 2  2

For short magnet   r , so we have

μo M
Beq  along PR
4π r 3

Torque on a magnetic dipole in a magnetic field

Consider a bar magnet NS of length 2 placed in a uniform magnetic field B. Let qm be the

pole strength of each pole. Let the magnetic axis of the bar magnet make an angle θ with
the field B as shown

Force on north pole  qmB along B

Force on south pole =  qmB opposite to B

The forces on the two poles are equal and opposite. They form a couple. So, torque is
given by
τ  Force  perpendicular distance

 τ  qmB  2

 τ   qm 2  B

 
τ  M B

Special cases
 
1. When angle between M and B is 0o, sin0o  0 , therefore τ  0 , this is the condition
of stable equilibrium.
 
2. When angle between M and B is 180o, sin180o = 0, therefore τ  0 , this is the
condition of unstable equilibrium.
 
3. If angle between M and B is 90o, sin90o  1 τmax  MB

Potential energy of a magnetic dipole in a magnetic field

The torque which acts on magnetic dipole in external magnetic field tends to align the
dipole in the direction of magnetic field. If the dipole is rotated against the action of this
torque, work has to be done, this work is stored in the dipole in the form of potential energy.

Small amount of work done dW done in rotating the dipole through small angle dθ is
dW  τdθ  MB sinθdθ

Total work done in rotating the dipole from θ  θ1 to θ  θ2 is

θ2
W   MB sinθdθ
θ1

 W  MB   cos θθ2
θ

 W  MB cos θ2  cosθ1 

This work is stored in the dipole in the form of potential energy

Thus, U  MB cosθ2  cosθ1 

TIME PERIOD OF MAGNETIC DIPOLE
In magnitude τ  MB sinθ
Here τ is restoring torque and θ is the angle between M and B.
d2θ
therefore, in equilibrium I 2  MB sinθ
dt
Negative, sign with MBsin θ implies that restoring torque is in opposition to deflecting torque.
For small values of θ in radians, we approximate sin θ ≈ θ and get
d2θ
I 2  MBθ
dt
d2θ MB
or, 2   θ
dt I
This represents a simple harmonic motion. The square of the angular frequency is
MB
ω2 = and the time period is,
I

I
T  2π
MB
MOTIONAL EMF

 In case of a conductor in translational motion in a magnetic field

The figure shows a rectangular conducting loop PQRS in the plane of the paper. The
conductor is free to move. Let the conductor QR be moved towards the right with a
constant velocity v. The area enclosed by the loop PQRS increases.

Therefore, the amount of magnetic flux linked with the loop increases. An e.m.f. is
induced in the loop.

If the length QR = l and the distance through which is it pulled is x, then emf induced
d
between ends Q and R is ,  = 
dt

As   BA cos 0 o = BA

d d d
 =  (BA)  B (A)  B (x)
dt dt dt

dx
  =  B
dt
or  =  Bv

This is called motional emf as it is produced due to motion of a conductor in a magnetic

field.

 In case of a conductor in rotational motion in a magnetic field

 0+ωl ωl
Average linear velocity of the rod is v avg = =
2 2

therefore, magnitude of emf induced between the ends of the rod is

 ωl  1
ε = Bl   = Bl2ω
 2 2

Energy considerations

Force on the movable arm

 B v  B2  2 v
F  IB sin90o     B 
 R  R

 B2  2 v  B2 2 v 2
Power delivered by external force  Fv    v 
 R  R

 Bv  B22 v 2
2

Power dissipated as heat loss = I2R    R 

 R  R

Clearly, mechanical power delivered = electrical power dissipated, which proves the
law of conservation of energy.

SELF INDUCT ANCE OF LONG SOLENOID

Let us consider a solenoid of N turns with length  and area of cross section A. It carries
a current I. If B is the magnetic field at any point inside the solenoid, then

Magnetic flux per turn = B ´ area of each turn

 μ0NI
But, B 

μ0NIA
Therefore, magnetic flux per turn =


Hence, the total magnetic flux (φ) linked with the solenoid is given by the product of flux
through each turn and the total number of turns.

