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XI PHYSICS - CHAPTER 7 ROTATION ABOUT AN AXIS NOT FIXED

SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION
(Prepared By Ayyappan C, HSST , GMRHSS , Kasaragod, Mob: 9961985448)
RIGID BODY
 A rigid body is a body with a perfectly definite
and unchanging shape.
 The distances between different pairs of such a
body do not change
MOTIONS OF A RIGID BODY •
The axis of a spinning top moves around the
PURE TRANSLATION vertical through its point of contact with the
ground, sweeping out a cone.
• The movement of the axis of rotation is termed
precession.
• The motion of a rigid body which is not
pivoted or fixed in some way is either a pure
translation or a combination of translation
and rotation.
• In pure translational motion at any instant of • The motion of a rigid body which is pivoted or
time every particle of the body has the same fixed in some way is rotation.
velocity.
CENTRE OF MASS
TRANSLATION AND ROTATION
 Centre of mass is the point at which the entire
mass of the body can be assumed to be
concentrated.

• Points P1, P2, P3 and P4 have different velocities

at any instant of time.
• The line along which the body is fixed is termed
as its axis of rotation.
ROTATION ABOUT A FIXED AXIS
 In rotation of a rigid body about a fixed axis,  For two particle system as shown in fig. the
every particle of the body moves in a circle, centre of mass is given by
which lies in a plane perpendicular to the axis
and has its centre on the axis. m1 x1  m2 x2
X 
m1  m2
• If the two particles have the same mass , then
mx1  mx2 x1  x2
X  
mm 2
• If we have n particle
m x  m2 x2  .......  mn xn
X  1 1 
m x
i i

m1  m2  ......  mn m i

• The centre of mass C of the system of the three

particles is defined and located by the
coordinates (X, Y) given by
m1 x1  m 2 x 2  m3 x 3
X 
m1  m 2  m3
m1 y1  m 2 y 2  m3 y 3
Y 
m1  m 2  m3
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LINEAR MOMENTUM OF A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES

iˆ  ˆj  k̂, ĵ  k̂  iˆ, k̂  î  ĵ
• The total momentum of a system of particles is
equal to the product of the total mass of the ˆj  iˆ  k̂, k̂  ĵ  iˆ, î  k̂   ĵ
system and the velocity of its centre of mass RULES TO FIND DIRECTION OF VECTOR PRODUCT
 
P  MV i) Right hand screw rule
• Differentiating above equation with respect to
time,  If a right handed screw is rotated from vector A
  to vector B, through a small angle, the direction
dP dV 
M  MA of the advancing screw gives the direction of
dt dt
• Or the cross product of vectors A and B.

dP
 F ext
dt
• This is the statement of Newton’s second law
extended to a system of particles.
• When the total external force acting on a
system of particles is zero, the total linear
momentum of the system is constant. ii) Right hand thumb rule

dP
0  If the fingers of the right hand are curled in such
dt a way that they point along the direction of

P  constant rotation from vector A to vector B through a
• When the total external force on the system is small angle, then the thumb points in the
zero the velocity of the centre of mass remains direction of the cross product of vector A and B.
constant.
VECTOR PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS
• The vector product or cross product of two
vectors is given by
 
A  B  ABsinθn̂
 
• Where A | A | , B  | B | , n̂ - unit vector
perpendicular to A and B. ANGULAR VELOCITY AND ITS RELATION WITH LINEAR
VELOCITY
• The average angular velocity of the particle over
the interval Δt is Δθ /Δt.
• The instantaneous angular velocity
ω = dθ/dt.

• The vector product of two vectors is another

vector perpendicular to the given vectors.
Properties of vector product
• Vector product is not commutative
    • The general relation connecting angular velocity
A B  B  A and linear velocity is given by
  
 
   
A B   B  A v r
• Vector product is distributive • The angular velocity is a vector quantity.
 
      
A B  C  A B  AC Angular acceleration
   • Angular acceleration α is the time rate of
• Also A  A  0 , null vector change of angular velocity.

• Vector products of orthogonal unit vectors are  d

iˆ iˆ  0, ĵ  ĵ  0, k̂  k̂  0 dt
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Rotational equilibrium •
A lever is a light rod pivoted at a point along its
 The vector sum of the torques on the rigid length. This point is called the fulcrum.
body is zero - angular momentum is • A seesaw on the children’s playground is a
conserved. typical example of a lever.
  
