Bio Unit 5 Ultimate Study Guide

Kelson Wang
Table of Contents
Circulatory System C37.1 ……………………………………………………………………..2
Lymphatic System and Blood C37.2 …………………………………………………………7
Respiratory System C37.3 …………………………………………………………………...11
Test Study Information
………………………………………………………………………..15
Study Questions ………………………………………………………………………………21
Credits…………………………………………………………………………………………..29

Author’s Message
- This took over 10 hours of work (around 2 hours for each of the lesson sections,
then around 4 hours for the vocab and questions) so I hope you find this useful!
- This is the full version of the study guide, printed in full colors with all the details.
- The link to the online version can be found here: tinyurl.com/unit5studydoc
Feel free to print out your own copy!

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Circulatory System C37.1
Important Vocabulary
- Myocardium: The layer of muscle cells, or cardiomyocytes, in the middle of the
heart wall, regulated by electrical impulses from the heart’s pacemaker.
- Pacemaker: Also known as the sinoatrial node - a group of cells which send
electrical signals through fiber networks, setting the pace of the heart’s beat.
- Atrium: One of the two upper chambers of the heart which receives and then
sends blood into the ventricles.
- Ventricle: One of the two lower chambers of the heart which pumps blood out of
the heart into the body.
- Pulmonary Circulation: The process responsible for taking deoxygenated blood,
oxygenating it, and then returning it to the heart. Pulmonary circulation takes the
deoxygenated blood and exchanges the carbon dioxide with oxygen in the lungs.
- Systemic Circulation: The process responsible for taking oxygenated blood,
circulating it throughout the body to provide oxygen to cells, and then returning
the deoxygenated blood containing carbon dioxide to the heart.
- Valves: Flaps of connective tissue connecting the atria and ventricles, held open
by the flow of blood. When the ventricles contract, the valves close, preventing
blood from flowing back to the atrium. They are also present in veins.
- Aorta: The first of many blood vessels carrying blood throughout the body and
back to the heart.
- Arteries: Large blood vessels which carry oxygenated blood from the heart to the
tissue. Comparable to highways.
- Veins: Large blood vessels which carry deoxygenated blood from capillaries back
to the heart.
- Capillaries: The smallest blood vessels, so small that blood cells can only pass
through a single file - these do the real work getting work done, absorbing waste
and distributing oxygen and nutrients. Comparable to side roads and alleyways.
- Atherosclerosis: Disease where fat deposits, or plaque, builds up along the inner
walls of the arteries.
Functions
- The circulatory system interacts with the respiratory system to move oxygen to
the cells. It consists of the heart, the blood vessels, and the blood that flows
through them.
- The heart is basically a giant muscle, enclosed by a protective tissue sac known
as the pericardium. The walls of the heart contain a layer of connective tissue on
the inside and a layer of epithelial tissue on the outside, which sandwich an
inner, very thick layer of muscle known as the myocardium. The myocardium is
the tissue that allows the heart to pump blood.

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1.

Figure 1 - The heart contains valves, vessels, ventricles, and atria which work together to pump blood.

Structure
- The septum divides the heart into a right and left section, each containing an
atrium and a ventricle. The right side of the heart contains deoxygenated blood,
while the left contains the oxygenated blood. The atrium receives the blood, and
the ventricle pumps the blood out.
- Pulmonary circulation pumps blood from the heart to the lungs, while systemic
circulation pumps blood from the heart to the body. While pulmonary circulation
deals with taking deoxygenated blood and oxygenating it, systemic circulation
takes that oxygenated blood and distributes the oxygen to the body’s cells, then
returning the subsequently deoxygenated blood back to the heart.
- Blood enters the heart through the atria, and flows out of the ventricles when the
heart contracts. Connecting the atria and ventricles are valves, which are held
open by blood flow, and closed when the ventricles contract, preventing the
blood from backing up. These valves are also present at the exits to the
ventricles and in certain blood vessels.
- Two networks of muscle fibers are present in the atria and ventricles
respectively, powered by a pacemaker(sinoatrial node) - a group of cells which
send electrical signals at a pace determined by the body’s needs. When the
signal goes through the network the fibers contract.

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2. 3.

Figure 2 - The relationship between the pulmonary circulation, systemic circulation, capillaries and other blood vessels, and the
various parts of the heart culminates in the complete circulatory system.
Figure 3 - The sinoatrial node, or the pacemaker, interacts with the atrioventricular node to pump the conducting fibers within the
atria and ventricles respectively.
- The contractions of the ventricles are powered by the atrioventricular node, which
interacts with the pacemaker (sinoatrial node), which powers the atria.
Contracting the atria pushes blood into the ventricles, and when contracting the
ventricles the blood flows out of the heart.
- The pacemaker’s pace is based on the body’s need for oxygen. Although the
base rate is around 72 beats per minute, it can go up to 200 in vigorous exercise.
- The nervous system affects but not controls heartbeat. The sympathetic nervous
system in charge of the fight-or-flight response can release neurotransmitters
increasing heart rate. The parasympathetic nervous system does the reverse.
Blood Vessels
- The aorta is a blood vessel directly connected to the left ventricle, the first of
many blood vessels connecting the body.
- As the blood flows through the aorta and into the wider circulatory system, it
encounters three types of blood vessels, being arteries, capillaries, and veins.
- Arteries are large blood vessels similar to a highway, and only carry oxygenated
blood. Arteries do not have valves.
- Veins are similar large blood vessels that are thinner in size and have less
muscular walls, which carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart. Although
arteries do not have valves, veins need them as the blood pressure is not
enough to keep the blood flowing.

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 - Veins near skeletal muscles benefit from exercise in that more blood can be
forced through by contractions.
- Veins are strengthened because of stress during exercise placed on them when
they stretch. If not exercised, blood can pool, causing varicose veins.
- Small blood vessels called capillaries connect to arteries and veins, and do the
real work sending in oxygen and nutrients and taking away waste including
carbon dioxide from cells.
4.