μ0NIA
 ´N


μ0N2IA
i.e.   ……. (i)


If L is the coefficient of self-induction of the solenoid, then

  LI …….. (ii)

From equations (i) and (ii)

μ0N2IA
LI 


μ0N2 A
 L


If the core is filled with a magnetic material of permeability m, then

μ N2 A
L


MUTUAL INDUCT ANCE OF TWO LONG SOLENOIDS

S1 and S2 are two long solenoids each of length l. The solenoid S2 is wound closely over
the solenoid S1. N1 and N2 are the number of turns in the solenoids S1 and S2
respectively. Both the solenoids are considered to have the same area of cross section
A as they are closely wound together. I1 is the current flowing through the solenoid S1.
The magnetic field B1 produced at any point inside the solenoid S1 due to the current I1
is

μoN1I1
B1  ……. (1)


The magnetic flux linked with each turn of S2 is equal to B1A.Total magnetic flux linked
with solenoid S2 having N2 turns is

2  B1AN2

Substituting for B1 from equation (1)

 μoN1I1 
2    AN2
  
 μoN1N2I1 
2   A ..... (2)
  
But 2  MI1 ..... (3)
Where M is the coefficient of mutual induction between S1 and S2.
From equations (2) and (3)

μ NN I 
MI1   o 1 2 1  A
  
μ NN A
M  o 1 2

If the core is filled with a magnetic material of permeability
μ N1N2 A
M


Thus, the coefficient of mutual induction of two coils is numerically equal to the emf
induced in one coil when the rate of change of current through the other coil is unity. The
unit of coefficient of mutual induction is henry.

One henry is defined as the coefficient of mutual induction between a pair of coils when
a change of current of one ampere per second in one coil produces an induced emf of
one volt in the other coil.
The coefficient of mutual induction between a pair of coils depends on the following
factors

1) Size and shape of the coils, number of turns and permeability of material on which
the coils are wound.
2) Proximity of the coils
 ALTERNATING CURRENT

All derivations

AC CIRCUIT CONTAINING RESISTOR ONLY (IMP)

Consider a resistor of resistance R connected to an alternating emf source as shown.

Let the applied emf be E  E o sin ωt .

Dividing both sides by R, we get

E Eo
 sinωt
R R

E Eo
 sinωt
R R
 I  Io sinωt

Therefore, current and voltage are in same

phase.

AC CIRCUIT CONTAINING INDUCTOR

ONLY (V IMP)
Consider an inductor of inductance L connected to an AC source as shown
Let the applied emf be E  E o sin ωt .

dI
Since E  L
dt

E
Therefore dI  dt
L

E
dI  dt
L
E sinωt
 dI  o dt
L
Integrating both sides we get
E
  dI   o sinωtdt
L
 Eo
L 
I sinωtdt

E
 I  o   cosωt 
ωL

π 
 cosθ  sin   θ 
2 
E  π 
 I   o sin   ωt  
ωL   2 
As ωL  XL
Eo   π 
I sin  ωt  2  
XL   
  π 
 I  Io sin  ωt   
  2 

Eo
where Io 
XL

Thus, current lags behind voltage in a 9purely inductive circuit.

AC CIRCUIT CONTAINING CAPACITOR ONLY (V IMP)

Consider an inductor of inductance L connected to an AC source as shown
Let the applied emf be E  E o sin ωt .

Since Q = CE

Q  CEo sinωt

Q  CEo sinωt
dQ d
I  CEo sinωt 
dt dt
 I  ωCEo cos ωt
Eo
I cosωt
1
ωC
π
 I  Io sin(ωt  )
2
 Eo
where  Io
1
ωC

Thus current leads the voltage by a phase of

π
in a purely capacitive circuit.
2

IMPEDANCE IN SERIES LCR

CIRCUIT (M IMP)
Consider a resistor of resistance R, inductor of inductance L and capacitor of capacitance C
connected in series to an alternating EMF source as shown:

Voltage across all the components is shown in the diagram below. Net voltage V is given by

 VL  VC 
2
V  VR2
 VL  IXL , VR  IR, VC  IXC

IXL  IXC   IR 

2 2
V 

 V  I2  X L  XC   R 2
2

 V I  XL  XC   R 2
2


V
I
  XL  XC 
2
R 2

 XL  XC 
2
 Z  R2

Where Z is called the impedance of the circuit.

