BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

UNIT-1

(DC Circuits)
 DC Circuits

Inside thh
2.1 Concept of Network 2,2 Single- and Multi-mesh Netwo* 2.3 Active and Passive Elements 2-4 Resistance 2.5 Capacitance
2.6 lnductance 2.7 Summary of Relationships for the Parameters 2.8 Voltage and Cunent Sources 2-9 Source Equivalence
or Translormation 2.10 Kirchhoff's Laws 2.11 Network Theorems 2.'12 Superposition Theorem 2.r3 l\raxwell Circulating
Current Theorem 2.14 Node-Voltage Theorem or Nodal Analysis 2.'15 Thevenin's Theorem 2.'16 Norton's Theorem
2,'17 Conversion of Thevenin's Equivalent inlo Norton's Equivalent and Vice Versa 2.'18 Nehrork Reduction by Delta-star
Transformation or Vice Versa . Huhlights. .
Exercises Shoi Answer Type Questions Wth Answers . Problefis

An electric circuit (or network) is an interconnection of physical electrical devices. The purpose of electdc
networks is to distribute and convert electrical energy into some other forms. Accordingly, the basic circuit
components are an energy source (qr sources), an energy converter (or converters), and conductors
connecting them.
An energy source (or source), such as a primary or secondary cell, a generator, and the like, is a device
that converts chemical, mechanical, thermal or some other form of energy into elecrical energy.
An energy conyertor, also called the load, (sttch as lamp, heating appliance, or an electric motor)
converts electrical energy into light, heat, mechanical work and so on.
Events in an electrical circuit may be defined in terms of emf (or voltage) and current.
When electrical energy is generated, transmitted and converted under conditions such that the curents
and voltages involved remain constant with time, the electric circuit is identified as direct current (dc)
circrrir. If the curents and voltages do change with time, the circuit is defined as altemating current (ac)
circuit-
A graphic representation of an electric circuit is called a circuit diagram
Fig. 2.1). Such a diagram consists of interconnected symbols called. circuit
alements or circuit pqrameters. Two elements are necessary to represent
rrocesses in a dc circuit. These are source of emfE, and of intemal (or source)
:esistance Rr and the load resistance (which includes the resistance of the
ionductors) R. lsi .l
Es
In any electric circuit the energy convertor (or load) and the conductors
:onnecting it to the source make up the external circuit if,rwhich current flows
-:om the +ve side to the -ve side of the source whereas inside the source,
rurrent flows in the opposite direction, i.e. from the ve side to the +ve side. Fig.2.1
-l-e source emf is directed from the terminal at a lower potential to that at a higher one. In diagrams this is
!:trr\r n by arTOWS.
The source eru/ (or open-circuit voltage) is the voltage that appears across the source rvhen no load is
. -.nnected across it.
 t- Basic Electrical Engineering

\lhen
a load is connected to the source terminals and the circuit is closed. an electric current stafis
-l.rn fug through the circuit. Now voltage across source terminals (called the terzrinal voltage) is rlot eqtsal
to source emf. It is due to voltage drop inside the source, i.e. across the source resistance.
Voltage drop inside the source = I\
The relationship between the curent through a resistance and tlte voltage across tlte same resistance is
called' its volt-ampere (or voltage-cwrent) characteristic. When represented graphically, voltages are laid
off as abscissae and currents as ordinates.
There are two rypes of volt-ampere characrerislics- t
staight line and nonlinear (curve). as shown in Figs. 2.2 (a) |

atd,2.2 (b) respectively. ,

Resistive elements for which the volt-ampere H
characteristic is a straight line [Fig.2.2 (a)l arc calledlinedr, A
and the electric circuits containing only linear resistances
I
are called linear circuits.
. Resistive elements for which the volt-ampere - voLTAGE,v + voLrAGE,v +
@) - (b)
characteristic is other than a staight line are terlrrred. non-
linear, alnd, so the electric circuits containing them are calle d Fig'2'2
nonlinear circuits. Examples of nonlinear elements are tungsten lamps, yacuum tubes and hansistors, etc.
An elecaic circuit, whose characteristics or propefiies are same in either direction (e.g. a distribution or
transmission line), is called the bilateral circuit. The distribution or transmission line can be made to
perfom its function equally well in either direction.
An electric circuit, whose characteristics or properties change with the direction of its operation (e.g. a
diode rectifier), is called.the unilateral circ&i/. A diode rectifler cannot perfom rectification in both directions.
A network is said to be passive if it contains no source of emf n rt. The equivalent resistdnce betwee\
any two terminals of a passive network is the ratio of potential difference across the two terminals to the
current flowing into (or out of) the network. When a network contains one or more sources of emf and./or
current, it is said to be actiye.
A circuit consisting of a limited (finite) number of circuit elements is referred to as 'lumped pararueter
circuit' while a circuit containing unlimited (infinite) number of circuit elements is called a distributed
parameter circuit. Ttansmission line is an example of distributed parameter network.
In case, a branch is removed from an electric network, the remainder ofthe network is left with a pair of
terminals. The part of the network, which is considered with respect to the removed branch or terminal pair
or port is termed as one-pon network.When two branches are removed so that t}Ie network is left with four
terminals or two pairs of terminals, the remainder network is called the two-por-t network, Usually one port
accepts a source and the other port is coupled to a load. so that there is an input port and an output port in any
two-port system.

2.2 SINGLE. AND MULTI.MESH NETWORK

Electric network may provide a single closed path
(known as a nresfu o r loop) or several closed paths for the
flow of current. An elemettary single-mesh network, in E
which all the elements carq/ the same cu[ent, is shown
in Fig. 2.1. Al elementary multi-mesh network is shown
in Fig. 2.3. It has 6 nodes, seven branches, three loops
and two meshes. A junction (or node*) is apointin a
network where two or more branches m eet. A branch is
any section ofa network which joins two nodes directly, Fig. 2.3

* Nodes are considered to be resistanceless and infinitesimal.

DC Cincuits 35

that is, without passing through a third node. A loop is a closed path in a network formed by a number of
connected branches. Mesh is a loop that contains no other loop within it.
at
If in the circuit diagram, as in Fig. 2.4 (a), there is a bold dot / /
the intersection of two branches, these branches are electrically
connected and have a common node. Otherwise they simply cross, as / /
nFrg.Z.4. (A), and are not connected electrically. -f- @) --/- (b)
Fig. 2.4

Network elements may be classified into two categories viz. active elements and passive elements,
The elements which supply energy to the network are known as qctive elements. The voltage sources
iike batteries, dc generators, ac generators and current sources like photoelectric cells, metadyne generators
iall under the category of active elements. Most of the semiconductor devices like ftansistors are treated as
Jurrent soufces.
The components which dissipate or store energy are known as passive componenrs. Resistors, inductors
and capacitors fall under the category of passive elements. The resistor is the only component which
lissipates electrical energy. The inductors and capacitors are the components which store energy, the
r:lductor stores energy by virtue ofa current passing through it whereas the capacitor stores energy by viltue
-.i potential difference across it.

2.4 nEgrglAllqE,
l.sistance is a dissipative element, which converts electrical energy into heat, when the current flows
---.rough
it in any direction. The process of energy conversion is irreversible.
The circuit element used to represent energy dissipation is most commonly described by requiring the
.: itage across the element be directly proportional to the current through it. Mathematically, the voltage is
v = Ri volts ...(2.1)
: r:re i is the current in amperes. The constant of proportionality R is the resistance of the element and is
:esured in ohms (abbreviated O). The voltage-current relation expressed by Eq. (2.1) is known as Ohm's
.;. -{ physical device whose principal electrical characteristic is resistance is known as a resisfor.
Since an electric charge gives up energy when passing through a resistor, the voltage v in Eq. (2.1) is a
: -:age drop in the direction of current. Alternatively, u is a voltage rise in the direction opposite to the

-
--:ent. The conventional diagrammatic representation of a resistance, together with designations of the
r- ent direction and voltage polarity, is shown in Fig. 2.5. The plus and minus signs denote decrease of
:,,::olial, and hence a voltage drop, from left to right (or plus to minus). i
::: element has two terminals (also called nodes). ,_:4 dr^*-_-___---b
Tle power dissipated by resistance may be given by expression a +
p =r;=ln= L *utt. ...t2.2t
'
Fig.2.5 Schematic
R?prcsentation of Resistonca
Eq. (2.1) gives the voltage across a resistor in terms of its current. A
-.- ::ocal relationship providing the current in terms of voltage is often of equal or greater value in a
:
--::ular case. As a result, Ohm's law is often expressed as
i = Gy amperes ...(2.3)
-l
where G = ...(2.4)
-R
i:riprocal of resistance R i.e. G is called conductan cz and is measured in mhos or siemens (SI unit of
" -:-::ance is siemens, but mho is more frequently used).
::,.r'er dissipated can then be expressed in the alternative form
..1
p=yi=y(Qy\=y2Q= ,tt ...(2.5)
GG
36 Basic Electnical Engineening

2.5 GAPACITANCE

Capacitance is a two-terminal element that has the capability of charge storage and, consequently, energy
storage. The stored energy cal be fully retlieved.
The curent thrcugh the capacitor is proportional to the derivative of voltage across it and is given by
expression

i=c q ..(z6)
dt
where C has the unit of farads, the practical unit being a microfarad (pF) because a farad is physically a large
unit. Iotegrating above Eq. (2.6) we have

y = Lji ar +v,tot ...(2.7)

-o
where v,(0) = Capacitance voltage at , = 0
For an initially uncharged capacitor v.(0) = 0, so that

"= t'1'" =
f 6s 6= I q1 4=6y ...(2.8)

The proportionality constant C expresses the charge-storing properry of the element and is called the
capacitance. With q in coulombs and v in volts, the capacitance C is in farads (abbreviated F). A capacitor
is a physical element which exhibits the property of capacitance.
The schematic representation of capacitance, in which current and voltage reference directions are
indicated, is depicted in Fig.2.6. In this figure and in Eqs. (2.6) and (2.8), a voltage drop exists in the
direction of flow of current. Charge flow from a higher potential to a lower potential i.e. from plus to minus,
signifies that energy can be removed from the circuit and stored. The capacitive
effect may be thought of as opposing a change of voltage. _-]-- c
The power associated with a capacitance is o----------l+ b

p =vi=gv!! i1a11, ...12.91 Fig'2'6 Schematic

dt Representation of
Energy stored in the capacitance may be had by integrating above Eq. (2.9) as Capacitance

,N lodr = )I crdu dr= 1 cr, io,rl.,

= J', ...(2.r0)
fu 2
A capacitor offers low impedance to ac but very high impedance to dc. So capacitors are used to couple
altemating voltage from one circuit to another circuit and at the same time to block dc voltage from reaching
the next circuit. It is also employed as a byp ass capacitor where it passes the ac through it without letting the
dc to go though the circuit across which it is connected. A capacitor forms a tutued circuit rn series or in
parallel with an inductor.