Figure 4 - Arteries and veins both contain an outer layer of connective tissue, with an inner layer of endothelium and smooth muscle
sandwiched in between. Arteries have branches called arterioles, with a vein equivalent known as venules. These subsequently
connect to capillaries.
5.

Figure 5 - Veins are controlled by valves, which force blood to flow in one direction.

Blood Pressure
- Pressure is produced when the heart pumps. This blood pressure pushes against
the walls of the arteries. Even when the heart relaxes, some level of pressure is
maintained, as pressure is key to blood flow.
- Blood pressure is regulated with sensory receptors, sensing pressure in certain
places and sending pulses to the part of the brainstem called the medulla

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 oblongata. High blood pressure results in the autonomic nervous system telling
the smooth muscles in the vessel walls to relax, lowering blood pressure. The
reverse occurs with low blood pressure.
- Hormones can tell the kidneys can remove excess water from the blood,
reducing blood pressure when high.
Disease
- Cardiovascular diseases are a major cause of death in the US. Hypertension is
when blood pressure is consistently high, straining the heart muscles.
- Atherosclerosis occurs when fatty deposits called plaque build up on the
endothelial, or inner, walls of the arteries. If plaque blocks an artery heart muscle
could die, causing a heart attack. Blood clots from the plaque which break free
can break free and lodge in the brain, killing brain cells and causing a stroke.
- To prevent disease, exercise, eating well, and not smoking are recommended.
Questions
1. What structures are in the circulatory system?
- Answer: The circulatory system contains the heart and blood vessels, of which
there are veins, arteries, and capillaries. There are also arterioles and venules.
2. What are the functional differences among the three main blood vessel varieties?
- Answer: Arteries bring blood full of oxygen from the heart to the body. Veins
bring blood that has been deoxygenated back to the heart. Capillaries interact
with the cells themselves, retrieving waste like CO2 and bringing nutrients and
oxygen.
3. How does blood circulate through the body?
- Answer: Blood begins at the heart, and travels to the arteries to bring cells
oxygen. They travel through capillaries to get to the cells, and then are carried
away in veins back to the heart.
4. What is the role of the nervous system in heartbeat regulation?
- The autonomic nervous system has a hand in influencing heartbeat. The
sympathetic nervous system can release neurotransmitters to increase heart
rate, while the parasympathetic nervous system can do the opposite, releasing
neurotransmitters to increase heart rate.
5. Would a standing individual experience higher blood pressure in the arm or leg?
Explain.
- The individual would experience higher blood pressure in the leg. This is
because gravity causes the blood to have a tendency to pool at the lowest point,
so the vessels legs have more pressure exerted on them by the blood.

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Lymphatic System and Blood C37.2
Important Vocabulary
- Plasma: The part of blood consisting of water and dissolved gasses, salts,
nutrients, enzymes, hormones, wastes, and plasma proteins.
- Hemoglobin: The protein containing iron which binds oxygen with oxygen in the
lungs and transports it to bodily tissues.
- Lymphocytes: Also known as white blood cells, they produce antibodies to fight
infections, or directly fight tumors and viruses.
- Platelet: Fragments of cytoplasm enclosed in cell membrane which stick to
broken blood vessels and form blood clots to stop bleeding.
- Lymph: Fluid captured from leaks in the circulatory system by the lymphatic
system to be sent back to the circulatory system.
Blood Plasma
- The human body contains 4-6 liters of blood, or around 8% of total body mass.
45% of blood consists of cells, which float around in plasma. Plasma is 90%
water with the rest including dissolved gasses, salts, nutrients, enzymes,
hormones, waste products, and plasma proteins.
- Plasma proteins are found as either albumins, globulins, or fibrinogen. Albumins
regulate osmotic pressure and blood volume, globulins fight infections, and
fibrinogen causes blood clots. Both albumins and globulins transport substances
including fatty acids, hormones, and vitamins.
1. 2.

Figure 1 - The makeup of blood.

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Blood Cells
- Red blood cells transport oxygen using hemoglobin, a protein which contains iron
and binds to oxygen. When produced in red bone marrow, all cell organelles
including nuclei are replaced with hemoglobin. After around 120 days of
squeezing through capillaries, old cells are destroyed in the liver and spleen.
- White blood cells guard against infection, fighting parasites, bacteria and viruses.
They have nuclei, and do not contain hemoglobin. They can leave the circulatory
system and fight infection anywhere. The body creates many new immune cells
during infections in the same bone marrow as red blood cells.
- Phagocytes are white blood cells that envelop and digest harmful
microorganisms.
- Some white blood cells may also release histamines when encountering foreign
substances. Histamines are chemicals which increase blood flow in an area and
therefore produce redness and swelling.
- Lymphocytes are white blood cells that can be B or T. B lymphocytes produce
antibodies, which fight infection and provide immunity. T lymphocytes fight
tumors and viruses.
- White blood cells can leave the circulatory system, slipping in and out of capillary
walls and using the lymphatic system to travel. They can attack invading
organisms wherever in the body. White blood cell count increases with the body
needs.
- The combination of plasma proteins and platelets allow blood to clot.
- Platelets are fragments of cytoplasm, enclosed in a cell membrane which clot
blood. They are made as a result of large bone marrow cells which carve
themselves up to create many platelets. When encountering a tear in a blood
vessel, platelets stick to it in clumps and release proteins called clotting factors,
which start chemical reactions. Thromboplastin is one of these clotting factors,
which turns prothrombin in blood plasma into thrombin. This is an enzyme which
converts the fibrinogen plasma protein into a sticky filament mesh, which
produces the clot.
- If a clotting factor is defective or missing, clotting is much less efficient, resulting
in a disease known as hemophilia.

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3.

Figure 3 - Diagram of the lymphatic system, demonstrating the network of lymph vessels, nodes, and related organs.