RESONATING FREQUENCY IN SERIES LCR CIRCUIT (IMP)
Resonance occurs when inductive reactance becomes equal to capacitive reactance

XL  XC
1
 2πν rL 
2πv r C
1
  2πν r  
2

LC
1
 2πv r 
LC
1
 vr  , ν r is called resonance frequency.
2π LC

ENERGY STORED IN AN INDUCTOR (M IMP)

Consider an inductor of inductance L connected to a voltage source E as shown in figure above.
Let current at any instant be I.
As we know that instantaneous power is given by

P  EI
dI
As E  L
dt
dI
so, P  LI
dt
dW
P 
dt

dW dI
  LI
dt dt
 dW  LIdI
So, total work done by source to build a max. current Io in the circuit is
Io
 W   LIdI
0
Io
 I2 
 W L 
 2 0
 I2 
 W  L  0  0
2 
1
 W  LIo2
2

This work is stored in the circuit as magnetic potential energy. So,

 1
UB  LIo2
2

POWER IN SERIES LCR CIRCUIT (M IMP)

Let a voltage E  E o sin ωt be applied to a series LCR circuit and current flowing through it is

Io sin  ωt  φ  , so instantaneous power supplied to the source is

P  EI  Eo sinωt  Io sin  ωt  φ 
EoIo
 cos φ  cos  2ωt  φ  
2 

The average power over a cycle is given by the average of the two terms in RHS of above
equation. It is only the second term which is time dependent. Its average is zero (the positive half
of the cosine cancels the negative half). Therefore

EoIo E I
P cos φ  o o cos φ
2 2 2
 P  ErmsIrms cos φ

For purely inductive or purely capacitive circuit

φ  90o  cos φ  0  P  0
 RAY OPTICS – ALL DERIVATIONS
Derivation of mirror formula

Consider an object AB placed on the principle axis beyond the centre of curvature C
of a concave mirror of small aperture, as shown.

Now A 'B 'C  ABC

A 'B' CB ' CP  B'P R  v
    .........(i)
AB BC BP  CP u  R
As A 'B 'C  APB, therefore,
A 'B 'P  ABP
Consequently,
A 'B' B 'P v v
   .................(ii)
AB BP u u
From (i) and (ii),we get
R  v v

u  R u
  uR  uv  uv  vR
 vR  uR  2uv
vR uR 2uv
  
uvR uvR uvR
1 1 2
  
u v R
As R  2f
1 1 2
so  
u v 2f
1 1 1
  
u v f
___________________________________________________________________

Relation between focal length and radius of curvature for spherical mirror

From the diagram,

As AB is parallel to PC,

α  i
In BFC, r  α
Hence CF  FB
For a mirror small aperture
FB  FP
 CF  FP
hence
CP  CF  FP  FP  FP  2FP
or R  2f

___________________________________________________________________

Derivation of thin lens formula

Consider and object AB placed perpendicular to the principal axis of a thin convex
lens between its F’ and C’ as shown. A real, inverted and magnified image A’B’ is
formed beyond C on the other side of the lens.

A 'B 'O and ABO are similar

A 'B ' OB'
  (1)
AB BO
Also A 'B 'F and MOF are similar
A 'B ' FB'
 
MO OF
But MO  AB
A 'B ' FB'
  .......(2)
AB OF
From (1) and (2), we get
OB ' FB' OB ' OF
 
BO OF OF
By sign cartesian sign convention, we get
Object distance, BO = -u
Image distance, OB' = +v
Focal length OF   f
v vf
 
u f
or vf  uv  uf or uv  uf  vf
Dividing both sides by uvf, we get
1 1 1
 
f v u

___________________________________________________________________

Derive a relation between critical angle and refractive index of a medium.