The circuit element used to represent the energy stored in a magnetic field is defined by the relation

, =t4: ...(2.11)
dt
The above expression describes a situation in which the voltage across the element is proportional to the
time rate of change of current through it. The constant of proportionality L is the sef inductance ot simply the
inductance of the element, and is measured in henrys (abbreviated H).
The voltage v in Eq. (2.1 l) is a voltage drop in the direction of current * iL -C00t0ir oo
and can be considered to oppose an increase in currefi. Fig. 2.7 depicts the
"o
schematic representation of an inductance and its associated reference direction Fig.2.7 Schematic
Representation of Inducta ce
for current and voltage polarity.
DC Circuits 37

Inte$ating Eq. (2.11) we have

;= 1i,ar+i1or ...(2.12)

where i(0) = Inductance curent at , = 0.

According to Eq. (2.12) current throagh an inductance cannot change instantly (compaled with
capacitance voltage) as it would require infinite voltage.
Because the effect of inductance is to oppose the change in the magnitude of curent, inductance is
analogous to mass or inertia in a mechanical system and to tlle mass of liquid in hydraulics. Inductance
prevents the curent from changing instantly as it requires infinite voltage to cause an instantaneous change
in current, just as the mass of an automobile prevents it from stopPing or starting instantaneously.
The power associated with the inductive effect in a circuit is
p =vi=Li* watts ...(2.13)

alrd the energy stored is

w = [o * = ltiffa, = [ti ai = 1 L;2joules ...(2.14)

unlike the resistive energy, which is transformed into heat, the inductive energy is stored in the same sense
that kinetic energy is stored in a moving mass. Eq. (2. 14) reveals that the magnitude of stored energy depends
on the magnitude of current and not in the manner of attaining that magnitude. The stored irductive energy
reappears in the circuit as tie curent is reduced to zero. For example, if a switch is opened in a current carrying
induitive circuit, the curent decays rapidly, but not instantaneously.In accordance with Eq. (2.11), a relatively
high voltage appears across the separating contacts of the switch, and an axc may forrn. The arc makes it
possible for the stored energy to be dissipated as heat in the arc and the circuit resistances'
In case of an inductor, current does not change instantaneously. It offers high impedance to ac but very
low impedance to dc i.e. it blocks ac signal but passes dc signal
A piece of wire, or a conductor of any type, has inductance i.e. a property of opposiag the change of
currenithrough it. By coiling the wire the inductatrce is increased as the square of the number of tums. The
inductance is represented by English capital letter L and measured in henrys.

2;7 OF RELATiONSHIPS. FOR THE

Some of the relationships discussed so far in this chapter are summarised in tabular form (Table 2.1). These
equations are encountered so frequently in the study of electrical engineering that they should be memorized.

TABLE 2.1 Summary of Relationships For The Parameters

'Eierg!

Resistance, R v=Ri v* = Rix i* = Gv*

{**''
c=l
R

L (or M) V=L, t= !I*"'a wr= L YP

",=L+
"dt

| |
vc=EJtd, ,c=L;
^dv" w-= 1 cv':
C q =C|
38 Bqsic ElecErical Engineering

Most of the sources encountered in everyday life (such as batteries, dynamos, alternators etc.) are voltage
sources but some current sources do exist. Some examples are; photoelectric cells as used in light meters,
metadyne generators as used in military gun controls, Other devices may be regarded as current soutces,
such as the collector circuits of transistors and the anode circuits of peotode thermionic tubes.
2.8.1 Independent and Dependent Sources. The source (voltage or current) may be independent or
dependent. A source is said to be independent when it does not depend on any other quantity in the circuit.
Fig.2.8(a) shows an independent dc voltage source whereas Fig. 2.8(D) depicts a time varying voltage
source. The positive sign indicates that A
-------------o
rerminal A is positive with respect to I
terminal B i.e. the porential ofterminal A
V volls higher thatr that of terminal B.
Similarly an ideal constant currenr
source is shown in Fig. 2.8(c) whereas rime
varying current source is shown in
Fig.2.8(/). The arrow indicates the +B
'I
-f
is I

I
.,
u"

6 |

L_*" r_-,
__.-

4,,
o

direction of current flow at any moment @) (c) @

under consideration. Fis. 2.8
A dependent source is one which de-
pends on some other quantity in the circuit -t.
which may be either a voltage or a current.
In electronic circuits, we very often find
that the current through an element, (say
o RL

colleclor current through a bipolar junc-

tion fansistor) is dependent on a curent
L
Vou, = k,V,r; k1 dimensionless Vou, = 19I,,; lg in ohms
through some orher element or in a
MOSFET it is dependent on the voltage (a) Voltage-Depended (b) C rrenl-Depende t
across Some other element. Such a source Voltage Source Voltaqe Source

is called a dependent source. In a depend-

ent source the output voltage (or current)
depends on another voltage (or current).
The relationship may be linear or
nonlinear. There are four possible depend-
ent sources as are represented in Fig. 2.9.
Such sources can also be either
constant sources or time varying sources. Iou, = krV,n, k3 in mhos Iou, = k, I,n : ko dimensionless
Independent sources actually exist as (c) Vohage-Dependent {d) Current Dependent
physical entities such as all accumulator, a Current Source Current Source
dc generator and an alternator. But Fig.2,9 Dependent Sources
dependent sources are parts of models that are used to represent electrical properties of electronic deyices
such as operational amplifiers and transistors etc.
Another major difference is tiat four terminals are required to define a contuolled source; whereas only
two are required for an independent source. Of the four dependent source terminals, one pair provides the
control and the second pair exhibits the properties of the source.
2.8.2. Ideal Voltage Source. A constant voltage source is an ideal source element capable of supplying
any current at a given voltage. If the internal resistance of a voltage source is zero, the terminal voltage
DC Cincuits
39

(the
(voltage across the load) is equal to the voltage across the source
.our""'"rn!, and is independent of the amount of load current' or in other I

words the voltage of an ideal voltage source is independent of load current - I

supplied by it.lor example, if the terminals are connected togetherlhe v" f
source wili supply an infinite curent. The symbolic representations .of
dc
I

and ac ideal uoitug" rour"". -" given in Figs 2'!O at:d 2'|Lrespectively l
There are two notewofihy points regarding ideal voltage sources
First'
L----------
ideal voltage source cannot be short circuited (because this
will be contrarY "
Fig,2.11
to the definition of the ideal ,or,ug"^,o;;" li'"11) Secondly
(and for the
"'*' 1lo
same reason) two ideal voltage sources of unequal output
voltages cannot be placed in parallel'
An.idealvoltageSourceisnotplacticallypossible.Thereisnovoltagesoulcewhichcanmaintainits
terminai voltage cJnstant even when its terminals are short circuited'
A lead-acid battery or a dry cell are
examples of a constant voltage source lu" lv
when the current drawn is below a certain
Eui <u;
limit. Ilowever, a practical voltage
source always shows a droP in its Pq
E9
terminal voltage which increases with
load current. A dc generator or a rectifier I
I+ o LOAD CURRENT,I+ Isc
operating on mains supply is a voltage -LOAD
CURRENT'

source (the output voltage is g7 For ldcal Voltage Source (b) For-a Practical Voltage Source

contaminated with ripples) and exhibit Fig.2.12 V-I Characteristics of Voltage Sources
a voltage drop which is load dependent.
fr?rott-u-pe." 1VJ)characteristics of anidealvoltage sourc9ry agn1ted1nFqz1?('lli::ilTt11
,"#:r;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;nJmg.z.rztai oottedrineisthator-id""li:l:1ry":";.",::1
or"irr*, u p.u"tical dc voltage source maintains,rhelerminal
;##ilrff;d,,";;;i;;,il;g" called the rd'ed
(output) voltage within unu.ro* ,ung" of"its nominal voliage Beyond this value of current'
terminal voltage drops to zero'
,lrj,rlr"n ; m" uihug"drops rapidly tilithe short-circuit curent
Isc' where the
current'
even up to infinitely large
In contrast. an ideal dc voltage source would have maintained thi voltage
be a constant current source-a
2.g.3. kleal Current Source. Like a constant voltage source, there may
Ideally, the current supplied by
source that supplies a constant curent to a load even ii its impedance
varies.
impedance. A symbolic representation of such
such a source should remain constan; inespective ofthe load
lte inside the circle indicates the direction of
an ideal constant curent source ls siown in nig. z.s(").
urTow

flow of current in the circuit, when a load is connected to the source'

There are two noteworthy points regarding ideal current sources'
First' an ideal current source cannotbe
current source itselg . Again, for
1u""ause this wiil be ;;f,ury tJtne a"finition
op", of the constant
the
"i."ri
same
"O
reason, two ideal current sources of different output currents cannot be
placed in series'