Lymphatic System
- About three liters of fluid leak out from the circulatory system every day as blood
circulates. The lymphatic system collects this fluid, called lymph, and returns it
back to the circulatory system.
- This lymph collects in lymphatic capillaries and goes into progressively larger
lymph vessels, which have valves like veins. The lymph is returned to the
circulatory system via the superior vena cava, which has two openings near the
clavicles or shoulder bones to accommodate this.
- Along the lymphatic vessels are lymph nodes, which trap bacteria and harmful
microorganisms. These nodes swell when many microorganisms are trapped.
- Some lymph vessels are near the intestinal walls, allowing them to take fats and
fat soluble vitamins to the blood. They are also found in skeletal muscles to take
advantage of their contractions like veins do, along with using osmotic pressure
to travel.
- Edema occurs when damaged lymph vessels block and build fluid.
- The thymus is where T cells mature. These cells are lymphocytes who detect
foreign invaders in the body.
- The spleen cleans and removes damaged cells in the blood.

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Questions
1. What are the main functions of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets?
- Answer: Red blood cells carry nutrients and oxygen to cells throughout the body.
White blood cells are the primary force in the immune response, which deals with
invading microorganisms. Platelets are responsible for forming blood clots.
2. What is the role of the lymphatic system?
- Answer: The lymphatic system recycles lost fluid from the circulatory system and
brings nutrients from the intestines to the blood in the heart. It also traps
microorganisms through the lymph nodes and is involved with the immune
system by facilitating transport of white blood cells.
3. What types of material are dissolved in plasma?
- Answer: Materials like gasses, salts, nutrients, enzymes, hormones, waste
products, and plasma proteins are found dissolved in plasma. Red blood cells,
however, are not dissolved, but rather suspended in plasma.
4. How does blood clot?
- Answer: Blood clots because of clotting factors and platelets. The platelets
release these clotting factors which cause chemical reactions. This includes
thromboplastin, which includes prothrombin to thrombin, an enzyme. This
thrombin converts the plasma protein fibrinogen into sticky fibrin filaments. Along
with other clotting factors, platelets, and red blood cells, clots are able to form.

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Respiratory System C37.3
Important Vocabulary
- Pharynx - A tube at the back of the throat in which air and food flow through.
- Trachea - Aka the windpipe, where air flows in from the pharynx.
- Larynx - A part above the trachea containing the two vocal cords.
- Bronchi - Two large passageways below the trachea that lead to the lungs,
where they divide further, with the smallest size being called bronchioles.
- Alveoli - Millions of tiny air sacs found at the end of bronchioles.
- Diaphragm - A large, flat muscle at the bottom of the chest cavity which is
responsible for the breathing impulse.
- Nicotine - Stimulant drug found in tobacco with many harmful side effects.
- Emphysema - The condition of having inelastic lung tissue.
The Respiratory System
- Not to be confused with cellular respiration, respiration is the process of gas
exchange, where the lungs release carbon dioxide and take in oxygen from the
environment.
- The respiratory system is responsible for respiration, and also takes the oxygen
from respiration to the blood where it is circulated by the circulatory system.
- Each breath intakes air through the pharynx and then to the trachea, where it
enters one of two bronchi which further split off and end in bronchioles. This air
takes part in the gas exchange and carbon dioxide goes in the reverse direction.
- Because the pharynx is used for both air and food, the epiglottis is a flap that
closes the entrance to the trachea while swallowing.
- To protect the delicate tissues in the lungs, cells which line the walls of the
respiratory system produce mucus to capture smoke and dust particles while
also moistening the air. Cilia then sweeps this mucus into the pharynx, where it is
either swallowed or spit out. Hairs in the nose also keep large particles out.
- The larynx, known as the voice box, is at the top of the trachea and contains the
two vocal cords. Vocal cords produce sound when muscles contract and pull
them together, which causes air to move and vibrate the cords, producing sound.
- The trachea splits into two bronchi which lead to either lung. Each bronchus
divides into smaller bronchi and eventually end up as bronchioles. These are all
surrounded by smooth muscle, which supports them and helps the nervous
system regulate their size.
- Eventually, the bronchioles end in dead ends called alveoli, millions of tiny air
sacs grouped in clusters and surrounded by capillaries. There are 150 million
alveoli in each lung.

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1. 2.

Figure 1 - Diagram of the lungs. Depicted are the major structures, including the nose, mouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea, epiglottis,
lungs, bronchi, and bronchioles.
Figure 2 - A close look at the alveoli. One may notice the various capillaries which surround each alveolus, and how they are
connected to pulmonary arteries and veins - remember that these are reversed.

Breathing
- Oxygen dissolves in the moisture on the inner surface of the alveoli and diffuses
into the capillaries lining the outside, while the carbon dioxide diffuses in reverse.
- Each inhale contains air with around 21% oxygen and 0.04% carbon dioxide,
while each exhale contains air with around 15% oxygen and 4% carbon dioxide.
- Hemoglobin increases the amount of oxygen a blood cell can carry by 60 times.
- Breathing is the movement of air in and out of the lungs. Although the lungs
themselves do not contain muscle, the diaphragm pushes the lungs to create
breathing. Each of the lungs are able to be sealed in sacs called pleural
membranes.
- Each inhale contracts the diaphragm and pushes up the rib cage, creating a
partial vacuum. Atmospheric pressure sucks air into the lungs to fill this vacuum.
Releasing this partial vacuum results in exhalation, reversing the process.
Muscles around the chest cavity can provide extra force if needed.

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3.

Figure 3 - A diagram showing inhalation and exhalation. The diaphragm is visible, pulling the lungs down during inhalation and
pushes them up during exhalation to breathe air in and out.
- Damage to the chest cavity may cause a leak and the diaphragm will no longer
be able to push the lungs up and down using atmospheric pressure.
- The nervous system controls breathing, hence why after a minute of holding the
breath you are forced to breathe. Breathing is controlled by the medulla
oblongata, where autonomic nerves connected to the diaphragm regulate the
contractions of the diaphragm.
- Cells in the breathing center of the medulla oblongata detect levels of carbon
dioxide in the blood, high levels of which send nerve impulses for contraction.
Higher carbon dioxide levels correspond with stronger impulses.
- High altitudes, having less oxygen in the air, are dangerous to humans. Since the
carbon dioxide level in the blood is unaffected while oxygen levels drop, the
breathing center does not detect issues.
Tobacco
- Tobacco smoke contains many harmful chemicals, including nicotine. Nicotine
can stimulate heart rate and blood pressure, while carbon monoxide is a
poisonous gas that blocks oxygen from entering the bloodstream. Tar is another
chemical proven to cause cancer.
- These chemicals paralyze the cilia, letting in particles to the delicate lungs. The
mucus containing smoke is trapped in the lungs. Smoking also swells the
respiratory tract, limiting airflow.
- Smoking reduces life expectancy by causing diseases like chronic bronchitis,
lung cancer, and emphysema. Bronchitis and emphysema often manifest as
difficulty breathing and performing physical activities. Lung cancer kills 160,000
people each year. Smoking is also linked to heart disease.
- Smoking also affects nonsmokers because the smoke can be inhaled by anyone.