 1   2  .....   n  0 • Anticlockwise moments - positive
Clockwise moments - negative
Partial equilibrium
• In the case of the lever force F1 is usually some
• When two parallel forces both equal in
weight to be lifted. It is called the load and its
magnitude are applied perpendicular to alight
distance from the fulcrum d1 is called the load
rod , the system will be in rotational
arm.
equilibrium, and not in translational
Mechanical Advantage (M.A.)
equilibrium
• The ratio F1/F2 is called the Mechanical
Advantage (M.A.)
F1 d 2
M . A.  
F2 d1
•If the effort arm d2 is larger than the load arm,
• When two forces are applied perpendicular in the mechanical advantage is greater than one.
two opposite directions, the body is in • Mechanical advantage greater than one means
translational equilibrium; but not in rotational that a small effort can be used to lift a large
equilibrium. load.
Centre of gravity
• The CG of a body is the point where the total
gravitational torque on the body is zero.
• If acceleration due to gravity is same at all parts
of a body, its centre of gravity coincides with
centre of mass.
Couple
• If g varies centre of gravity and centre of mass
• A pair of equal and opposite forces with
are different.
different lines of action is known as a couple.
• A couple produces rotation without
translation.
• When we open the lid of a bottle by turning it,
our fingers are applying a couple to the lid.

MOMENT OF INERTIA
• Moment of inertia is the rotational analogue of
Principle of moments mass of a body.
• The moment of inertia given by
n
I   mi ri
2

i 1
•
It is independent of the magnitude of the
angular velocity.
• For a lever at equilibrium the moment on the • It is regarded as a measure of rotational inertia
left = moment on the right of the body
load arm × load = effort arm × effort • Unit is kgm2.
d1F1  d 2 F2 The moment of inertia of a rigid body depends on :
• This is the principle of moments for a lever. • the mass of the body,
• its shape and size
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motion have a disc with a large moment of MR 2

inertia, called a flywheel. 2I x 
2
• Because of its large moment of inertia, the MR 2
flywheel resists the sudden increase or Ix 
4
decrease of the speed of the vehicle.
Theorem of parallel axes
• It allows a gradual change in the speed and
• The moment of inertia of a body about any
prevents jerky motions, thereby ensuring a
axis is equal to the sum of the moment of
smooth ride for the passengers on the vehicle.
inertia of the body about a parallel axis passing
Theorem of Perpendicular Axes
through its centre of mass and the product of
• It states that the moment of inertia of a planar
its mass and the square of the distance
body (lamina) about an axis perpendicular to
between the two parallel axes.
its plane is equal to the sum of its moments of
inertia about two perpendicular axes I z '  I z  Ma 2
concurrent with perpendicular axis and lying in • Where a –distance between two parallel axes.
the plane of the body. • This theorem is applicable to a body of any
• Thus shape.
Iz  Ix  I y
• This theorem is applicable to bodies which are
planar.

PROBLEM - 1
• What is the moment of inertia of a rod of mass
PROBLEM
M, length l about an axis perpendicular to it
• What is the moment of inertia of a disc about
through one end?
one of its diameters?
Solution
• The moment of inertia about an axis
perpendicular and through the midpoint of the
rod is
Ml 2
Iz 
12
• Thus using parallel axis theorem, the moment
Solution of inertia about an axis perpendicular through
• The moment of inertia of the disc about an axis one end is
perpendicular to it and through its centre is 2
Ml 2 l Ml 2
I z '  I z  Ma 2   M  
12 2 3
• Where M –mass, R – radius POBLEM - 2
• By symmetry of the disc, the moment of inertia • What is the moment of inertia of a ring about a
about any diameter is same. tangent to the circle of the ring?
Solution
Ix  Iy
• Using perpendicular axis theorem
I z  I x  I y  2I x