An ideal cunent source, like an ideal voltage source, is not practically .-----------+- A
supplied by it
possible. There is no curent source which can maintain cunent
constant even when its terminals are open circuited' An
ideal current source t<
-
as
does not exist in practice. A practical curent source can
be represented
shown in Fig. 2.13 (a).
to
A solar cell is an example of current source 'ltprovides constant current
a resistance within a sp"ciir"a range o-f outporuottuge'
ffre of-the curent "$l;I"*'{r:::i;"t'
'alue
the cell' An ideal
delivered by a currenisource depends on the flux incident on
R ohms (0 < R < -). V-I characteristics ofa
current source provides a constant current to a resistor of resistance
p.,".i.a"orT"*,o*"eiscomparedwiththatofanidealcurentsource(dottedverticallines)inFig,2.13(b).
a current source maintains the current is drawn
by holizontal dotted line Beyond this
The limit vR up to which
 40 Basic Electrical Engineering

value of output voltage (hence load resistance) the

curent falls. A current source can also be had bv
connecting a high resistance R." in series with a
high vollage dc source. lt will behave as a current
source in a range R, is less than 5 to l0qo of series
rcsistance Rse. In that case, the current is primarily
decided by R"". The cunent through load resistance UJ
o-,
Ra is nearly constant unless Ra is significant in 5
comparison to Rse.
o

2.8.4. Practical Sources. In most applications,

ideal sources are approximation. The internal RATED VOLTAGE
Iesistance Rin of a voltage source, which is |ir- tNctDENT
INCIDENT
responsible for a drop in terminal voltage of a source
y' RADIATION

on load is quite small in comparison to the load J d coNsrANT

resistance of a network connected across the voltage

source. Hence voltage drop is considered CURRENI I =.-
negligible. Internal resistance needs to be taken Fig,2.13(b) Comparison of V-I Characteristics of an
into account when it is significant in comparison Ideal Current Source (A)WithThat ofa practical Current
Source (B) For DifferentValues of Radiation Intensity
to load resistance Ra.
A practical dc voltage source is represenred in Fig. 2.14(a). vs is the
internal voltage of the voltage
source and Rin is the intelnal resistance of the volrage
source. wh'en we measure the voltage
source terminals without any road (no resistance connected
u"ao* ti"
to the output terminals of the source) the
terminal voltage is V = V. as there is no curent though
\n to cause a voltage drop.
Is A -l*

-B
(a) A Practical Vohage Source (b) Vohage Drop in Rin (c) Practical Current Source
Fig.2.l4 Practical Sources
Assuming va to be constart, the teminar voltage falrs on roading
by an extemar or road resistance RL.
-,
The resulting current,

,Vs ...(2.1s)
Rin + RL

and rhe rerminal volrage is then V =IR,

Vs
= xR,

.-, j,5 l:il::.,u,.. *r..0u.., ,,.". ,,li

ano vs are assumed constant.
-S-.1l;*,11,. ,.*,, ,.r."s" v r,r, ri,.d;.:;;:
when the terminals of a practical voltage source are short circuited
by a thick wire of zero resistance
resulting in a short circuit, source current I* is given as

O=\"= ...(2.17) lnFie.2.t4

* (6), R, being zero.

Hence. n," =
'
l5 = o!slg1rtfgg*g.1i,,g=lbc
lsc Short-circuit current. lsc
...(2.18)
OC Circuits 4a

Similarly an ideal curent source must produce infinite voltage on open circuit. A practical current
source will have a finite output voltage. A practical current source is represented as shown in Fig. 2.14(c). In
this case short-circuit current,
Isc = Is ...(2.19)
ard the open-circuit voltage. Voa = I, R,, ...(2.2o)
voc open-circuitvolEge
"' = l*. -
Hence.R, ...(2.21)
Shon-cLcuit curenl

orG =I= Isc Shofi-circuit cunent

...(2.22)
"' R," Voc Open-circuit voltage

2.9. SOURCE EQUIVALENCE OR TRANSFORMATION

Practically, a voltage source is not different from a current source. In fact, a source can either operate as a
current source or as a voltage source. It merely depends upon its operating conditions. If load impedance is
very large in comparison to internal impedance of the source, it will be advantageous to treat the source as
a voltage source. On the other hand, if the load impedance is very small in comparison to the internal
impedance of the source, it is better to represent the source as a cuflent source, From the circuit point of view
it does not matter at all whether the source is treated as a voltage source or a current source. In fact, it is
possible to convert a voltage source into a current source and vice versa.
Consider a yoltage source of voltage V" and intemal resistance \. shown in Fig. 2.14(a) for conversion
into an equivalent curent source. The current supplied by this voltage source, when a short circuit is put
across terrdnals A and B, will be equal to Vs/Rin. A current source supplylng this current Is = Vs/R.n and
having the same resistance across it will represent the equivalent cunent source lFig. 2.14(c)].
Similarly a current source of output current Is in parallel with resistance \o can be converted into an
equivalent voltage source of voltage Va = I, R,n and
a resistance
&n in series with it [Fig. 2.14(a)].
It should be noted that a voltage source-series
resistance combination is equivalent to a current
source-parallel resistance combination if, and only
if theil respective open-circuit voltages are equal,
and their respective short-circuit currents are equal.
Forexample, a voltage source branch consisting
of a 10 V source in series with a resistance of 2.5 Q
may be replaced by a current source branch
consisting of a 4 A source in parallel with a 2.5 O
resistance and vice versa, as shown in Figs.2.15(a)
ald 2. l5(D) respectively.
Example 2.1. Convert 4A source with its paraltel
resistance of 15 C) into its equival€nt yoltage source.
Solution: 4 A current source with its parallel resistance of
15 Q will be equivalent of a voltage source of 4 x 15 i,e.,
(a) Current Source (b) Equivalent Voltage Source
60 V in series with a resistance of 15 C) as shown in Fig.2.16
Fi_s.2.16(r). T ---
Erample 2.2. State voltage to current transformation theorem. I

It is required to replace network N in ligure (Fig,2.17) by a suitable l+

equivalent network. Which of the networks of the Fig. 2.1E coutd be valid
l4v
Equivalent network(s)?
I
Solution: For any voltage source, if the ideal voltage is V volts and intemal resistance
: R ohms, the voltage source can be replaced by curent source I with the intemal
:?:istance in parallel to the cunent source and the magnitude ofI is given by FiE.2.l7
42 Bas jc Electrical Engineering

t= v
R
will 2a .^6-5^ -€
ll-"
A voltage souce of4 V in seriis with a resistance of 1 Q

be equivalent lo a current source of 1 i.r. 4 A rn parallel wrth a

'l
resistance of I O, as shown in Fig. 2.18(ii). (,,) (iii)
Hence network shown in Fig. 2.18(ii) is the equivalent valid Fig. 2.18
network.
Example 2.3. Us€ source conversion technique to lind the voltage Vo in the circuit as shown in Fig. 2.19.
lRajasthan Univ. 20041
Solution: Converting current source of 5 A
in pamllel with T Q resistor and curent source
5 A in parallel wilh 10 O resistor into equivalent
voltage sources, the given circuit becomes as <
depicted in Fig.2.20.
W}ten current and voltage sources are
connected in parallel, curent souce does l1ot
10
mean anything, so
Output voltage, Vo = 15 + 50 + 35
= 100 V Ans. FA.2.r9 Fig.2.20
Example 2.4. Use the source transformation to find V, of Fig.2.2l(a).
\G.G.S.!.P. Univ. Delhi ELectricaL Science May-June 20091
Solution: Converting 4 A curent source in parallel with a resistance of 10 C) into equivalent voltage source of40 V in
series with a resistance of l0 C, and 15 A cuffent source in parallel with a parallel combitration ofrcsistances of4 Q aDd
(3+ 1) Q into equivalent voltage source of 15 x [4ll(3 + l)] i.e. 15 x 2 or 30 V in series with a resistance of 2 Q we have
the circuit, that is shown in Fig. 2.21(D).
From equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 2.21(6)
wehave curentflowing through the citcuit,
l0+40
10
2+10+l 13
30
vl = voltage drop across resistance of 1 C)
10 '70
=-<t=
l3 l-3
or5.38VAns.
Fig.2.21
2.10 XIRCITHOFF',S LAWS
The basic laws, that electric circuits follow rationally from the nature of the elecrical quantities, have
already been defined. They lead directly to methods for the systematic analysis of electric circuits. These
laws are known as l(irchhoff's laws, and they describe the relationships among circuit yoltages and circuit
currents that must be satisfied. These laws are very helpful in determining the equivalent resistance of a
complex network and the current flowing in the various branches of the netwotk.
Gustov Robert Kirchhoff derived two basic lavr's governing networks, one commonly known as7trs/ la),
or current law (KCL) or point law, whereas the second is called second law or yoltage law (KyL) or mesh law.
1. Kirchhoff's First Law or Current Law (KCL) or Point Law.
According to this law in any network of wires caxrying currents, the
algebraic sum of all currents meeting at a point (orjunction) is zero or
the sum of incoming currents towards any point is equal to the sum of
outgoing curlellts away from that point. If11, 12, 13, 14, Ir, and Iu are the
currents meeting atjunction O, flowing in the dlrections of arrowheads
marked on them (Fig. 2.22), tayjng incoming cunents as positive and
outgoing currents as negative, according to Kirchhoffs first law (KCL)
Fig.2,22
DC Circuits 48

Ir-12-11+Ia+Is-16 = 0
or It+14+I5 =12+\+16
2. Kirchhoffs Second Law or Voltage Law (KYL) or Mesh Law. According to this law in any closed
circuit or mesh the algebraic sum of emfs acting in that circuit or mesh is equal to the algebraic sum of the
products of the currents and resistances of each part of the circuit.
If the circuit shown in Fig. 2.23 is considered, then according to Kirchhoffs second law (or KVL)
In mesh AFCBA,
Er = Rt Gt +Iz) +R2Gl+12) + RsIr E
or E, = (R, + Rr) (i1+ 12) .r-R5I1 L2