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Questions
1. What is the function of the respiratory system and what does it do?
- Answer: The respiratory system serves to exchange carbon dioxide for oxygen.
To achieve this goal, blood containing oxygen flows to capillaries connected to
alveoli. When the medulla oblongata sends signals to the diaphragm to pull itself
down, a partial vacuum is formed, which causes atmospheric pressure to pull the
lungs down along with air. This air travels through the pharynx to the trachea,
where it enters the lungs through either of two bronchi. The bronchi split and end
in bronchioles, where alveoli are connected in clusters. The oxygen in the air
dissolves and diffuses through the alveolar walls and into the capillaries where it
is taken in by the blood. The carbon dioxide diffuses in the other direction and
enters the air inside the alveoli. The diaphragm then releases the partial vacuum
and the lungs are forced back up, with the carbon dioxide in the air with it.
2. Describe some of the health problems associated with smoking.
- Answer: Smoking generally causes difficulty breathing and performing physical
activities. Specific diseases include lung cancer, chronic bronchitis, and
emphysema, and it is also linked to heart disease. Generally smoking reduces
life expectancy.
3. What is the process of gas exchange?
- Answer: Air enters the lungs, specifically the alveoli, with 21% oxygen content
and 0.04% carbon dioxide content. The oxygen dissolves on the alveolar walls
and then diffuses through to the capillaries, where it enters the bloodstream. On
the other hand, carbon dioxide in the blood diffuses out through the capillaries
and through the alveolar walls and mixes with the air, which is exhaled with a
15% oxygen content and 4% carbon dioxide content.
4. How is breathing controlled?
- Answer: The medulla oblongata uses a breathing center to detect levels of
carbon dioxide in the blood. High levels of carbon dioxide correspond with strong
nerve impulses to the diaphragm to pull.
5. How can high altitudes be dangerous?
- Answer: Because the breathing center detects high carbon dioxide levels, low
oxygen levels are ignored. High altitudes, having less oxygen in the air, mean
that the body absorbs much less oxygen while maintaining a similar or lower
carbon dioxide level.

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Test Study Information
Structures of the Circulatory System Deep Dive
- Aorta - A large artery which brings oxygenated blood from the left ventricle of the
heart to the rest of the body, and is thus the main exit of blood destined for bodily
tissues. This part of the heart primarily concerns itself with pumping blood to the
rest of the body.
- Pulmonary Arteries - Brings oxygen-poor blood from the right ventricle to either of
the lungs. These are not veins even though they carry oxygen-poor blood
because they flow away from the heart, as arteries are defined that way. Is
regulated by the pulmonary valve. This part of the heart primarily concerns itself
with bringing deoxygenated blood to the lungs.
- Pulmonary Veins - Brings oxygen-rich blood from either lungs to the left atrium.
These are not arteries even though they carry oxygen-rich blood because they
flow into the heart, as arteries are defined this way. This part of the heart
primarily concerns itself with bringing oxygenated blood to the heart.
- Superior Vena Cava - Large vein which brings oxygen-poor blood from the upper
section of the body to the right atrium. The superior vena cava is also the vein
which lymph from the lymphatic system flows into the heart from.
- Inferior Vena Cava - Large vein which brings oxygen-poor blood from the lower
section of the body to the left atrium.
- Atria - The upper chambers of the heart which receive the blood and send them
to the ventricles.
- Ventricles - The lower chambers of the heart which take the blood from the atria
and pump it out to the rest of the body.
- Right Atrium - The atrium at the right of the heart into which the superior and
inferior vena cava flow. Blood exits the right atrium through the tricuspid valve,
entering the right ventricle. This part of the heart primarily concerns itself with
receiving deoxygenated blood from the body and sending it to the right ventricle.
- Left Atrium - The atrium at the left of the heart into which the pulmonary veins
flow. Blood exits the left atrium through the mitral valve, entering the left ventricle.
This part of the heart primarily concerns itself with receiving oxygenated blood
from the lungs and sending it to the ventricle.
- Right Ventricle - The ventricle at the right of the heart which sends blood into the
pulmonary arteries after it passes through the pulmonary valve. Blood enters the
right ventricle via the tricuspid valve, coming from the right atrium. This part of
the heart primarily concerns itself with pumping receives deoxygenated blood
from the right atrium to the lungs where they are to be reoxygenated.

15
 - Left Ventricle - The ventricle at the left of the heart which sends blood into the
aorta after it passes through the aortic valve. Blood enters the left ventricle via
the mitral valve, coming from the left atrium. This part of the heart primarily
concerns itself with pumping receives oxygenated blood from the left atrium to
the rest of the body.
- Valves - Flaps of connective tissue between sections of the heart and in veins
which open when blood flows one way but close when blood tries to reverse.
- Tricuspid Valve - A valve dividing the right atrium from the right ventricle
concerned with preventing the flow of blood back into the right atrium after it has
already flowed to the right ventricle.
- Pulmonary Valve - A valve dividing the right ventricle from the pulmonary artery
concerned with preventing the flow of blood back into the right ventricle after it
has already flowed to the pulmonary artery.
- Mitral Valve - A valve dividing the left atrium from the left ventricle concerned with
preventing the flow of blood back into the left atrium after it has already flowed
into the left ventricle.
- Aortic Valve - A valve dividing the left ventricle from the aorta concerned with
preventing the flow of blood back into the left ventricle after it has already flowed
into the aorta.
- Septum - A wall in the middle of the heart dividing the right and left ventricles,
preventing the mixture of deoxygenated and oxygenated blood.
1.