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 Where k – unit vector perpendicular to r and

v.
 But
vi  ri
 Thus

li  mi ri kˆ
2

Solution
i) We have the torque  There for the total angular momentum of a
  FR  25  0.20  5.0Nm system of particle is given by
 But   I  n
L   mi ri kˆ
2
 Where i 1
MR 2 20  0.20 2 
I    0.4kgm 2 L  Ikˆ
2 2  Where
 Therefore n
0.4    FR  5 I   mi ri
2

i 1
5
  12.5s 2  The magnitude of angular momentum is given
0.4 by
ii) Work done by the pull unwinding 2m of the
cord is L  I
W  Force  displaceme nt Principle of Conservation of Angular momentum
 25  2  50 J
• The angular momentum is given by
iii) The kinetic energy gained is L=Iω
• If the external torque is zero,
1 2 L  I  constant
K I
2 Examples of principle of conservation of angular
 The angular displacement  = length of momentum
unwound string / radius of wheel = 2m/0.2 m =
10 rad
 Thus
 2  0 2  2
• When we stretch hand angular speed is
 2  0  2  12.5  10  250( rad / s ) 2 reduced (moment of inertia is increased) and
 Therefore when hand is closed angular speed is increased
1 (moment inertia is decreased)
K  0.4  250  50 J • A circus acrobat and a diver take advantage of
2 this principle.
Relation connecting angular momentum and moment
of inertia
 The angular momentum of a particle is given
by
   
li  ri  pi  ri  mi vi
 In rotation about a fixed axis velocity and • Also, skaters and classical, Indian or western,
radius will be perpendicular, the angular dancers etc , use this principle.
momentum is

li  mi ri vi kˆ

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Chapter 6
A.B  Ax Bx  Ay By  Az Bz
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

(Prepared By Ayyappan C,HSST, GMRHSS, Kasaragod)
| A | Ax2  Ay2  Az2
Multiplication of two vectors
i) Scalar product (dot product) – gives a scalar

| B | Bx2  B y2  Bz2
from two vectors
   
ii) Vector product ( cross product ) – gives a
 Also A  A | A || A | cos0  A2
new vector
Scalar product (Dot product) of two vectors A2  Ax2  Ay2  Az2
PROBLEM
 Find the angle between force

F  3iˆ  4 ˆj  5kˆ unit and displacement

d  5iˆ  4 ˆj  3kˆ unit.
Solution
 We have
 
Fd
 The scalar product is defined as cos    
    | F || d |
A  B | A || B | cosθ  Thus
 
 Thus F  d  Fx d x  Fy d y  Fz d z

cos  
A.B  3  5  4  4   5  3  16unit
A B 
| F | Fx2  Fy2  Fz2  50
Special cases 
| d | d x2  d y2  d z2  50
 If ϴ=00, the scalar product is maximum,
     Therefore
A  B | A || B | 16
 If ϴ=900, the scalar product is minimum, cos    0.32
  50  50
AB 0
Properties of scalar product
  cos 1 0.32
 Scalar product is commutative. WORK
   
A  B  B A  The work done by the force is defined to be the
 Obeys distributive law product of component of the force in the
       direction of the displacement and the
A  ( B  C)  A  B  A  C)
magnitude of this displacement.
 For multiplication with any real number  The work and energy have the same dimensions
   
   
A  B   A  B [ML-2T-2]
 for the orthogonal unit vectors  The SI unit is joule (J).
Work done by a constant force
iˆ.iˆ  ˆj. ˆj  kˆ.kˆ  1
iˆ. ˆj  ˆj.kˆ  kˆ.iˆ  0
 If A  Axiˆ  Ay ˆj  Az kˆ , B  Bxiˆ  By ˆj  Bz kˆ

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xf xf ENERGY
W  Lim  F ( x )x   F ( x )dx  Energy is the capacity for doing work.
x 0
xi
 It can be measured by the work that the body
xi

xf
can do.
W  F ( x)dx
xi
 Joule is the SI unit of energy.
Alternative units of Work /Energy
erg 10-7J
electron volt (eV) 1.6 x 10-19 J
calorie (cal) 4.186 J
kilowatt hour (kWh) 3.6 x 106 J