In mesh FEDCF. F
-Ez =-Rrl:-R,r12 R2{lr+12) R,(1,+Ir) lr
orE, = R, lr+Rolrt(Rl + R2) (Ir + 12)
A
and in mesh AFEDCBA,
Er-E, = - P: 1, - P4 12 + R5 Il Fiq.2.23
orE, - E, = RsIl (R3tRr12
2.10,1. Appucation of Kirchhoffs Laws To Circuits. First of all, the current distribution in various branches
of the circuit is made with directions of their flow complying with frst law of Kirchhoff. Then Kirchhoff s
second law is applied to each mesh (one by one) separately and algebraic equations are obtained by equating
the algebraic sum of emfs acting in a mesh equal to the algebraic sum of respective drops in the same mesh.
By solving the equations so obtained unklown quantities can be determined. While applying Kirchhoff's
second law, the question of algebraic signs may be houblesome and is a frequent source of error. If, however,
the following rules are kept in mind, no difficulty should occur.
The resistive drops in a mesh due to current Jlowing in cloch,t ise direction must be taken positive drops,
The resistfue drops in a mesh dae to current flowin{ in counter-clochuise direction must be taken as
negative drops-
Sinitarly the battery emf causing current to llow in clockwise direction in a mesh must be taken as
positive emf and the battery emf causing current to flow in counter-clockwise direction in a mesh rnust be
taken as negative ernf.
For example, for the circuit showt it Fig. 2.23 let the current distribution be made as shown, which
satisfy Kirchhofl s first law tully.
Taking first, mesh AFCBA for the application of Kirchhoff's second law, we see that there is only one
emf acting in the mesh (Er) and since it tries to send current in clockwise direction so E1 be taken as positive,
similarly all the resistive drops i.e. R, (It + I2), R2 Gl + 12) and R, I, are clockwise, so these must be taken as
positive.
.'. According to Kirchhoff's second law in mesh AFCBA
Er = Rr (lr + Iz) + & (Ir + 12) + R5Il
In mesh FEDCF, there is only one emf acting in the mesh (Er) and since it tries to send cuffent in countbr-
clockwise direction through the mesh under consideration, it may be taken as negative. Since all of the
resistive drops R, Ir, Ro Ir, R, (I, + Ir) and Rl G1 + 12) are counter-clockwise, these may be taken as negative.
Hence according to Kirchhofls second law in mesh FEDCF we get,
- Ez = - R: Iz- R+ Iz- R2 Gl+ 12) - Rr (Ir + 12)
or E, = (R, + R) 12 + Gr + R2) (Ir + I2)
In mesh AFEDCBA, emf E, tries to cause curent in clockwise direction so be taken as positive and emf
E. tries to cause current in counier-clockwise direction so be taken as negative. Similarly resistive drop R, I,
b6ing clockwise be taken as positive and resistive drops R, I, and Ro I, being counter-clockwise be taken as
tregative.
Hence El - E2 = - R3 12 - Ra 12 + Rs Il = R5 Ir - (R3 + R, 12
44 Easic Electrical Engineering

Example 2.5, With reference to Fig. 2.24 , ir= -! 2e-', Find]vz.

"-a,y r=2e-t,Y 4=
ei:ven

\C.G.S.I.P. Univ, Delhi Electrical Science May-June 2007)

Solutionr Applying Kirchhoffs curent law atjunction O, we havo v
ir- i2+ \-6ir+ i4=O )a
ot i2=- 5ir+ 4+ i4 (I)
0
Now cuneut i, = -1e-2'
2
1.
2'
cunent i, =6 4L= = -z;'z'
|!o"'z' t
6h

i' =
lt =2"-'' -o'"-" Fig.2.24
t0
. Substituting the values of i,, i and io in Eq, (i), we have

ir= -s'(-+" 2'\*t-2"-2't*o'2"-2'

= n'l"-z'
The voltage y2 developed across the coil is

v,=Lgz !!o.1"-r,t = !xo-1x(-2\e

2,=-0.35"-2, a^.
' dr = 4d 4

Example 2.6. In the network given in Fig. 2.25, find in if V, = 6 V, V, = 2 sin 4t and
U= lu"
Solution: Applying Kirchhoff s voltage law (KVL) to the closed mesh ADCBA, 4H
we have

-V4+V3 +V2-Vl =0 ...(,

Now V' = t'!s td,(!"t'\

-
d; = at\z' )
6F
'
= 4rfxt 2te-zt --4e-21
Substituting values of V,, V, and V, in Eq. (l), we have
-Y 4 + e 4e4t) + 2 sin 4r - 6 =0 FiB.2,25
ot Yo=2sin4t-4eq -6
Now currenl io = cff = efie"n+t-4e2t-61= 6f2x Acos4t - 4 x (.2)e-21\
48 cos4, + 48e 2' Ans.
Example 2.7. Obtain IR in terms of Is in Fig.2.26. tG.G.St.p. Uniy. Delhi Electrical Science MayJune 20071
Solution: Applying Kirchhoffs current law (KCL) to node A, we have
I'=i'+I* ...(0
Applying KVL to closed mesh ABCD, we have
IRR-i/r+(tv=0
or I*R-i,r+cr,i,r=O .: v=i,r
or I*R = n,(1-a) = r(,-I^) (1 - o) '.'FromEq. (i)I.=I,-I*
- r(1 a) Fie.2.26
or I.=:_* 1. Ans.
" R+r(l-a)'
DC Circuits 45

Example 2,8. Determine the current through the 5r, resistor in Fig. 2.27.
lG.G.S.LP. UniY. Dethi Electrical Science Ma!-J ne 20071
junction A respectively, we have
72OAlO
Solution: Applying KCL at

I=0.5i+i=1.5i ...(D

Applyi[g KVL to outer closed loop, we have

2I+lxi+5i=6
ot 2x l.5i + 6t =6 '.' From Eq. (r) I=1.5i

ori= 6=2A Anr.

93 I.is.2.27
Example 2.9. Find current in 2 O resistor. IU.P Tech ical llni1). Basic Electrical Errgi eering Oild Senester 2013-141

Solution: l-€t the curent distdbution in the tretwork be as sho}!'rt itrFig,2.29'

Applying KVL to meshes ABEFA and BCDEB we have 4() B 1r}
respectively
4A 1cr
Il t2
4lt+2(\+r) =24 ...(,
...(,,) 6V
and 12xl+2(Il+12)=6 24Y

ot3\+Iz=12 ...(ii,
ED
ar,d2l.,+31r=6 ...(,")
Fie.2.28 Eis.2.29
Solving Eqs (iir) and (iv) we have

r. = f9a ana r^= r9e

'1
cunentin2Qrcsistor=I'+I.z=
+t(+) = f e l^.
Example 2.10. Determine the current in the 5 O resistor in the network shown in Fig. 2.30'
lAnna Univ. Circuit Theory May/June'20141
Solution: lrt the cunent distribution, complying KCL,
in the nelwork be as shown in Fig. 2,31 I-Ii
Applying KVL to the left hand loop ABGFA we 10() 2A
10.) D

10Il+5(Il+2)=50 50v: r-\-2

or 3I1 =8 5() 1.)

o. l,=9e
,} E

Fig. 2.30 Fig, 2.31

Current through 5 C! rss151q1= 1, 12= ! +2
3

= 4 or 4.667 A Ans.
3
(Fig. 2.32).
Example 2.11. trind the value of R and current through each branch if current in branch AO is zero
lPb. Tech ical llniv. Basic Electrical anil Electronics Engi eering Dec. 200V

solution: Let the cufiert through branches BA and BO of the circuit be I1 and 12 amperes respectively. ApPlying KcL to
junctions B, A and O, we have
Cument supplied by baftery or cunent in branch CB = Ir + Iz
Curent thiough bmnch AC = Ir '.' Current through branch AO is zero
Curent thrcugh branch OC = Iz
Now applying Kirchhoff's voltage law to meshes ABOA, CAOC and BCOB rcspectively we have
46 Basic Electrical Engineening

-Ir+4I2 = 0
or 11 = 4I2 ('
l.5lr-RI2 = 0
OI R = IJIL
I2

=1.5x4=6QAns.
and 4Iz + RI2 f
Ir) = 10
2(I1 +
or 412+612+2(412+l) = l0 FiB,2.32 Fig. 2.33
2Ol2 = l0
orI'=0'5A
Now Curent in branch BA = I1 =4I2=4x0.5=2A Ans.
Curent in branch AC = Ir = 2 A Ans.
_ Curent in branch BO = L = 0.5 A Ans.
Current in branch OC = Iz = 0.5 A Ans.
Current in branch CB = Ir +Iz=2+0.5 =2.5A Ans.
Example 2.12. Determine the current drawn from the 5 volt battery in the network shown Fig. 2.34.
lR.G. Technical Uniy. Basic Electrical dnd Electotxics Engineering, June-20121
Solution: Let the current disfibution be as shown in Fig, 2,35.
Applying KVL to meshes ABCDA, BCEB and CDEC, we have
+ 2(I-11 I 3!}
3I + 2(I -Ir) -Ir) =5
ot '71- 4lt- 212 = 5 .-.(i) I
2A ^ 2A
2(I-Ir)+3I2-Ir =0 D
l-Ij_ l2
or 2I- 3Ir rf

li
12
3I, =O ...1;;;
+
3() 4A
and 2(I -Ir -I, -4(I, + I.) - 3I, =0
ot 2l-611 9I, = 0...1;,;;
E
Solving Eqs. (i), (ii) and (lil), we have F19.2.34 Fig. 2.35
1<
:A. I _1
L =-A and L =___A
7.1 1.1 " 7.1

Curent dmwn from 5 V source = I=-rj:=0.974A An..

7.'7

Example 2.13. Find the current through the 5 O resistor in the circuit showD in Fig. 2.36.

10 ll 10 i.e. 5(!

Fig. 2.36 FiB.2.37 Fig.2.38

Solution: The given circuit may be redrawn as shown in Fig. 2.36 and be rearanged again as shown in Fig. 2.37.