Figure 1 - A highly important chart to study to memorize and understand the interactions of the various parts of the heart.

16
 - Myocardium - A thick layer of muscle within the heart which does the action of
pumping blood. The muscle is surrounded by epithelial and connective tissue.
- Pericardium - A protective sac of tissue enclosing the heart.
- Systemic Circulation - The pathway oxygenated blood takes to provide oxygen
and other materials to the body, returning deoxygenated to the heart after a full
trip, to be sent to pulmonary circulation.
- Pulmonary Circulation - The pathway deoxygenated blood takes to reoxgenate
within the lungs, returning oxygenated blood to the heart after a full trip to be sent
to systemic circulation.
- Sinoatrial Node - Also known as the pacemaker of the heart, this is a small group
of cardiac muscle cells which are connected to various muscle fibers that allow it
to control the pace of the heartbeat. This node, although directly connected to the
atria, relies on the atrioventricular node to pulse the ventricles.
- Atrioventricular Node - Similar to the sinoatrial node, is connected to the fiber
network controlled by the sinoatrial node which dictates the heartbeat of the
ventricles. This node does not produce a pulse on its own and instead relays the
existing pulse from the sinoatrial node to the ventricles, causing the two-thump
beat often associated with the heart.
- Arteries - The main highways carrying oxygenated blood throughout the body,
which are defined as blood vessels which carry blood away from the heart.
- Veins - The highways carrying deoxygenated blood from the body to the heart,
which are defined as blood vessels which carry blood towards the heart. Large
veins may contain valves and may be located near skeletal muscle, both to help
the veins force blood back to the heart.
- Capillaries - The smallest blood vessels which do most of the work bringing the
blood to and from individual cells. The thin walls of capillaries allow blood cells to
diffuse in and out.
- Know and be able to draw red and white blood cells.
2.

Figure 2 - Image for reference, depicting several red blood cells and a white blood cell.

Lymphatic System and Blood Review

17
 - Plasma - A fluid that makes up 55% blood, in which cells and platelets float
around, with gases, salts, nutrients, enzymes, hormones, waste products, and
plasma proteins found dissolved.
- Plasma Proteins - Proteins which perform a variety of functions, and are divided
into three categories, consisting of albumins, globulins, and fibrinogen.
- Albumins - Plasma proteins which transport substances including fatty acids,
hormones, and vitamins, while also helping regulate osmotic pressure and blood
volume.
- Globulins - Plasma proteins which like albumins transport substances including
fatty acids, hormones, and vitamins. Some globulins also help fight viral and
bacterial infections.
- Fibrinogen - A plasma protein which is responsible for the clotting of blood, in
that it interacts with the enzyme thrombin to form a sticky mesh which closes the
clot.
- Hemoglobin - The iron-containing protein which binds to oxygen in the lungs and
transports it to tissues throughout the body to release its oxygen load.
- B Lymphocytes - White blood cells which produce antibodies to recognize, fight,
and provide immunity to infectious diseases.
- T Lymphocytes - White blood cells which directly fight and destroy tumors and
viruses.
- Phagocytes - White blood cells which destroy harmful microorganisms or dying
cells by engulfing and “eating” them via phagocytosis.
- Histamines - Chemicals involved in the allergic response released by white blood
cells which encounter foreign substances. These chemicals increase blood flow,
causing swelling and redness.
- Platelet - Aka thrombocytes, these are cell fragments responsible for the blood
clotting response. Each platelet consists of a fragment of cytoplasm which is
enclosed in a piece of cell membrane, and is manufactured when
megakaryocytes, or larger bone marrow cells, split off pieces of itself. Platelets,
upon coming in contact with broken blood vessels, become extremely sticky,
forming a clump of platelets. These platelets release clotting factors to form clots.
- Clotting factors - Proteins which are responsible for forming a blood clot, using
multiple series of complicated chemical reactions. One of the most important
clotting mechanisms involves the use of a clotting factor known as
thromboplastin to convert prothrombin, which is found in plasma, into thrombin,
an enzyme which turns fibrinogen into a sticky mesh of fibrin filaments.
- Lymph - Fluid collected by the lymphatic system coming from the leakage of
blood fluid into the body to be returned to the circulatory system. This fluid also
plays a role in transporting fats and fat soluble vitamins from the stomach to the
blood.

18
 - Lymph Vessels - Similarly to the circulatory system, the lymphatic system has a
network of vessels and capillaries which collect and then transport lymph. These
lymphatic vessels also contain valves similarly to veins to prevent lymph from
flowing in reverse. The lymph eventually flows into the heart via two openings in
the superior vena cava, under the left and right clavicles or shoulder bones.
- Lymph Nodes - Structures along lymph vessels which trap harmful
microorganisms.
- Thymus - An organ in the body where T Lymphocytes mature.
- Spleen - An organ in the body which cleans and removes waste and damaged
blood vessels from the blood. It also includes phagocytes to seek and kill harmful
microorganisms.