PROBLEM MEHANICAL ENERGY

 A woman pushes a trunk on a railway platform  The energy of an object due to its motion or
which has a rough surface. She applies a force position.
of 100 N over a distance of 10 m. Thereafter,
 Total mechanical energy is the sum of kinetic
she gets progressively tired and her applied
force reduces linearly with distance to 50 N. The and potential energy
total distance through which the trunk has been KINETIC ENERGY
moved is 20 m. • The kinetic energy of an object is a measure of
a) Plot the force applied by the woman and the work an object can do by the virtue of its
the frictional force which is 50 N. motion
b) Calculate the work done by the two forces
• Kinetic energy an object of mass m moving with
over 20 m.
velocity v, is
Solution
1  1 2
a) The graph is K mv .v   mv
2 2
• Kinetic energy is a scalar quantity.
• In terms of momentum , p
p2
K
2m
 The dimensions are [ML2T-2]
b) The work done by the women is  The SI unit is joule (J).
WF= Area of rectangle ABCD + area of the WORK- ENERGY THEOREM FOR A CONSTANT FORCE
trapezium CEID  The change in kinetic energy of a particle is
1 equal to the work done on it by the net force
WF  100  10  (100  50)  10  1750 J
2 Proof
Work done by frictional force is We have , v  u  2ad ,
2 2
•
Wf= Area of rectangle AIHG • Where u – initial velocity , d – displacement, v –
W f  50  20  1000J final velocity
NB: The area of trapezoid is • Multiplying both sides by m/2,
1 1 2 1
A
2
( a  b)  h mv  mu 2  mas  Fs
2 2
• In general
 
v 2  u 2  2a  d

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K  F(x)x 1
 The change in potential energy is given by
K  mv 2
2
V  F(x)x  But we have
 Adding the two equations v 2  0 2  2 gH
K  V  F(x) x  F(x) x  0
v 2  2 gH
(K  V)  0  Thus
K  V  constant 1
Conservation of Mechanical Energy in a Freely Falling K  mv2  mgH
2
Body
 The potential energy at C is, V = 0
• Consider a ball of mass m being dropped from a
 The total energy at C
cliff of height h.
E  K  V  mgH  0  mgH
 Therefore total energy at A = total energy at B
= Total energy at C = mgH = a constant
Graph of the variation of kinetic energy and potential
energy of a freely falling body

Total Energy at the point A

 Kinetic energy at A is zero (K=0), since v=0
 Potential energy at A is , V = mgH
 Thus total energy at A, is
E  K  V  0  mgH  mgH THE POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A SPRING
Total Energy at the point B  The work done by an external force to compress
 Kinetic energy at B is or extend a spring is stored as the potential
1 energy in it.
K  mvh
2
Spring Force (Fs)
2
 The restoring force developed in a spring ,when
 But we have a force is applied on it is called spring force.
vh  0 2  2 g ( H  h )  The spring force is a variable force which is
2

conservative.
vh  2 g ( H  h )
2
Force law of spring ( Hooke’s law )
 Thus  In an ideal spring, the spring force Fs is
1 proportional to the displacement.
K  mvh  mg( H  h )
2
Fs  -kx
2  Where k – spring constant
 Potential energy at B is , V = mgh
 Unit of spring constant is N/m.
 The total energy at B is

E  K  V  mg(H - h)  mgh  mgH The negative sign shows that spring force is
opposite to the displacement.
Total Energy at the point C  Spring is stiff – k is large
 The kinetic energy at C is  Spring is soft - k is small.

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 Thus the total mechanical energy is THE PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

 Energy can neither be created, nor destroyed
1 2 1 2 1
E mv  kx  kxm
2
but may be transformed from one form to
2 2 2 another. The total energy of an isolated system
 Thus the speed and the kinetic energy will be remains constant.
maximum at the equilibrium position, x = 0.  The total energy of the universe is constant. If
 Therefore at x = 0, v = vm one part of the universe loses energy, another
part must gain an equal amount of energy.
1 1 POWER
mvm  kxm
2 2
 Power is defined as the time rate at which work
2 2 is done or energy is transferred.
k  Average power is given by
vm  xm
m
W
Graph of variation of potential energy and kinetic Pav 
t
energy of a spring with displacement
 Where W – total work done , t – total time

 The instantaneous power is given by

dW
P
dt

 Power is a scalar quantity

VARIOUS FORMS OF ENERGY
Heat Energy  SI unit – watt (W)
 Work done by resistive forces like friction etc, is
transferred as heat energy.  Dimensions are [ML2T-3]
Chemical Energy  Another unit of power is horse – power (hp)
 Chemical energy arises from chemical reactions.
1hp  746W
 Chemical reactions may be
 Horse –power is used to describe the output of
i) Exothermic – heat released
automobiles, motorbikes, etc.
ii) Endothermic – heat absorbed
Relation connecting power, force and velocity
Electrical Energy
 Energy associated with electric current.  We have the work done
 