Consider a light ray travelling from denser medium (b) to a rarer medium a.

According to Snell’s law,

sini
a
μa 
sinr

Where, b represents denser medium to rarer medium.

At i  ic , r  90o
sinic
b
μa   sinic
sin 90o
 1
But bμa  a
μb
Therefore
1
a
μb 
sinic

_________________________________________________________________________

Derive the relation between the distance of object, distance of image and radius of
curvature of convex spherical surface, when refraction takes place from rarer to
denser medium and image formed is real.

Consider an object placed at O and its real image is formed at I as shown.

In NOC, i is an exterior angle, therefore,

iαγ
Similarly, from NIC, we have
γ rβ
r  γ β

Suppose, all the rays are paraxial. Then the angles i, r, α, β and γ will be small.

NM NM
 α  tan α  
OM OP
NM NM
β  tanβ  
MI PI
NM NM
γ  tan γ  
MC PC

From Snell’s law of refraction,

sini μ2

sinr μ1
As i and r are small, therefore

i μ2

r μ1

 μ1i  μ2r
 μ1  α  γ   μ2  γ  β 
 NM NM   NM NM 
 μ1     μ2   
 OP PC   PC PI 
 1 1   1 1
 μ1     μ2   
 OP PC   PC PI 
μ μ μ  μ1
 1  2  2
OP PI PC

Using Cartesian sign convention,

Object distance OP  u

Image distance PI   v

Radius of curvature PC = +R

μ1 μ2 μ2  μ1
  
u v R

________________________________________________________________________

Derive the expression for lens maker’s formula.

Consider an object placed at O whose final image is formed at I as shown. Let the image
formed by first surface is at I1. This image will act as on abject for the second surface.

For refraction at first surface, we have

 μ2 μ1 μ2  μ1
   (i)
v1 u R1
for refraction at second surface we have
μ1 μ2 μ1  μ2
  (ii)
v v1 R2
adding (i) and (ii) we get
μ1 μ1 1 1
  μ2  μ1    
v u  R1 R 2 
1 1  μ  μ1   1 1
   2   
v u  μ1   R1 R2 

If object is placed at infinity ( u   ), the image is formed at focus, i.e. v = f. Therefore,

1  μ2  μ1   1 1
   
f  μ1   R1 R2 

1  μ2  1 1
    1   
f  μ1   R1 R2 
1 1  1

f

 μ2  1  R1  
R2 
 1

This result is lens maker’s formula.

Derive a relation between angle of deviation, angle of prism and refractive index of
prism.

Consider a ray PQ incident of one face of a prism as shown. The path of ray inside the prism
and refracted ray is also shown.

From quadrilateral AQNR

A  QNR  180o
From the triangle QNR
r  r ' QNR  180o
 A  r ' r

Now, from the triangle MQR, the deviation produced by the prism

δ  MQR  MRQ   i  r    i' r ' 

or δ   i  i'   r  r ' 
or δ  i  i' A
or i  i'  A  δ

For refraction at face AB, we have

sini i
μ   i  μr
sinr r

For refraction at face AC, we have

sini' i'
μ   i'  μr '
sinr ' r '

Hence deviation produced by the prism is

δ  i  i' A  μr  μr ' A
 δ  μ  r  r '   A  μA  A
 δ  μ  1 A

________________________________________________________________________

Derive prism formula

Or

Derive a relation for refractive index of a prism in terms of angle of minimum

deviation.