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Structures of the Respiratory System Deep Dive
- Pharynx - Also known as the throat, it serves as the passageway by which air
and food enter the body. The pharynx is connected to the mouth and the nose on
one end and the trachea on the other, where air flows into. Other connected
structures include the larynx and the epiglottis.
- Trachea - Also known as the windpipe, it is the passage by which air enters the
lungs. The trachea is connected to the pharynx on one end and the bronchi
leading to the lungs on the other, where air flows from the pharynx to the lungs.
Connected to the trachea is also the epiglottis, which prevents food from entering
it while swallowing.
- Larynx - A structure between the pharynx and the trachea containing the two
vocal cords, elastic folds of tissue which produce sound when muscles pull them
together due to how the air moving between them causes the cords to vibrate.
- Epiglottis - A flap of tissue between the pharynx and the trachea which closes
while swallowing food to prevent blockage of the trachea.
- Lung - The organ responsible for the action of breathing and bringing oxygen to
the blood.
- Bronchi - The two passageways in the chest cavity to carry which each lead to a
lung. Each bronchus splits further into smaller bronchi, eventually ending up as
bronchioles.
- Bronchioles - Small passageways connected to alveoli and bronchi.
- Alveoli - Tiny air sacs in the lungs connected to bronchioles which serve as the
primary location for gas exchange. Within each alveoli, oxygen from the air
dissolves and diffuses into capillaries located on the other side, while carbon
dioxide in the blood dissolves and diffuses from the capillaries into the alveoli
where they leave the body.
- Pleural Membranes - Sacs surrounding and sealing each lung.
- Diaphragm - A muscle at the bottom of the chest cavity responsible for inflating
and deflating the lungs. When the diaphragm contracts downwards, it creates a
partial vacuum which atmospheric pressure is obligated to equalize, which it
does by entering the lungs and filling them with air. When the diaphragm returns,
the partial vacuum is gone and thus atmospheric pressure no longer has any
obligation to continue holding air in the lungs, so the air exits the body.
- Medulla Oblongata - The part of the brain responsible for controlling breathing,
with nerves connecting it directly to the diaphragm. Within its breathing center,
cells detect levels of carbon dioxide, with high carbon dioxide being a sign to
breathe. Increased carbon dioxide levels result in increased nerve impulses,
which represent the urge to breathe.
- Cilia - When mucus traps inhaled particles along with moistening the air, cilia
sweeps the mucus away into the pharynx to be coughed out or swallowed.

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Study Questions
Study Guide Questions
1. What is the function and location of the aorta?
- The aorta is in the heart, connected to the left ventricle through the aortic valve,
and is the first of the arteries which send oxygenated blood throughout the body.
Blood that flows into the aorta is prevented from flowing back by the aortic valve.
2. What is the function and location of the four heart valves?
- The heart valves include the aortic valve, the mitral valve, the pulmonary valve,
and the tricuspid valve. In general, the valves in the heart prevent blood from
flowing back into the chambers they flowed from. The aortic valve prevents blood
from flowing from the aorta back into the left ventricle, the mitral valve prevents
blood from flowing from the left ventricle back into the left atrium, the pulmonary
valve prevents blood from flowing from the pulmonary veins back into the right
ventricle, and the tricuspid valve prevents blood from flowing from the right
ventricle back into the right atrium.
3. What is the function and location of the right and left atria?
- The right and left atria are the upper chambers of the heart, responsible for
receiving blood and then sending them into the ventricles. They are regulated by
the sinoatrial node. While the right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the
superior and inferior vena cava, the left atrium receives oxygenated blood from
the pulmonary veins. This reflects their individual roles, with the left atrium
involved in systemic circulation and the right atrium involved in pulmonary
circulation.
4. What is the function and location of the right and left ventricles?
- The right and left ventricles are the lower chambers of the heart, responsible for
taking the blood from the atria and then pumping them out of the heart. They are
regulated by the atrioventricular node, which relays pulses from the sinoatrial
node. While the right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood into the pulmonary
artery, the left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood into the aorta. This reflects their
individual roles, with the left ventricle involved in systemic circulation and the
right ventricle involved in pulmonary circulation.
5. What are the main components of the circulatory system?
- The main components of the circulatory system include the heart, the aorta, and
the blood vessels, including the veins, the arteries, and capillaries along with
their pulmonary counterparts.
6. What are the functions of the circulatory system?
- The circulatory system serves to provide oxygen and nutrients to the body and to
remove carbon dioxide and waste from the cells.

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 7. What are the two main causes of cardiovascular (heart) disease?
- Two main causes of heart disease include high blood pressure and smoking.
8. What type of blood cell is responsible for blood clotting?
- Blood clotting is caused by thrombocytes, or platelets. These cells first stick to
the edge of the injury and clump together. Then, they release clotting factors,
including thromboplastin, which interacts with prothrombin, a plasma protein
found in the blood, to create thrombin. Thrombin is an enzyme which converts
fibrinogen, another plasma protein, into a sticky fibrin mesh, forming the clot.
9. What type of blood cell is responsible for carrying oxygen?
- Erythrocytes, or red blood cells, are responsible for carrying oxygen. They
contain hemoglobin, an iron-containing protein which carries oxygen.
Hemoglobin binds with 4 oxygen molecules. Erythrocytes also carry nutrients to
the cell and waste products including carbon dioxide away from the cell.
10. What is the function of white blood cells (leukocytes)?
- Leukocytes have many individual roles, but as part of the immune response all
contribute to either fighting harmful microorganisms. Included under the
classification of leukocytes are B lymphocytes, which release antibodies which
allow the immune system to detect and fight off infections, and T lymphocytes,
which directly attack and destroy tumors and viruses. Other leukocytes include
but are not limited to phagocytes, which can engulf and “eat” foreign
microorganisms or damaged cells.
11. What is the function of hemoglobin?
- Hemoglobin is a protein found in red blood cells which allow them to carry
oxygen throughout the body. It increases effective oxygen transport by 60 fold as
compared to not using hemoglobin.
12. What is meant by pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation?
- Pulmonary circulation refers to the circulation of deoxygenated blood from the
heart, particularly the right atrium and right ventricle, to the lungs, where they
pass through the pulmonary arteries and flow into the pulmonary capillaries.
There, they exchange carbon dioxide for oxygen by the alveoli in the lungs,
whereupon they return to the heart through the pulmonary veins and enter
systemic circulation through the left atrium. Systemic circulation refers to the
circulation of oxygenated blood from the heart, particularly the left atrium and left
ventricle, to the body, where they pass through the bodily arteries and into
capillaries as seen fit. There, they provide oxygen while taking in carbon dioxide
in return, whereupon they return to the heart through the veins and enter
pulmonary circulation through the right atrium.