The Equivalence of Matter and Energy dW  F  dr
 Albert Einstein showed that mass and energy
are equivalent and are related by the relation  Where F – force , dr – displacement.
E  mc2  Thus the instantaneous power is given by
 Where c, the speed of light in vacuum is 
dW  dr
approximately 3 x 108m /s. P F
dt dt
 A large amount of energy is associated with
matter.  That is
Nuclear Energy  
P  F v
 Energy associated with nuclei of an atom.
Unit of electrical energy
 Energy can be released by
i) Nuclear fission  Electrical energy is often expressed in kilowatt
ii) Nuclear fusion
hour ( kWh)
1kWh  3.6 106 J
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 According to principle of conservation of

 Similarly momentum
m1u1  0  (m1  m2 )v f
 m  m1   2m1  
v2   2 u2   u1 Thus
 1
m  m2   1
m  m2   m1 
v f   u1
Special cases
 1
m  m2 
i) If m2 is initially at rest ( u2 = 0), then  The loss of kinetic energy in collision is

m1u1  m1  m2 v f
1 1
K 
2 2

 m  m2  2 2
v1   1 u1  Substituting for vf ,
 1
m  m2  2
 m1  2
K  m1u1  m1  m2 
1 1
2
 u1
 2m1   m1  m2 
v2   u1 2 2
 1
m  m 2  1 1  m1  2
2
 m1u1   u1
2
ii) If m1 = m2 = m 2 2  m1  m2 
1 2  m1  
 2m  K  m1u1 1    
v1  0  u1   u2  u2 2   m1  m2  
 2 m 
1  m1m2  2
K   u1
 2m  2  m1  m2 
v2   u1  u1
 2m   Thus change in kinetic energy is a positive
 Thus the velocities are exchanged. quantity.
COLLISIONS IN TWO DIMENSIONS
iii) If m1 = m2 = m and u2 = 0

 2m 
v1  0  u1   0  0
 2 m 
 2m 
v2  0  u2   u1  u1
 2 m   In a two dimensional collision momentum along
 Thus the first body comes to rest and second x and y direction should be conserved.
body attains the velocity of the first body  Along x – direction ,
m1u1  m1v1 cos 1  m2v2 cos 2
COMPLETELY INELASTIC COLLISION IN ONE
 Along y – direction
DIMENSION
0  m1v1 sin 1  m2v2 sin 2
 If the collision is elastic , the conservation f
kinetic energy gives
1 1 1
m1u1  m1v1  m2 v2
2 2 2

2 2 2

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Since τ = 0, L = Constant When earth approaches the
dA L perihelion, its speed increases.
 = = Constant
dt 2m Explain
Ans:
i.e., areal velocity of the planet is
constant.

Kepler’s Third Law (Law of Period)

“The square of the time

period of revolution of the planet
around the sun is proportional to
the cube of the semi-major axis of
the elliptical orbit” Pr.3: A Saturn year is 29.5 times the
earth year. How far is the saturn from
T2 α a3 the sun if the earth is 1.50 × 10 8 km
away from the sun?
Pr. 1: (i) A comet orbits round the sun
in a highly elliptical orbit. Does the Soln:
comet have a constant
a) Linear speed
b) Angular speed
c) Angular momentum
d) Kinetic energy
e) Potential energy
f) Total energy throughout the
orbit?
(ii) What are the consequences if the
angular momentum is conserved?
Soln:

Newton’s Universal Law of

Gravitation

According to Newton’s law of

gravitation, “everybody in the
universe attracts every other body
with a force which is directly
proportional to the product of their
Pr.2: Earth revolves around the sun in masses and inversely proportional
elliptical orbit. The closest approach to the square of the distance
between them.”
of earth with the sun is called
perihelion.

SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut 2
3. It is independent of the presence or G Mm
In equilibrium,  = C
absence of other bodies. d2
4. It is a central force. C  d2
5. It is a conservative force.  G =
Mm
6. It obeys the principle of
Substituting all values in the above
superposition.
equation, Cavendish calculated the
7. It is the weakest force in nature.
value of G as 6.75 × 10-11 N m2/ Kg2
8. It is a long range force.
Pr.4: A rocket is fired from the earth
Determination of G – Cavendish
towards the sun. At what distance from
method
the earth’s centre is the gravitational
force on the rocket is zero? Mass of the
Cavendish calculated the value
sun= 2×1030 kg, mass of the
of G using the given arrangement
earth=6×1024 kg. Neglect the effect of
called torsional balance. It consist of
other planets etc. (Orbital radius of
two small identical lead balls of mass
earth=1.5×1011m)
‘m’ each, suspended by a wire. Two
Soln:
equal heavy lead spheres of mass ‘M’
each kept at a distance of‘d’ from each
‘m’ mass, on opposite sides.