5in""
Res _ Rgc i.r. 10 a
Rep Rco 5= 15
DC Circuits 47

It means that the circuit is balanced Wheatstone bridge. Hence the curent through 5 C) resistance (connected between
B and D) is 0 ampere. Ans.
Example 2.14. Use source transformation method to compute tjrc currenl through
6 O resistor of trig. 2.39(a).
UJ.P. Technicat UniT. Basic Electical E gineering Second Semestet, 2014'151
Solution: Convefiing cun'ent souce iDto equivalent voltage source, the given circuit
becomes as shown in Fig. 2.39(b). Ler the curre[t distribution be as shown in
Fic.2.39(b).
Applying KCL to node F we have
I = Ir + Iz ...(,)
Fig. 2.39 (a)
Applying KVL to meshes CDEFC and FABCF respectively, we have
5I + 5Il =10
or
5(I1 + 12) r 5Ir = 10 From Eq. (1) I = Ir + '. I, I1

or lolt + 5I2 = l0 o
5()
or 2\+12 =2 ...(,,) 0v
ar,d, ZIr+ 6lr- 51, =4
or 8I2-5It =4 ...(llr)
Fig.2.39 (b)
Solving Eqs. (ii) and (iii) we haYe

t, = 14 un61, = 94
6
So current flowing through 6 C, resislor = l, = A Aor.

Example 2.15. In Fig. 2.40 compute the voltage required between terminal a-, so that a voltage drop of 45 v
occurs across 15 O resistor. LG.B. Technical lJniv. Electical Engineering Second Semester, 2010-11)

Solution: Given circuit is redrawn as shown in Fig.2.4l. l,et the culIerlts flowing through the vadous branches be as

shown in the circuit.

Voltage drop across 15 Q resistor = (It - I) x 15 = 45 V
or It-I3 =3 ...(0

Applying KVL to loop ABCA, we have

35 Ir - 8I2 =0
or 12 = I lt=43't5lt (i0

Applying KVL lo loop BCDB. we have 22c)

22(r2+\)- -Ir)
15 (I' =0 Fig,2.4o
ot 22(lz+\) = 15 (Ir - Ir) = 45 A 11 3!.o
'.' From Eq. (0, 15 (I, - Ir) = 45

or [-+1, = f22 =z.ocscsqs

substituting 12 = 4.375 Il from Eq. (ii) in above equation, we have

4.3'75 \ +\ = 2.O454545 "'(i',
Adding Eqs. (r) and (iir, we have D 22O Iz+ 13

5-3't5 tr = 5.0454545 Fig.2.4l

5.0454545
or Il - = 0.9387 A
5.3'15
48 Basic Electrical Engineering

Voltage required between teminal D4 = 35 lr + 15 (It - 13)

= 35 x 0.9387 + 45
= 77.854 V Ans.
SoYou = \tuo= 17 854V Ans.
Exampl€ 2.16, Calculate the current through the galvanometer in the following bridge [Fig. 2.42 (d)].
[U.P. fechnical Uniy. Electrical Engineering, ]a uary-2003)
Solution: Assume current distribution in the bridge network
as shown in Fig, 2.42 (b).
Applying Kircbloffs second law to meshes ABDA,
BCDB and ABCA respectively we have
lr+ 4lr-2lr=0 ,,.(l)

2(Ir -13) - 3 (I2 + 13) -413 =0

ot 2lr-3lr-9lr=0 ...(r,)

and I,+2(I,-Ir)=2
or 31, - 21.' =2 ...(ri) 2v
Solving Eqs. (i), (ri) and (iii) we get Fig,2.42 (a) Fis.2.42 (b)

I:= I e,I^= f1 Aandl= 19 e

'44
I
So cunentthrough galvanometer = 13 = A Ans,
44

2.11. .NET.1IYORK, THEIOREII,S

The circuit variables, we are interested in determining, generally are (i) current through or (ii) voltage across
a resistance of interest or a group of resistances. Sometimes it is required to work out the necessary source
voltage or source current which will cause a specific current through or voltage across a given resistor or
result into a specified power dissipation by it.
The cunent flowing through a circuit is governed by basic law called the Ohm's law, already discussed
in chapter 1. Distribution of current or the voltage over a circuit is governed by Kirchhoffs laws, already
discussed in the preceding Art (Art. 2.10).
The circuit to be analysed may be simple or quite complex. In case of complex networks the solution
procedure may be too tedious and time consuming. Certain techniques for solution of such networks have
been developed which reduces the networks to simpler form for quick solution. This may be accomplished
through the use of what are called as network theorems. Few of these network theorems, which are relevant
at this stage, will be discussed here.

2.,I2 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

This theorem is applied when we are to determine the current in one particular branch of a network containing
several voltage sources or current sources or both yoltage sources and current sources, This scheme is to
determine how much curent each of the individual source contributes to the branch in question, and then
add algebraically these component curents.
If there are several sources of emfs acting simultaneously in an electric circuit, then according to this
theorem emf of each source acts independently of those of other sources, i. e. as if the other sources of eml did
not exist and current in any branch or conductor ofa network is equal to the algebraic sum ofthe cunents due
to each source of emf separately, all other emfs being taken equal to zero. This theorem is applicable only
in linear circuits, i.e. circuits consisting of resistances in which Ohm's law is valid. In circuits having
DC CircuiEs 49

nonlilear resistances such themioaic vaives and metai rectifiers, this theorem is not applicabie. However,
xs
superposition theorem can be applied io a rircuit corimining curr"e[t sources and even to circuits containing
boih voltage sources and current sources. To remove a cufrent soulce from the circuit, circuit of the source
is opened Laving in place any conductance that may be in parallel with it, just as seies resistalice is kept irr
place when voltage source is removed.
Though the application ofthe above tileorcm rcquires a little mole work thnn othel methods such as the
circulating curenl method but it avoids the Soiution of two or more simultaneous equations. Atier a littie
pracrice;th this method, equarions can be wrirten directly from the odgjnat circuit diagratn and labour in
drawing extra diagrams is saved.
The superposition theorem can be stated as below:
ln a liiear resistive teb|ork containing tyt)o or ttore voltage rcurces, tlxe currew ihrouglt tny element
esistonce or source) ntay be tletermined by adding together algebraicaliy tlrc currents pradtrced by
each
lt
source acting ttlottc, w,hen all othet voltege Saurces arc replacetl by their internal tesistttnces. If a voltoge
source has no inteflwl t.esistance, tlle ler i ols to which it tras contxected arc joined together. IJ tircte are
cllrreri sources present thel are removel aad the nrnto|k tLfltinnL to which tley were conrrccted ai'e lelt

The procedure for apptying superpo-rition theorel[ is as follows:

1. Replace a[ but one of the sources of supply by thc internal resistances. If the i temal resistance of aty
source is very small as compafed to other resistances existing i[ the fletwork, the soulce is rcplaced by
a short cir.cuit. ln case of a curent Source oPen the cilctlit leaving in place afly conductance
that may be
in purrllei with ir.
2. Deteflnine the curretlts in various branches using Ohm's iaw.
3. Repeat the process using each ofthe emfs tum by iuflr as tire sole emfeach time. Now the toial currerrt
in any branch of the circuit is the aigebraic sum of currents due to each soulca'
The details ofthe above procedure can best be understood by examining its application to the following
solved exampies.
Example 2.17. In the circuit showr in Fig. 2.43, find the current 3r) 9!)
through the 6 (! resistor using superposition theorem.
Iu P. Tetbti.:al Ltni'). Electrical E gi eering Second Senester, 2007'08) 6!)
120 v
Solution: Replacing 60 v source by a short circuit, the circtrit is reduced to
x .imple circuiL \ho\a n in Fig. ).44(a)
Eqrdvalent rcsistance of the circuit shown in Fi9.2.44(a). Fig. 2.,13
R' = Res + RBc ll Rso
=3O+6li 9-3+3.6=6.6o
Curenl supplied h) 120 V.oulcc
r 20 120 200
"- R' 6.6 II ''
Current in resistance, R6r,I' = I, Y ''BC Rv, current dirisiun ruLe
-RBC + RCD (a)
lf,o 9 r)o - go
11 916 l1
Simiiarly on replacement of 120 V source by a shoi-t cifcuit, tlie given
circuit is rcdrced to a simple ci: cuit shown inFLg. ?-.44(b)
Equ;\ clenl rc\i\lance of tlti: ciriuit is
R" = F-cB + RBD ll Rs.{=9+6Ll 3 =9+2 = 11Q
Crrrcnt supplied hy 6Cl V soulce, (b)
60 60
- ll 1I
Fi9.2.44
 5() Basic Electrical Engineering

curreirt in resisror BD,I,,=12 x = =

-RBA #"* # ^
Total cunent, through 6 Q resistor is equal to the algebraic sum ofcurrents I, and I,,

r =r'+t" = 4*-2 = !!9 a 4,,". '. I" is in opposite direction to that ofI'.
. 11 ll ll
Example 2.18. Find the current flolving through I0 () resistance in the following
circuit (Fig, 2.45) use superposition theorem.
IElectrital Engineering C.B. Tech ical Uniy- Second Semester 20lt-12;
U.P. Technical U ir. Eten Semestet 2013,111
10 ()
Solution: Replacing 60 V source by a short circuit, thecircuitis reduced to a simple
circuii shown in Fig. 2.46. 60v
Current flowing through 10 Q resistance,
Fis. 2,4s
Ir = 30,g =2oAgpward
Replacing 30 A current source by an open
circuit, the given circuit is reduced to a simple 269 20f)
10()
circuit shown in Fig. 2.47.
Culrent flowing through l0 C) resistance,
{)sor
60
11 60v
2 20 +tO
=2Adownward Fi9.2,46 Fie.2.47
Total cumentflowing thrcugh l0 O resistance,
I=I,rI,
=20 + ( 2) = 18 A upward Ans_.