13. What are the three types of blood vessels and what is the function of each?

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 - The three types of blood vessels include arteries, veins, and capillaries. Arteries,
which are defined as any blood vessel which bring blood away from the heart,
typically carry oxygenated blood to the bodily tissues. Veins, however, are
defined as any blood vessel which brings blood toward the heart, typically
carrying deoxygenated blood from the bodily tissues back to the heart. Veins
typically contain valves to enforce the flow of blood in one direction and take
advantage of skeletal muscles. Capillaries are small blood vessels which actually
do the work of interacting with the bodily tissues, bringing red blood cells and
oxygen to individual cells, and bringing red blood cells away with carbon dioxide
back to the veins.
14. Why are capillaries so thin?
- The capillaries are thin because they must allow diffusion to take place through
them. Oxygen and nutrients from red blood cells must be able to enter cells in the
body, and cells must be able to transfer carbon dioxide and waste products to the
red blood cells.
15. How does blood flow in the heart, starting with the right ventricle?
- Blood flows from the right ventricle to the pulmonary artery while going through
the pulmonary valve, leading to the lungs and to the pulmonary capillaries
connecting to the alveoli before returning to the heart via the pulmonary veins.
Then, the blood enters the left atrium before being pumped through the mitral
valve and into the left ventricle, which finally pumps the blood into the aorta
through the aortic valve.
16. What is the function of the septum?
- The septum serves as a wall physically separating the left and right ventricles,
preventing the deoxygenated and oxygenated blood from mixing.
17. What is blood plasma composed of?
- Blood plasma consists of 90% water, while the rest includes dissolved gasses,
salts, nutrients, enzymes, hormones, waste products, and plasma proteins.
18. Is blood pressure higher in veins or arteries and for what reason?
- Blood pressure is higher in the arteries because they directly receive blood from
the heart’s powerful pump, which veins do not have to face.
19. What are the main functions of blood?
- Blood’s main function is to facilitate the transport of oxygen and nutrients from
red blood cells to the cells of the bodily tissues, while also allowing those red
blood cells to remove waste products from the cells including carbon dioxide.
20. What is the name and function of the large flat muscle underneath the lungs?
- The large flat muscle underneath the lungs, known as the diaphragm, creates the
breathing motion that allows the lungs to function. The diaphragm pulls down to
create the breathing motion, creating a partial vacuum which the atmospheric
pressure feels obligated to equalize, which it does so by forcing air into the lungs.
The lungs then inflate, and the air undergoes gas exchange in the alveoli. When

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 the diaphragm pushes upward, the partial vacuum is removed, and the air is
forced out of the lungs and back into the atmosphere, with lower oxygen content
and higher carbon dioxide content.
21. What is the function of alveoli and where are they located?
- The alveoli, located within the lungs and connected to bronchioles, are small
sacs of air found in bunches which facilitate the process of gas exchange. Within
alveoli, air from the atmosphere dissolves onto the inner surface of the alveolus
and diffuses through into capillaries where the oxygen is captured by red blood
cells. In the other direction, carbon dioxide diffuses through the capillary walls
and into the alveolus, where it mixes with the air, getting exhaled soon after.
22. Where is the trachea and what is its function?
- The trachea, or the windpipe, is located in the chest cavity below the pharynx
and above the bronchi, both of which it is connected to. The function of the
trachea is to facilitate the transfer of air containing oxygen from the pharynx to
the lungs through the bronchi. It also contains cilia and mucus-producing cells,
which serve to warm, moisten, and filter the air coming into the trachea.
23. Where is the pharynx and what is its function?
- The pharynx, or the throat, is located in the neck and serves as a passageway
for food and air to pass through, either into the esophagus or trachea
respectively. It is also connected to the larynx and influences speech. Like the
trachea, the pharynx contains cilia and mucus-producing cells, which warm,
moisten, and filter air.
24. Where is the larynx and what is its function?
- The larynx is located just below the pharynx and creates sounds by rubbing two
elastic bands of muscle called vocal cords against each other, passing air
through them. These sounds form the basis of human expression and speech.
25. Where is the epiglottis and what is its function?
- The epiglottis is a flap of tissue between the trachea and pharynx that prevents
food from entering the trachea while swallowing by closing but stays open the
rest of the time to facilitate breathing.
26. What is the difference between cellular respiration and respiration?
- Cellular respiration refers to the methods by which cells acquire energy in the
form of ATP. Respiration refers to the methods by which the body acquires
oxygen via breathing, which includes air passing into the lungs and into alveoli
where gas exchange occurs, and the oxygen in the air being transported to the
blood while carbon dioxide enters the air, whereupon the carbon dioxide-
enriched air is exhaled out.

27. What is responsible for making warm, moist, and filtered air for your lungs?

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 - The mucus and cilia found within the pharynx and trachea warm, moisten, and
filter the air entering the lungs. The mucus traps harmful particles while
moistening and warming the air, while the cilia sweeps it out into the pharynx
where it may be coughed up or swallowed.
28. What is diffusion and how does it play a role within alveolar function?
- Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an
area of low concentration. It is an essential part of alveolar function due to its
critical role in gas exchange, where dissolved oxygen diffuses through the
alveolar walls and enters the bloodstream after entering the pulmonary
capillaries. Vice versa, diffusion is also used by carbon dioxide exiting the
bloodstream and entering the alveoli.
29. When you inhale, what causes air to fill your lungs?
- Inhaling causes the diaphragm to create a partial vacuum, and the force that
causes the air to fill the lungs is atmospheric pressure. Since atmospheric
pressure is obligated to equalize the pressures, the partial vacuum forces air into
the body to equalize, and the air enters the body and goes into the lungs,
inflating them. Exhalation, or the diaphragm pushing up, removes this vacuum,
meaning that atmospheric pressure loses its obligation to force the air into the
body and the air is expelled. The diaphragm is responsible for the action of filling
the lungs while the force responsible is atmospheric pressure.
30. How does the medulla oblongata monitor breathing?
- The breathing center of the medulla oblongata detects levels of carbon dioxide in
the blood. Higher levels of carbon dioxide produce a stronger signal to breathe in
order to exhale that carbon dioxide, and so the diaphragm receives a
progressively stronger nerve impulse to breathe.
31. What is the function and location of the sinoatrial node?
- The sinoatrial node, or pacemaker, is a group of muscle cells in the heart which
generate electrical impulses that set the heart’s pace. The sinoatrial node sends
these impulses along a network of fibers, which tell the heart how fast to beat.
While the sinoatrial node is mainly responsible for the atria, it also interacts with
the atrioventricular node, which relays the signals to the ventricles, creating the
distinct two-thump heartbeat.