The gravitational force on each pair of

masses (M, m) is
G Mm
F =
d2
The two equal and opposite forces at
the two ends create a deflecting torque
which is given by
G Mm
 =  
d2
Due to this torque, the suspension wire
Acceleration due to Gravity of
twists through an angle ‘θ’. The
Earth
restoring couple developed in the
suspension wire = C θ, The acceleration with which a
Where C is the couple per unit twist. body falls towards the surface of earth

SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut 4
value of acceleration due to gravity is
GM
g(h) =  (2)
R + h
2

(2) g (h) GM R2
 = 
R + h
2
(1) g GM
g (h) R2
=
R + h
2
g
R2
=
  h 
2 If ‘ρ’ is the mean density of earth,
R 1 +  
R  then mass of earth,
 
M = Volume × density
4
R2 =  R3  
= 2 3
 h
R 2 1 +  4
 R G  R3 
 eqn (1)  g = 3
R2
2
g(h)
 h 4
= 1 +  g=  G R (2)
g  R 3
h If the body is kept at a depth of ‘d’
If h < < R, then R is very small from the surface of earth, then the mass
compared to 1. Expanding the RHS of of radius R–d will only be effective for
the above equation by Binomial the gravitational pull towards the
theorem and neglecting the higher centre.
h
4
powers of R , we get , g(d) =  G  R - d (3)
3
g (h )  2h g(d)
= 1 -  (3) R- d d
g  R   = = 1-
(2) g R R
 2h
 d
 g (h ) = g  1 -   g(d) = g 1 - 
 R 
 R
The above equation shows that the
value of acceleration due to gravity The above eqn. shows that the value of
decreases with height. g decreases with depth.
3. Variation of ‘g ’ with depth At the centre of earth, d = R
 R
g(d) = g 1 -  = 0
 R
For a body of mass ‘m’ placed on
the surface of earth, we have Note: - The weight of a body of mass
G M m ‘m’ at the centre of earth is zero.
mg =
R2
Pr.5: A body of mass ‘m’ falls freely
G M
 g =       (1 ) under gravity, near the surface of earth.
R2

SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut 6
 Pr.11: How far above the earth’s
surface does the value of g become
the 16% of its value on the surface?
Pr.9: Find the height at which the Assume radius of earth to be 6400km.
acceleration due to gravity is reduced
Soln:
to half.

Soln:

Pr.12: At what height above earth’s

Pr.10: Find the percentage decrease surface, value of g is the same as in a
in the weight of a body when taken 100km deep?
16km below the surface of earth. Ans:
Radius of earth=6400 km.

Soln:

SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut 8
Now the gravitational force on ‘m’ is ‘h’, then we can substitute r1 = R and
GMm r2 = R + h in
F=
x2 1 1
U = G M m  -  , W e get
The work done to displace the body  r1 r2 
through a distance dx is
1 1 
GMm U = G M m  -
dW = F  dx = dx R R + h 
x2
R +h - R 
= GM m  
Then the total work done to bring the  R R + h  
body from infinity to the point P is If h < < R , R + h  R
given by,
 h 
r
GMm  U  G M m 
W =  dw = dx  R  R 
x2

 h 
r = G Mm  2 
1 R 
= GMm  x2
dx
 G M
r
=  2 
mh = gmh
 -1   R 
= GMm  
 x   U=m g h
r
1 Gravitational Potential
= -GM m  
 x  Gravitational potential at a
1 1 point in a gravitational field is defined
= -GM m  - 
r  as “the work done in bringing a body of
-GMm unit mass from infinity to that point”.
=
r -G M W
This work done is stored in the body as V= V=
r m
its gravitational potential energy U.
It is a Scalar quantity.
-GMm
 U = The S.I unit of V is J/Kg
r
Dimensional formula is
The work done to bring the body
from r1 to r2 (the change in potential W   M L2 T -2 
V = =
energy of the body) is given by ,  m M 
 1 1 =  M 0 L2 T -2 
U = - G M m  - 
 r2 r1  Escape Velocity
1 1  Escape velocity is the minimum
i.e., U = G M m  -   (1) velocity with which a body must be
 r1 r2  projected so that it escapes from the
Gravitational potential energy near gravitational attraction of earth
the surface of earth permanently.
If a body of mass ‘m’ is taken
from the surface of earth to a height Expression for escape velocity

SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut 10
 g RE2
 vo =  vo = g R E
RE
vo = 7.92 km/s
The nearest orbit of a satellite is
called minimum orbit and the The Time Period of a satellite (T)
corresponding velocity is called first
cosmic velocity. “The time taken by a satellite to
complete one orbital motion around a
Relation between escape velocity and planet is called time period of a
first cosmic velocity satellite”.
Escape velocity v e = 2 g RE Consider a satellite revolving around
the earth in an orbit of radius ‘R + h’
= 2 g RE
with a velocity vo.
= 2 v0 Time period= Distance moved for one
Escape velocity is called revolution / Orbital velocity
second cosmic velocity. 2  R + h 
T 
vo
Pr.17: The radius of the earth is
reduced by 4% of its initial value. g R2
But v 0 =
The mass of earth remains unchanged. R+ h
What will be the percentage change in R+ h
T  2  R + h
the escape velocity? g R2
Soln:
 R + h  R + h 
2

 2
g R2

 R + h
3

 2
g R2

 R + h
3

T2
g R2
For minimum orbit, h=0

 R+ 0
3

T = 2
g R2
R
 T = 2
Pr.18: A rat and a horse are to be g
projected from earth to space. State Substituting the values of R and g,
whether the velocity is the same or T = 84.6 minutes.
different in projecting each animal. Energy of an orbiting Satellite
Justify
Ans:

SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut 12
The gravitational force, a) Can a person on the moon
GMm experience weight? Why?
Fg = , directed towards
r2 b) A satellite is revolving very
the centre of earth. close to earth. What is the
Centrifugal force, percentage increase in the
m v02 velocity needed to make it
Fc = , directed opposite
r2 escape from the gravitational
to the force of gravity. field of earth?
 Net force, F = Fg - Fc
GMm m v0 2
= -
r2 r2
GM
But v0 = , where r = R + h
r
GMm m G M
 F= 2
-  
r r  r 
GMm GMm
= 2
- = 0
r r2
Hence an astronaut feels
weightlessness in an artificial satellite.

Pr.19: If a satellite is put into an orbit

at height where it has no sufficient
velocity for revolution. How will the
motion of satellite be affected? Draw
the path of it.

Ans:

Pr. 20: A person in an artificial

satellite experiences weightlessness.
The moon is a natural satellite of the
earth.

SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut 14
 system remains in thermal and Eg: - The expansion of a gas in a
mechanical equilibrium with the metallic cylinder placed in a large
surroundings throughout the process. reservoir of fixed temperature is an
example of isothermal process.
(ii) Isobaric Process Melting of ice at its normal melting
In an isobaric process, pressure is point, vaporization of a liquid at its
constant throughout the process. normal boiling point etc. are other
If heat is applied, the piston moves up. examples.
A part of heat supplied is used
increase the internal energy and the Work done during an isothermal
other part are used to do the work. process
Q   U   W.
Q  nC P T Suppose a system of gas is
C P  Molar specific heat capacity expanding from an initial volume V1
at cons tan t pressure. to a final volume V2 during an
isothermal process.
(iii) Isochoric Process
The work done for the small change in
In an isochoric process, volume is
volume ‘dV’ is given by
constant throughout the process.
dW  PdV
V  0
 The total workdone,
W  PV  0
V2
 Q  U W  V1
dW
The heat sup plied is completely V2

used to increase the int ernal energy.

  V1
PdV, ButPV  nRT

Q  nC V T nRT
P
C V  molar specific heat capacity V
nRTV2
at cons tan t volume. W V1 V dV
V2 1
(iv) Isothermal process  nRT  dV
V1 V

 nRT  log V V2

V
It is a process taking place at
1
constant temperature.
 nRT  log V2  log V1 
Equation for isothermal process
is PV = Constant [Boyle’s law] A
But we have, logA-logB=log
(Here the constant is µRT) B
V 
 W  nRT log  2 
Conditions for isothermal process  V1 
i. The process must be slow
ii. There should be a perfect conducting V 
W  nRT log  2 
wall (diathermic wall) between the  V1 
system and surroundings.
Adiabatic Process

SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut 2
 Problem4: A thermos flask contains
coffee. It is violently shaken.
Considering the coffee as a system
answer the following:

a) Does the temperature rise?

b) Has heat been added to it?
c) Has internal energy changed?