When a prism is in the position of minimum deviation, a ray of light passes symmetrically
(parallel to base) through the prism, so that

i  i', r  r ', δ  δm

As
A  δ  i  i'
A  δm
 A  δm  i  i' or i 
2
Also A  r  r '  r  r  2r
A
 r
2

From Snell’s law, the refractive index of the material of the prism will be

 A  δm 
sin  
sini  2 
μ or μ
sinr A
sin  
2

_________________________________________________________________________

Derive an expression for magnifying power of a simple microscope when final image
in formed at

a. Least distance of distinct vision.

b. Infinity

When final image is formed at least distance of distinct vision

The image A’B’ of an object AB is formed at least distance of distinct vision ‘D’ as shown.
Let A ' OB '  β . Imagine the object AB to be placed to position A ''B ' at distance D from

the lens. Let A '' OB'  α . Then, magnifying power,

β tanβ
m  [since α and β are small]
α tan α
 AB / OB AB / OB
  [ A ''B '  AB]
A ''B '/ OB ' AB / OB '
OB ' D
 
OB  x
D
or m 
x

Let f be the focal length of the lens. As the image is formed at least distance of distinct vision
from the lens, so

v  D

Using thin lens formula,

1 1 1
 
v u f
we get
1 1 1
 
D  x f
1 1 1
  
x D x
D D
  1
x f
D
 m  1
f

When final image is formed at infinity

From fig (a)

 h
tanβ 
f

From fig (b)

h
tan α 
D
h/f
m 
h/D
D
 or m 
f

_________________________________________________________________________

Derive an expression for magnifying power of a compound microscope when final

image in formed at

a. Least distance of distinct vision.

b. Infinity

When final image is formed at least distance of distinct vision

The object AB is placed at uo slightly larger than the focal length fo of the objective O. The

object forms a real, inverted and magnified image A’B’ on the other side of the lens. This
image acts as an object for the eyepiece which essentially acts like a simple microscope.
The eyepiece E forms a virtual and magnified final image A’’B’’ of the object.
 β tanβ h '/ ue h ' D
Magnifying power, m     .  mo m e
α tan α h / D h ue

h ' vo
Here, mo  
h uo

As the eyepiece acts as a simple microscope, so

D D
me   1
ue fe
vo  D
m  1  
uo  fe 

When final image is formed at infinity

D
me 
fe
L D
m 
fo fe
 WAVE OPTICS – ALL DERIVATIONS

Proof of laws of reflection

Consider a beam of light LM, whose wave front AP reaches A’P’ in time t, hence for any
point Q on the AP wave front must also reach A’P’ in time t.

Let speed of light in the medium be c, then

PP’ = ct and AA’ = ct

In AP 'P and AA 'P '

PP'  AA ' [Proved above]
AP'  AP ' [common]
APP '  AA 'P' [both 90o ]
 AP'P AA 'P ' [by RHS congruence rule]
 i  r [by cpct]

Proof of law of refraction (Snell’s law) using wave theory of light

Let speed of light in medium 1 be c1 and the speed of light in medium 2 be c2.

Let time taken by light to travel from AP to A’P’ be t, then

PP'  c1t , AA '  c 2 t

In ABD
BD
sini 
AD
In ADC
AC
sinr 
AD

BD

sini
 AD  BD  c1t  c1
sinr AC AC c 2 t c 2
AD
c
Also 1 2  1
c2
sini
1  2 
sinr

Which is Snell’s law.

Condition for constructive and destructive interference

We can represent the displacement of the waves from the sources S1 and S2 (see figure) at
point P on the screen at any time t by

y1  a1 sin ωt
and y 2  a2 sin(t  )
where  is the constant phase difference between the two waves.
The resultant at P, y  y1  y 2
  a1 sinωt  a2 sin(ωt   )
 a1 sinωt  a2 sinωt cos   a2 cos ωt sin 
 (a1  a2 cos  )sin ωt  a2 sin  cos ωt

Taking (a1  a2 cos  )  R cos θ

and a2 sin   R cos θ

 y  R cos θ sin ωt  R sinθ cos ωt  R sin(ωt  θ)

For R2 cos2 θ  R 2 sin2 θ  (a1  a2 cos  )2  (sin  )2
 a12  a22 (cos2   sin2  )  2a1a2 cos 

R2  a12  a22  2a1a2 cos 

But intensity of light I  R2

 I  a12  a22  2a1a 2 cos 

 I  I1  I2  2 I1I2 cos 

Constructive interference

For intensity of light to be maximum at P,

cos  1
phase difference   2nπ, where n  0,1,2,3,4........
If x be the path difference between S1P and S2P, then respective phase difference between
two waves will be