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Lesson Questions
32. What structures are in the circulatory system?
- Answer: The circulatory system contains the heart and blood vessels, of which
there are veins, arteries, and capillaries. There are also arterioles and venules.
33. What are the functional differences among the three main blood vessel varieties?
- Answer: Arteries bring blood full of oxygen from the heart to the body. Veins
bring blood that has been deoxygenated back to the heart. Capillaries interact
with the cells themselves, retrieving waste like CO2 and bringing nutrients and
oxygen.
34. How does blood circulate through the body?
- Answer: Blood begins at the heart, and travels to the arteries to bring cells
oxygen. They travel through capillaries to get to the cells, and then are carried
away in veins back to the heart.
35. What is the role of the nervous system in heartbeat regulation?
- The autonomic nervous system has a hand in influencing heartbeat. The
sympathetic nervous system can release neurotransmitters to increase heart
rate, while the parasympathetic nervous system can do the opposite, releasing
neurotransmitters to increase heart rate.
36. Would a standing individual experience higher blood pressure in the arm or leg?
Explain.
- The individual would experience higher blood pressure in the leg. This is
because gravity causes the blood to have a tendency to pool at the lowest point,
so the vessels legs have more pressure exerted on them by the blood.
37. What is the function of the respiratory system and what does it do?
- Answer: The respiratory system serves to exchange carbon dioxide for oxygen.
To achieve this goal, blood containing oxygen flows to capillaries connected to
alveoli. When the medulla oblongata sends signals to the diaphragm to pull itself
down, a partial vacuum is formed, which causes atmospheric pressure to pull the
lungs down along with air. This air travels through the pharynx to the trachea,
where it enters the lungs through either of two bronchi. The bronchi split and end
in bronchioles, where alveoli are connected in clusters. The oxygen in the air
dissolves and diffuses through the alveolar walls and into the capillaries where it
is taken in by the blood. The carbon dioxide diffuses in the other direction and
enters the air inside the alveoli. The diaphragm then releases the partial vacuum
and the lungs are forced back up, with the carbon dioxide in the air with it.
38. Describe some of the health problems associated with smoking.
- Answer: Smoking generally causes difficulty breathing and performing physical
activities. Specific diseases include lung cancer, chronic bronchitis, and
emphysema, and it is also linked to heart disease. Generally smoking reduces
life expectancy.

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 39. What is the process of gas exchange?
- Answer: Air enters the lungs, specifically the alveoli, with 21% oxygen content
and 0.04% carbon dioxide content. The oxygen dissolves on the alveolar walls
and then diffuses through to the capillaries, where it enters the bloodstream. On
the other hand, carbon dioxide in the blood diffuses out through the capillaries
and through the alveolar walls and mixes with the air, which is exhaled with a
15% oxygen content and 4% carbon dioxide content.
40. How is breathing controlled?
- Answer: The medulla oblongata uses a breathing center to detect levels of
carbon dioxide in the blood. High levels of carbon dioxide correspond with strong
nerve impulses to the diaphragm to pull.
41. How can high altitudes be dangerous?
- Answer: Because the breathing center detects high carbon dioxide levels, low
oxygen levels are ignored. High altitudes, having less oxygen in the air, mean
that the body absorbs much less oxygen while maintaining a similar or lower
carbon dioxide level.
42. What is the function of the respiratory system and what does it do?
- Answer: The respiratory system serves to exchange carbon dioxide for oxygen.
To achieve this goal, blood containing oxygen flows to capillaries connected to
alveoli. When the medulla oblongata sends signals to the diaphragm to pull itself
down, a partial vacuum is formed, which causes atmospheric pressure to pull the
lungs down along with air. This air travels through the pharynx to the trachea,
where it enters the lungs through either of two bronchi. The bronchi split and end
in bronchioles, where alveoli are connected in clusters. The oxygen in the air
dissolves and diffuses through the alveolar walls and into the capillaries where it
is taken in by the blood. The carbon dioxide diffuses in the other direction and
enters the air inside the alveoli. The diaphragm then releases the partial vacuum
and the lungs are forced back up, with the carbon dioxide in the air with it.
43. Describe some of the health problems associated with smoking.
- Answer: Smoking generally causes difficulty breathing and performing physical
activities. Specific diseases include lung cancer, chronic bronchitis, and
emphysema, and it is also linked to heart disease. Generally smoking reduces
life expectancy.
44. What is the process of gas exchange?
- Answer: Air enters the lungs, specifically the alveoli, with 21% oxygen content
and 0.04% carbon dioxide content. The oxygen dissolves on the alveolar walls
and then diffuses through to the capillaries, where it enters the bloodstream. On
the other hand, carbon dioxide in the blood diffuses out through the capillaries
and through the alveolar walls and mixes with the air, which is exhaled with a
15% oxygen content and 4% carbon dioxide content.

27
 45. How is breathing controlled?
- Answer: The medulla oblongata uses a breathing center to detect levels of
carbon dioxide in the blood. High levels of carbon dioxide correspond with strong
nerve impulses to the diaphragm to pull.
46. How can high altitudes be dangerous?
- Answer: Because the breathing center detects high carbon dioxide levels, low
oxygen levels are ignored. High altitudes, having less oxygen in the air, mean
that the body absorbs much less oxygen while maintaining a similar or lower
carbon dioxide level.

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Credits
Authored by Kelson Wang
All images and diagrams by Parson Education Inc
Based on information provided by Parson Education Inc
Study guide questions by Mr. Tisor

2024-2025 First Edition - 12/17/24

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