Example 2.19, Using superposition theorem find the cirrrent flowing through
resistor l{ in Fig, 2.48ta). 3A
lMahamaya Technical Uni,r. Electtical Engineering First Semestet 20lt-t2l
Solution: R€placing 15 V source by a short circuir, the circuit is reduced to a Fig. 2.48(a)
simple circuit as shown in Fig. 2.48(b). The
cunent of 3 A is divided into resistances of B
4 O and 4 equally, as shown in Fig. 2.48(D).
C) 1.875 A
1.875A
The cunent in resistor R will be zero, being 4A
shortcircuited.
8!)
Replacing 3 A current soutce by an open
circuir. rhe circuir is reduced to a simple circuit 3A
4'l
as shown in Fig. 2.48(c). Current in resistor R
1.875 A
will be equal to 15/8 i.e. 1.875 A. D
Thus cr.utent through resistor R in (b) k)
Fig. 2.48(a) = 0 + 1.875 = 1.875 A Ans. Fig. 2.48

Example 2.20. State superposition theorem. Apply the same for frnding the current in 50 O resistor with the
reference direction shown in circuit (Fig. 2,49), 100 a 150 a
' tX.G. Technical Untu. Basic Electrical antl Electronics Engineeting, Juhe-20121
Solution: Refer to Art. 2.12.
Shorting the voltage sources, we have the circuit as shown in Fig. 2.50.
,r7(, n ,o r.
Curent in 50 C) resistor,

I'=0.t, lIl l/50

50 100 150
0.002
0.02+0.01+0.006667
= 0.05455 A I
Eie,2,49
]uo
 51
DC Circuits

source' the circuit becomes as shown in Fig

2 51'
On shorting lO V source and opening the current
so * 15!
Equivalent resistance of the circuit' R" = 100 + 50 ll
150 = 100+--0+ = t.lu.s o
150

(l
Current suPplied bY 5 V souce, I=
1-37.5 27.5
150
Current through 50 Cl resistor, I" =
27.5 50 + 150 AUG l0il]
l13 A ...BY current division ruie
2'7.5 4 110
-t-=- Fig 2.52.
source' the circuit becomes as shown in
On shorting 5 V source and opening the curent
100 o 150 O
Equivalent resistance of the circuit, 100 f)

R"' = 150 t l00ll s0

0.05455A

- rso*I&^50
"-- 100 + 50 = 183.33 o 50!l 50(r
0.1A
Current suPPlied bY 10 V source
1o
= 83.33
r
=3e
55 Fig. 2.50 ris.2.s1
Curent through 50 O resistor,
r-- 3 loo =2A
'-ss too+so 55

Resultant current with the rcfercnce direction showfl

in lhe circuit.
3
l=1'+1"+1"' = O.O5+SS + 110-255
= 0.04546 A Ans.
calculate the current in the
Example 2.21. Using superposition theorem'
\B in the circuit shown in Fig. 2'53' ':'6v, a 12\,
EnSineering Od(l Senester' 2012'131 i1o
lG.B- Techtriul Unil'- Electlical
12 V battery out of the circuit, the circuit is
reduced to a simple
Solution: Taking
o (2 + 1) Q are in parallel
.,r."i, **. r" Frt. r.54 in;hich resistance of 6 and

.l"i ,ir" with a rcsistor of 2 5 C) and battery of 6 v and

is in series
,1.5 O "..ui*,iJ"
intemal resistance.
" R"=2f)

1A

| 12v

B
B
Fig. 2.5s
FiB.2.54

Equivalent rcsistance ofthe circuit shown in Fig 2 54 o

(2 + 1) = 3 + 6 ll 3 = 3 + 2 = s
R' = 6, + {1 + n ll tR'7 + r") = (2 s + 0 5) + 6 ll

Current supplied by 6 vbattery,ll = h=! =f ze

node B
= 0 4 A from node A to
cunentin bmnch AB,'i = t, " *l#t n = "'#+
 ,+t*****ru;ffihf#}fl
curent in branch AB, r; = rr"**#n a9J
=2.4x -?j =0.8A from node A ro node B
Total cunenr rhrough branch AB = I; rIj = 0.4 + 0.8 1.2 A Ans.
=
Example 2.22. Find the current in S C, resistance using superpositiol principle.
[Rajasthan Te(hnicat Unir. 20071
Solution: In the give[ circuit, tllere are threr sources, out of which one souce is dependent
source. The magnitude oi dependent source becomes zero when all other
4 v-=
sources are
reduced to zero. Therefore, dependenr souce alone needs not to be considered
in applying
superposition theorem.
Shorr circuiring the volrage source the circuit becorDes as shown in Fig.
2.57.
Applyirg KVL ro closed loop II, rve have Fig. 2.56
2(2 +t\\+ sli + 3vR =0
ot 4+71\ +3VR =0 ...(r)
and 2(2 + Ii ) = -VR +V *l"s=
2A 2+ Ys *t;5= I
Substiruring VR = - (2tj + 4) in Eq. (i), we 2a 3Vn 3a t
have 2A
4+7I; +3[-(2Ii +4)] =0 ]I
or I3=8A Fig.2.51 Fig. 2.58
Ope[ cilcuiting the 2 A cune[t souce the circuit becomes as shown in Fig. 2.5g.
Applying KVL in the closed circuit, we have
+5Ig =4 3VR
2I3l
or 7I!l = 4 - 3VR =.1+ 6I! 'I V* = 213'
ot 7Ig =4A
Total curent tlu.ough 5 O resisror,15 = I! +I( =8+.1= 12A Ans.

2.13 MAXWELL CIRCULATING CURRENT THEOREM

If a network with several sources has nore than two nodes the cun-ent in it may be determined by this
theorem. This is one of the most univerual methods for solvirg networts.
In a lumber of cases, a network may be considered as consisting of a set of
adjoining loops (two i[
Fig. 23), each ofwhich lbrms apolygon made up of severar branches
of-the networt i*itt out-uny a'rugonaj.
Some branches of the network are cornmon to two adjacent loops, while
others form an extemal circuit wher.e
each branch occurs in one ioop only.
This theorem i,vorves representing a curre,t that is assumed to circulate
around a ciosed loop by a
curved arrow and labelling the arrowrvith its identifying cunent symbol
I with a subscript. By this theorim
the current flowing through the branch comrnon to two meshes wiil
be equal to the algebiaic sum ofthe two
loop curents flowing truough it. The direction of any loop cufent nay
be taken either as clockwise or
counter-clockwise but tbr systematic solulion the directions of all loop
currents are assumed to be the same
(say clockwise). 'Ihen Kirchhoff's
second law is applied to each mesh and algebraic equations
are obtained.
The toral number of independent equations is equar to the number of
meshes (i. r. trre." are r"*e,
than in a purely Kirchhoftian solution). Therefore, they can be
solved as simultareous equations to"qruiion,
giu" t1,"
DC Circuits 53

circulating currents and then the branch currents. Thus, this method eliminates a great deal of tedious
calculation work involved in the branch current method, discussed in Art 2.10.
Application of Maxwell circulating cunent theorem will be more clear from the following illustrations.
Example 2.23, Find the currents in all the resistive branches of the circuit shown in Fig. 2.59 by KVL.
I U.P. Technical Uni\'. Electrical Engifleefing Second Senestet, 2007'08 ]

Solution: The network is redrawn as shown in Fig.2.60. The 10c) 20c)

individual branch currents along with their dircctions of flow are
shown in the circuit diagram.
Applying KVL to loop I we have 1oo v I so 10A

10Ir+5(Ir+10) =100
or 15 I,+50 = 100 Fig. 2.59

or t, = !9 =3336 I, .10.1 ?9.1 1oA

15
11+ 10
Thus current in 10 Q resistance,
100 v 5r, 10A
Ir =333A Ans'
Cu[ent in 5 O resistance =I]+10 .D
= 3.33 + 10 = 13.33 A Ans.
Fig. 2.60
Currentin 20 C) resistance = 10A Ans.
Example 2.24. Find the current in 2 Q resistance in the following figure
(Tig. 2.61) using loop analysis method. 40 2a
IA.K. Techflical LInb. Basic Ele;trical Engineering Second Semester.20l5'l6f
Solution: The network is redrawn, as illuskated inPlp,.2.62, There are two
independent loops. Loop cuments have been takeo clockwise as marked in the
40v 20v
l
figure. The individual branch currents along with theirdirections offlow ate also Fig.2.67
shown in the circuit diagram.
t2
Applyiog KVL to meshes I and II respectively, $'e have
11-
4I,.+2(Ir-lr)=4O 20
ot 611 2lz = 20 0"4)
-f 'n -,) -
or 3Ir-Ir=10 ...(r) 40v r s OzorY (

and 3I2 2(Ir - 1r) =20 - lO

or -2Ir + 5I2 = 10 ...(ir) Fi9.2.62
Solving Eqs. (i) and (ii) we have

t, = 6oa undl.=
5oa
' 13 ' 13
60-50 l^.
L urrenr rn2s2resrstor= L -l.= 1l t3 -l9o
13
Example 2.25. Using mesh analysis, calculate the currents Ir alld 12 in Fig. 2.63.

IG.B. Technical UniN. Electtical Enenrcering First Sefl estet, 201 1 - l 2l

Solution: The net\rork shown in Fig. 2.63 is redrawn, as shown in Fig. 2.64.
These are three independents loops. The loop curent have been taken as shown in
Fig. 2.6rt satisfying the currents marked in Fig. 2.63. The individual branch cur-
rcits along with their directions of flow are also shown in the circuit diagram. 'i'he
resistor carrying currert Il, whose value is not given, may be assumed of 8 O.