2π
 x
λ
2π
2nπ  x
λ
 x  nλ

Destructive interference

For intensity of light to be minimum at P,

cos   1
  (2n  1)π
2π
x  (2n  1)π
λ
λ
x  (2n  1)
2
Ratio of intensity of light at Maxima and minima

Imax  a12  a22  2a1a2  (a1  a2 )2

Imin  a12  a 22  2a1a2  (a1  a2 )2

Imax (a1  a2 )2

Imin (a1  a2 )2

Ratio of intensity of light due to two sources

Let I1 and I2 and a1 and a2 be the intensities and amplitudes of light from slits S1 and S2
respectively. Then,
I1 a12

I2 a22

Relation between slit width (), I and a

ω1 I1 a12
 
ω2 I2 a22

Angular width in central maxima in diffraction pattern

The angular width of the central maxima is the angular separation between the directions of
the first minima on the two sides of the central maximum.

As condition for nth minima is d sinθn  nλ , so first minima is formed where n = 1. Therefore,
λ
sinθ1  .
d
 λ
As we know, for small angles, sin θ  θ so θ  …..(i)
d

x1 x
Now from figure tan θ  and for small angles tanθ  θ , therefore θ  1 …….(ii)
D D

So, from (i) and (ii), we get

x1 λ

D d
λD
 x1 
d

2λD
Therefore, width of central maxima is 2x1  .
d

λ
Angular width of central maxima is 2θ  2
d

With of nth secondary maxima

Nth maxima lies between nth minima and (n+1)th minima

nλ
As, direction of nth minima, θn 
d

(n  1)λ
Direction of (n+1)th minima, θn1 
d

Therefore, angular width of nth secondary minima

(n  1)λ nλ λ
θn1  θn   
d d d

λ
So, linear width of nth secondary maxima = Angular width X D = D
d
 Dual nature of matter and radiation
What is photoelectric effect? Derive Einstein’s photoelectric equation in terms of maximum kinetic
energy and stopping potential.

Photoelectric effect
When light of suitable frequency falls on a photosensitive surface, electrons in the atoms on the surface absorb
energy of photons and they start coming out of the atoms. This phenomenon is called photoelectric effect. Such
electrons are called photoelectrons and current they constitute is called photocurrent.

Work function
Minimum energy required to remove an electron from a photosensitive surface is called work function. It is
denoted by Wo.

Threshold wavelength
Minimum wavelength of incident radiation below which no ejection of photoelectrons will take place from a
metal surface is called threshold frequency. It is denoted by  o .

Clearly Wo  h o .

If frequency of incident radiation is  (   o ) . Then energy of photon is E  h . Some part of this energy (=
Wo) is used by electron to come out to the metal surface and rest is used to provide kinetic energy to the electron.
Thus, we can write

h  Wo  KE max .........(i)

1 2
 h  Wo  mvmax
2
1 2
 h  h o  mv max
2
Equation (i) is called Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
Further, we can write above equation as

hc hc 1
  mv 2max
 o 2
1 1  1
 hc     mv 2max
  o  2

Here  o is called threshold wavelength.

As we know

1
mv 2max  eVo , where Vo is the stopping potential. Therefore, Einstein’s photoelectric equation becomes
2

h o  Wo  eVo

Thus, we may define stopping potential as the negative potential of the plate 'A' at which the photo electric
current becomes zero. In other words, stopping potential is that value of retarding potential difference between
two plates which is just sufficient to halt the most energetic photo electrons emitted.
Deduce an expression for the de Broglie wavelength of a particle of mass m moving with velocity v.
Hence derive de Broglie wavelength of an electron accelerated through a potential difference of V volts.