Ans:

Problem2: Draw indicator diagrams

for isothermal and adiabatic
processes.

Ans:

Problem5: Isothermal, isobaric,

isochoric and adiabatic processes are
some special thermodynamic
processes. In which of these
processes, the work done is maximum
Problem3: If a gas is compressed to
when the gas expands from V1 to V2 ?
half its volume first rapidly and then
Ans:
slowly, in which case the work done
will be greater?

Ans:

SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut 4
W and other part Q2 is given to the or W = Q1 - Q2
sink.
The coefficient of performance of a
Efficiency of a heat engine () refrigerator
W Q1  Q 2 Q
   1 2 Q2 Q2
Q1 Q1 Q1  = 
W Q1  Q 2
Q2
  1
Q1 A heat pump is a device to pump heat
into a portion of space (room).
For Q 2  0, =1
i.e., 100% efficiency for heat engine, Coefficient of performance of a heat
which is never possible. pump

Types of heat engines: Q1 Q1

= 
W Q1 Q2
1. External combustion engine – in
which heat is produced by burning [In a refrigerator, sink is the cooling
fuel outside the cylinder. Eg: chamber. Source is the room in which
steam engine the refrigerator is placed. The work
2. Internal combustion engine – in (W) is the work done by the
such engines heat is produced by compressor by consuming electricity.]
burning fuel inside the cylinder.
Eg. Petrol and diesel engines. [In a heat pump, sink is the
environment outside the room. Source
Refrigerators and heat Pumps: is the room which is to be heated.]
A refrigerator works in the reverse Second Law of Thermodynamics
order of a heat engine.
Kelvin – Planck Statement:
The working substance for both
refrigerator and heat pump is Freon. No process is possible whose sole
result is the absorption of heat from
a reservoir and the complete
conversion of heat into work.

Explanation: - This statement says

that the complete heat Q1 cannot be
Here the working substance converted into work. Thus the
absorbs heat Q 2 from the sink, some efficiency of a heat engine cannot be
work W is done on the working 100%.
substance by an external agency and Clausius Statement: No process is
the working substance liberates a possible whose sole result is the
large amount of heat Q1 to the source. transfer of heat from a cold
reservoir to a hot reservoir.
Q1 = Q2 + W

SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut 6
The efficiency () of the carnot engine Problem8: a) Which law of
Q
  1 2
thermodynamics is used to explain the
Q1 working of a heat engine?
V3
nRT2 log ( ) b) What are the sink, source and
V4
 1  (1)
V2 working substance of a domestic
nRT1 log ( )
V1 refrigerator?
Since step 2  3 is an adiabatic process, Ans:
T2 V2 1
 T1V2 1  T2 V3 1  
T1 V3 1
1
T V 
 2  2 
T1  V3 
1
V T
 2  ( 2 )  1  (2)
V3 T1
Similarly step 4  1 is an adiabatic process,
T2 V11
 T2 V4 1  T1V11  
T1 V4  1
1
T V 
 2  1 
T1  V4 
1 Problem9: (a) What is the working
V  T  1 substance of an ideal heat engine?
 1   2   (3)
V4  T1 
From (2) and (3) (b) Calculate the maximum
V1 V2 V V efficiency of a heat engine
 or 3  2  (4)
V4 V3 V4 V1 working between steam point
Substituting (4) in (1) and ice point. Can you design
an engine of 100% efficiency?
T2
  1
T1 Ans:

Carnot’s Theorem: -

i) Working between two given

temperatures T1 and T2 of the hot
and cold reservoirs respectively,
no engine can have efficiency
more than that of the Carnot
engine.
ii) The efficiency of the Carnot
engine is independent of the nature
of the working substance.

SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut 8
Problem12: A Carnot engine working
between 5270C and 1270C has a work
output of 800J per cycle. How much
heat is supplied to the engine from the
source per cycle?

Ans:

SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut 10