Applying KVi- to meshes I and II rcspectively, we have

8Ir + 4(Ir l0)+4(Ir+lr)=-20
ot 16lt + 412=20 ...(D Fig. 2.63
54 Basic Electrical Engineerin:

and 8I2 + 4(I2 + l0) + 4(I1 +I,)=-20 8.l

or4It+1612=-60 \-/ III I

orl1 +4I2=-l5 (i, t=fiA)

4rr 4a
Subtracting Eq. (ii) from Eq. (i), we have 11-10 12+ 10
Ir+Iz
15Ir = 35
8c) 4cr 8a
n, l.= -7AA^.
5 20v
1
SubsriruLins L = - A in Eq. (ii). we ha\e Eis,.2.64
-t

-t) L' -15 J=-

', -tl .
L=- - -{ Ans.
43
Example 2.26. In Fig, 2.65, if all the yoltages are equal each being 10 volts, and if all the resistances are also equal'
each being 5 O, Iind the currents II I2 and 13 using Maxwell current loop method.
lRajasthan Technical Univ March 20091
Solution: ApplyinS KVL to meshes l, 2 and 3, we have
11 x5+(11 -13)x5+(I1
-12)x5 =10
12x5+(\2 Ij)x5+(I2 -11)x5 = l0
ard Ii x5+(I3 I1)x5+(I3-12)x5 =10
ot 3\ - 12 -13 =2
312 -11 \ =2
3\-\ 12= t
.,.(I)
(,0
...(iii)
ot
Solvirg Eqs. (i), (,r) and (iii), we have,
Ir=12=13=2A. Ans. Fig. 2,65

F'xar.Ilple 2.27. Applying mesh analysis, obtain the current through 5 O resistance in the following circuit
(Fig.2.66). fElectrical Engineerit. G.B. Technirat tlnir s".onit SemesteL 2011'12:
U.P. Technical Univ. Even Semester,20l3'141

Solution: The circuit is rcdruwn with bmnch currents 10() 5C} 4A

marked with the flow of direction. as illustrated in
I
Fig.2.61.
From circuit diagram shown in Fig. 2.67, we have 2A 2A 2a

\ =2A
Iz =lA Fis. 2.66
Applying KVL to meshes BCFGB and CDEFC
respectively we have AII=2A 191. BI,=I .srt. c 4A

512r2(I-I3) 2(I,-Ir) =0 I

ot 9I- 2\ =2x2=4 (i) I 2A b) 2A 100 v

'"I,=2Aa1flIr=l \-rz lI,-I,
and 4I., - 2 (I, -Ir) =-100
=2-r l=I-I,
or2I-6I: = 100 ,..(,,
Fig.2.67
SolvingEqs (i) and (ii) we have
-88
25
= -3.52 A Ans.
DC Circuits 55

Example 2.28. Find voltage Vr across 6 Cl resistance in the following

circuit (Fig. 2.68) using loop analysis method.
lElectrical Engineering G.B. Technical Univ. Odd Semestet,2009'10;
IJ.P. Technical Univ. Odd Se ester, 2013'l4l 3

Solution: Current distribution in differcnt branches of the circuit satisfying

KCL is shown in Fig. 2.69.
Applying KVL to meshes I and lI respectively we have Fig.2.68
6It + 12(lt 1r) =3O-12
or 3Ir - 212 =3 ...(i)
ar,d2lr+ 6lr- 12(Ir-lr) = 12
or512-3Ir =3 ..(ii) 3ov eo C)6a
Sorring Eqs rir and lii) we have
lz= 2 A
and Vr =6I, Fig.2,69
=6x2=12V Ans.

2.,I4 NODE-VOLTAGE THEC|REM Oi rOOArr A*lUvSlS

The direct use of Kirchhoff's laws for determining the currents in complicated networks recessitates the
simultaneous solution of a considerable numbel of equations, making the computations exkemely time-
:onsuming. However, there are a number of methods (such as loop-cunent method, lode-voltage method
3tc.), based on the same Kirchhoff s lau,s, that obviate the solviug of a set of equations or reduce the number
ol equations and, therefore, significantly cut the computation work.
For application of node voltage theorem one of the node is taket as reference ot zero potential ot datum
,idde and the potential difference between each of the other nodes and the reference node is expressed in
:ermsof ai unknown voltage (symbolized as V, , V, or Vo , Vu or V,, Vu etc.) and at every node Kirchhoff's
:lrst (or curen0 law is applied assuming the possible directions ofbranch currents. This assumption doe-s not
".range the statement of problem, since the branch curents are determined by the
potential difference
r3rween respective nodes and not by absolute values of node potentials. Like Maxwell's circulating current
:r'leorem, node-voltage theorem reduces the number of equations to be soived to determine the unknowu
;uantities. If there are n number of nodes, there shall be - 1) number
(n of nodal equations in terms of (r? - 1)
:,umber of unknown variables of nodal voltages. By
.olling these equations, nodal voltages are known
:.r compute the branch curents. I2

When the number of nodes minus one is less E.

:ilan the number of independent meshes in the
letrvork, it is, in fact more advantageous. Moreover,
ri is panicularly suited for networks having many C REFERENCE
pirallel circuits with common ground connected NODE

lode such as in elecftonic circuits. Fis.2.70

Iuustration. Consider, for example, a two node network, illustrated in Fig. 2.70.
as
Node C has been taken as reference node. Let Vo and Vu be the voltages ofnodes A and B respectively
$ irh respect to node C. Let the current distribution be as shown on the circuit di agram (Fig.2.7O) arbi trarily.
\ow let us get independent equations for these two nodes.
Node A is thejunction ofresistors R| R2 and R4. So current equation for node A is
I, = Ir+I.
EI VO VA_VB , VA
Rr R. R4
-

56 Basic Electrical Engineering

",r[,.,_,]r;-_.,
'\Rr R, Rr i R. Rl
...(2.23)

Node B is the junction of resistors Rr. R3 and R.. So current equation fol node B is
It=I'+I'
^- \s \\--vts E:-\B
Rs R2 R3
.. T
o. R, *vol 1*l l =!z
'* "ie, '* R. R, Rl ...(2.24)

The Eqs. (2.23) arld (2.24) can now be solved to get the values of Vo and Vu and then the values of
!, I,, Ia and I5 can be computed easily.
cui:rents I,,

Example 2.29. Find the current through the 1 ohm resistor usiog node voltage method for the circuit shovn ilr
Fig.2.1l. LRajasthan T?chnical U iv. J n€-2010: .ran./Feb. 20131
Solution: Let rhe circuit be redrawr with its different nodes marked A. B and C, the last one being takcn as Iefe(ence or
clitum node (Fig. 2.72). Applying KCL to nodes A and B respectivell,. we have
I = Ir+tr: 't e)

12-V^ V^ V,-V
^B
251 2A
\./
or 17Vo 10Vu = 60 ...(i) unL -Sn.,
ard I, = I,-1.
v,q -vs _ vB _24-vB
| -4 3

or 12Vo - t9Vs = -96 ...(ii)

Solving Eqs. ril and /lii. wc hx\e
..
V. = -""
2-100 -.
v
^ 201
rn.l v^
" -'---
20.1
Cur€nt through I Q resistor

.,'' _ Ve - \r -
_, 2.100- 2.J52
--'--
t 2ol
i.e., 1.24 A {rom node (2) to node (1) Ans. Fis.2.72
Example 2,30. Use nodal analysis method to find currcnts in the yarious resistors of the circuit shown inFig.2.73.
IChhattisscrh Viyekanaxd Teehnical Uniy. 2006-071
Solution : Let the circuit be redrawn with its different nodes marked A. B, C and D, the last one being taken
as reference
oi datum node. Applying KCL to nodes A, B and C iespectively, we have
ll+12+I? = I
V" V^ V. V,
or -1+-L_]:+_L:
V.
= 2li
2210
orll VA-5VB-Vc = 280 ...(i)
l, = Ir+I,
,'n V, )!_vr \u
o. ,
2t5 =
or5VA lTVB+i0Vc = 0 ...(i,)
I.+I, Iu = 2 Fie,2,73
 :r/
BC Cincuits

v" V Vs V,- V. -,
l0 I 4
...(iiD
oi2VA+20V8 -27 Y, = 4O

Solving Eqs. (i), (ii) and (iii) we have

36 V, Vn = 20 and V. = 16 \'
Vo=
as below'
The various currents in the circuit shown in Fig 2 74 are determined
v^ 36
2

,,-la vs 3(r - 20
--=xAAn\.
2 2
36-16
= =2Aoo".
' t0 10

,-ve vc
=
2o 16
=4Aan*.
I
v* 20
D

Fig. 2.7;l
endtu= -\! = -19 =+la*.
a given circuit shown in Fig' 2'75'
Erample 2.31. Determine il, i., and i3 using norlal analysis for
tL.p. Technical Llniv. EleLrrical Engi eetine O(ld Senester 201i'111 za -A_
Solution: Let the circuit given Fig. 2.75 be ledrawn with terrninal G
i11

.rs ihe reference node as shown in Fig 2 76 Let the current flowing
firough branch AB be i, amperes llowing from node A to node B' 24V

Applying Kirchhoff's cun-entlaw to nodes A andB lespectiveiy

i1+i2=i. Fig. 2.75

24-v^ 0-v^ ...(,

26
andi,-3=l,
orilt3 =L
.,r fE+: =; ..(ri)
8'
Node voltage V" = Node voltage VA -4 .. liii) Fig.2J6
Substitutiig VB = VA -4 in Eq. (ii) we have

\j*: =,_ ...(n,

8

Comparing Eqs. (i) and (iv) we have

24-VA _ VA Vo-4*3
=
268
or 288 - l2VA - 4VA = 3.1 A 12 +'72
or lgVo = 288 + 12 -72 = 228

orvn=?4=12Y
l9
=v,r 4=12-4=8V
vB

Curent il -L-J,=?!::1 -6A Ans.

22
a

58 Basic Electrical Engineerin

=

Lurrenri.= o-vA
o '12
'66 - - 2A Le. 2 A flowing away from node A Ans.

V'=9
Currentl =
8
=t,q tr..
Example 2.32. Determine the voltage Vr and V, in Fig. 2,77.
lMlihamaya Technical Unir. Electrical Engineering Second Semester, 2A11-12')
Solution: Let the circuitbe redrawn with terminalO as thereference node and arbitra lv assumed distribution ofcurrents.
as shown in Fig.2.78. 5^
Assume I =5 A (missing data)
v, 7" Y2

Applying KCL to nodes A and B respectively we have

Ir+I, =I
v vr -v-/
-- I
^r--r+ 2.5
-5 ...(D

and13-I, =4
V,YV,
...(,,)
0.5 2.5
otTYr-2Y2=25 ...(fi) r

and-Vr+6V2=10 ...(,,
Solving Eqs. (iii) and (iv) we have
Vr =4.25 V Ans.
Fie,2,78
aild V2 =2375V Ans'
Example 2.33. Calculate curr€nts in all the resistances of the circuit shonn 2A
in Fig. 2.79 (a) using node analysis method.
IU-P. Technical Uniy. Electrical Engineeting First Semester, 2006-04
Solution: Let the given circuit be redrawn with terminal G as the reference 6V 3gl 12 I
node and arbiharily assumed distribution of curents, as shown in Fi g, 2.79 (b).
Applying Kirchhoff's cunent law to node B we have
I,, = Ir+I, Fig.2.79(a)

V.
or --E = 'A 'B +4 2A
t2
Vr*, tz ltr
n.lh=6
122 3ll rzo] (t
or VB = 36-6VB+48
or 7VB = 84
G
or VB = 12V Fie.2,79 (b)
So we have

Currenl in 3 C) re\i\tan.., t, = Y.f = ! = 2 ,A Ans.