Considering photon as an electromagnetic wave of frequency ν , its energy from Planck’s quantum theory is
given by

E  hν

Where h is Planck’s constant. Considering photon as a particle of mass m, the energy associated with it is
given by Einstein’s mass energy relationship as

E  mc 2

From equations (i) and (ii), we get

hv  mc 2
hc
  mc 2
λ
h h
λ 
mc p

According the de Broglie hypothesis, the above equation must be true for material particles like electrons,
protons, neutrons etc. Hence a particle of mass m moving with velocity v must be associated with a matter
wave of wavelength λ given by

h h
λ 
mv p

 p  2m(KE)
and KE  qV

h
λ 
2m(qV)
As, h  6.62  1034 Js
m  9.11 10 31kg
q  1.6  10 19 C
We get
12.27 o
λ AB
V
 ATOMS – ALL DERIVATIONS
Using Bohr’s postulates, derive an expression for the velocity of an electron revolving
in an orbit. Also show that the velocity of electron in innermost orbit of H atom is
1/137 of times the speed of light.

Consider an electron of mass m and charge e revolving with velocity v around a nucleus
having atomic number z. Then the centripetal force required by the electron is provided by
electrostatic force of attraction between nucleus and electron according to equation

mv 2 k  Ze  e

r r2
kZe2
 mv 2  ....(i)
r
According to Bohr’s quantum condition for angular momentum

nh
mvr  ....(ii)
2π

Expression for velocity

kZe2
From (i) r  ....(iii)
mv 2

nh
From (ii) r  ....(iv)
2πmv

Therefore

nh kZe2

2πmv mv 2

2πkZe2
 v
nh

Putting
,
π  3.14, k  9  109 Nm2 C 2 , Z  1, e  1.6  10 19 C,n  1 and h  6.62  10 34 Js

we get

 1 
v c
 137 

________________________________________________________________________
Using Bohr’s postulates, derive an expression for the radii of the permitted orbits in
the hydrogen atom.

Putting the value of v obtained above in equation (iv), we get

nh nh
r .
2πm 2πkZe2
n2h2
 r
4π 2mkZe2

_________________________________________________________________________

Using Bohr’s postulates, derive an expression for the total energy of an electron
revolving in an orbit.

Kinetic energy of electron in nth orbit

1 kZe 2
K.E  mv 2  [Using equation (i)]
2 2r

Potential energy of electron in nth orbit is

q1q2 (Ze)( e) Ze2

P.E  k k  k
r r r

Total energy T.E = P.E + K.E

Ze2 Ze2 Ze2

T.E  k k  k
2r r 2r

Putting the value of r, we get

kZe2 4π 2mkZe2
T.E   .
2 n 2h2

2π 2mk 2 Z2 e 4
 T.E  
n 2h 2

On the basis of Bohr’s theory, derive an expression for the wavelength of emitted
photon when an electron comes back from a higher state n2 to a lower state n1.

From Bohr’s theory, the energy of an electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen atom is given by
2π 2mk 2 Z 2 e 4 1
En   . 2
h2 n
According to Bohr’s condition, whenever an electron makes a transition from a higher energy
level n2 to lower energy level n1, the difference of energy appears in the form of a photon is
given by

hv  En2  En1
1
2π 2mk 2 e4 1
 hv   2  2
h2  n1 n2 
c 2π 2mk 2 e4  1 1
  3  2  2
λ h  n1 n2 

1 2π 2mk 2 e4 1 1
   2  2
λ ch3  n1 n2 
1 1 1
 R 2  2 
λ  n1 n2 
2π 2mk 2 e 4
where R  , is the Rydberg constant
ch3
 NUCLEI DERIVATIONS
Derive an expression for the density of nucleus. Hence show that the density is
independent of mass number.

Let A be the mass number and R be the radius of a nucleus. If m is the average mass of a
nucleon, then

Mass of nucleus = mA

Volume of nucleus

4 3
 R
3
3
4  1
 4
   Ro A 3   Ro A
3   3

Therefore, nuclear density

Mass of nuclues

Volume of nucleus

mA 3m
 
4 4R3o
R3o A
3

Clearly, density of nucleus is independent of mass number A or the size of the nucleus.

Taking m  1.67  1027 kg , R o  1.2  10 15 m , we get

  2.30  1017 kgm3 which is very large as compared to the density of ordinary matter.