'33
Vq - Ve 6t2
Current in 2 Cl resislance.lJ = ____- = 2 = JA An.. i.e. 3 A from node B to node A Ans.

vB_12 -
Current in 12 C! resistance, 14 = = 1A Ans.
t2 12
DC Circuits 59

Also calculate total power loss'

Example 2.34. Find current in each branch by using nodal analysis'
tU.i. Technical Ltnb. Basic Electtical EngineetinS OdA Seneste\ 2013'111

Solution: Taking node G as reference node and the potentials of nodes

A' B and C be VA' VB and vc respectively and
curent distribution as shown in Fig.2.80 (D) arbitrarily'
Applying Kirchhoff s curent law to nodes A' B and 10 e) 204
B
C respectively we have "
l=It+Iz
roo ( |
ort=L+l!-lh
510
1A t) lu. 320ct

or3VA-VB =10 (')

l,=l,,tl.,
Fig.2.80 (a)
]r-vt = v'- * vu-v..
-102020
,l
,r,
l0o B 20o
or2VA-4VB+Vc=0 (i, 1j lz la

and I. + 0.5 = I,
14 5(! 20 !! .,0"( 'r 0.5A
,,,
vs -vc *g.5 =Iq D
20 l0
or VB - 3 Vc = -10 .. (i',
G
Solving Eqs. (i), (ii) and (iii) we have
ao.v.v-=19v Fig.2.80 (D)
vq = 9
40
and Vc =
-V
Oresi.tor. l,= '
vr=49rr=91, Ar..
So currenl through 5
, 5 q

current throueh I0clresistor. 12= "h]E = 'l)'rt = 1o 'tn''

{.-rg
r
=]oJ , 20=ln
v".
Currenl thjough 20 fl resistor. lJ = -2"
t)

y+ I A from node C to node B

( unenr rhroueh 20 Q resisror. ,- = = (T - f J', =;J
^
i.e.
18

t
Currenr through l0 Q resistor. t. = ,i -4o
,
An,'

Total powerloss = If x5+I] x10+1] x20+Il x20+I! x10

= (;),,,. (;l''0. (i)",.. (*)" 20.

[1)"'I' = ?9
3
watts Ans.

Example 2.35. Carryout the noalal analysis for the circuit given below 4U
(Fig. 2.81) and then compute the voltage across the 2 U conductance' -
iolitionr Let node d be tak.n as reference node and the potentials of teminals a'
in
b and c be Vo, V, and Vc respectively and current distribution as shown
Fig. 2.82 arbitarily.
Applying KCL at node a we have
. I'+8=1'
or (vd+ l-Vr)x3+8= (vc-Vd)x4
Fig. 2.81
orTVa-3Vr-4V.= -11 ...(i)
 6o Basic Electrical Engineering

Applying KCL at node b we have

It+13=11
fvd+ I -Vr) x3+(V. Vr)x2= V/,x 1

or 3\'a-6Vr-2V = .1 ...(i,
Applying KCL at node c we have
12+13+15 = 25
4(V"-V")+2(V" V,)r5V"= 25
or -4 V., - 2 V, + 11V. = 25 ...0r0 Fig.2.42
Solving Eqs. (i), (ii) and (iii) we have
v'= lv
Y r'= 2Y
v"= 3v
Voltage across 2 U conductance = V.6 =V"-V,,=3 2= I Vans,

This theorem provides a mathematical technique for rcplacing a two-terminal network by a voltage sogrce
Vr, and resistance Rr connected in sedes. The voltage source Vr V- (called
(called r
the 'fhevenin's equitalent voltage) is the open-circuit voltage ihat ap-
pea$ across the load terminals when the load is removed or discon- THEVENIN'S
SOURCE
nected and resistance
\, called the I/r evenin's equivalent resistqnce, is
RL
equal to the resistance of the netwolk looking back into the load termi-
nals. A Thevenin's equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 2.83. The steady-
state current will be given as I
vr
I= RT+RL Fig. 2.83

For visualizing the application of rhevenin's theorem, let us consider a circuit shown in Fig.2.g4
which consists of a source of emf E volts and intemal resistance r ohms connected to an extemal circuit
consisting of resistances R, and R, ohms IRr
ln senes.
So far as terminals AB across which a
resistance of R, ohms is connected the
nerwork acls Js source of open-circuit
voltage Vna (also called the Thevenin's
equivalent voltage V.a) and interlal
resistance Rin (also called the Thevenin's
resistance R ).
DB
Fig. 2.84 Fig. 2.8s
For determitxation ol open-circuit
voltage vo, ktr va), disconnect the load resistance R,_ from the terminals A and B to provide open circuit
lFig. 2.85l.
Now curent through resistance R2, I =
.Ri +R2
+- +r
and open-circuit voltage voc o[ vT = voltage across terminals AB = voltage drop across resistance R,
ER:
=1q.=
' R,+Rr+r' ...(2.2s)

For detefinination of internal resistance R,, (or Rr) of the network under consideration remove the
voltage source liom the circuit,leaving behind only its internal resistance r, as illustrated in Fis. 2.86. Now
DC Cincuits 6a

view the circuit inwards from the open

tefininals A and B. It is found that the circuit
LFig. 2.861 now consists of two parallel paths-
one consisting of resistance R, only, and the
ot her consisting of resistance R I and r in series.
Thus, the equivalent resistance (Rr), as Yiewed
lrom the open terminrls A and B. is given as
B

o _ R:(R, +r) ...(.2.26)

THEVENIN'S SOURCE
"T- Rr+1R,+rr Fig. 2.86 Fig. 2.87

Now when load resistance RL is connected across terminals A and B, the oetwork behaves as a source ol
voltage V, and intemal resistance\ [Fig. 2.87] and curent flowing thtough the load resistance RL is giYen as

, V,
_ ER,/|R. -R: .l ER ...(2.2i)
't-n.,*\ -
_

IrrRr ',! R2(Rr+/)+RL(Rl+R2+/)

R,+r+R2
The Thevenin's theotem can be stated as follows:
The current in any p assive circuit elemert (which may be called RL) in a network is the same as would
be obtained if R, were supplied with a voltage source Voc (or VT) in se es with an equivalent resistance Rin
ior Rr). Vo" being the open-circuit yoltage at the terminals from rvhich R. has been removed and R,n (or Rr)
beingthe riiistance that would be measured at these rerminals after all sources have been removed and each
ha" been replaced by its intemal re\islan(e.
This theorcm is advantageous when we ale to determine the current in a particular element of a linear
bilateral network parlicularly when it is desired to find the current which flows through a resistor tbr its diflerent
values. It makes the solution of the complicated networks (pMicularly eiectlonic networks) quite simple.
Example 2.36. Find the Theyenin's equivalent of the netlvork (Fig. 2.88).
IU.P. Technical Llniv. Electrical Engileeting Second Se estet' 2004 05]
Sotution: Replacing 5 A cu ent source by an open circuit and replacing l0 V voltage source by a shorl circuit we have
Rm=1oo'
Let us convert 10 V voltage source with 10 !l 5 !)
its series rcsistance of l0 Q into an equivalent
current source of I A with a parallel rcsistance
of 10 Q as shown in Fig. 2.39. +
10 !)
From the circuit it is obvious that I + 5
t
= A current flows through l0 Q rcsistor,
6
thereby ptoducing a voltage &op of 6 x 10 =
60 V. Hence Vrh = 60 V.
Fig. 2.88 Fig. 2.89
So Thevenin equivalent of the given
network is equivalent to a voltage source of60 V with 10 O resistance in series with it. 5o 3()
Exampte 2.37. Find the current through 2 O using Thevenin's theorem.
IJ.N. Tccltllological LI tt,. Basic Electrical Ellgi eeti 'i, Dece lber'20121
Solution: For determination of Thevenin's equivalent resistance of the circuit w.r't.
terminals A and B, the voltage source is short circuited,.ts shown in Fig. 2.91.
,1
Thcvenin'sequr\alent resislance.Rf= I +4ll 5 = J- , ^5 = S.:::O
Fig. 2.90
+ _JI 5(, J(, 5(} 3.)

lil"*"ilfl,
For determination ofopen circtit voltage, the resistance
of 2 O is removed, as shown in Fig. 2.92.
Current flowing through closed mesh,
t0 l0
5+4 9
Fis.2.92
l'ig.2.91
62 Basic Electrical Engineerir;

Thevenin's voltage, Vr = Voltage drop across 4 C, resistance = 4I =4 x 9=q.quv

9

Curent through 2 Q resistance,IL = Ans.

#"=#=0.6154A
Example 2.38. Draw the Thevenin's equivalent of the circuit shown in 1!)
the following ligure (Fig.2.93).
lR.G. Technical Uniy. Neta)ork Analysis, J ne-20141
Solution: Fordetermining the Thevenin's equivalent resistance ofthe circuit
w.t.t. terminals AB, the voltage sources are leplaced by short circuits, and 2 C)
resistance is removed as shown in Fig. 2.94(d).
Thevenin's equivalent resistance,
Rr= rt+ t)ll Il-tlll 2 Fig. 2.93

r r , ) , ' '
='+.rliru
lz'' )
- [i Jttz=lrrz=i
3'
=l:"
For detemination of open-circuit voltage,
the resistance of 2 Q is removed lrom the 1t) 11)
circuil. the circuit becomes is 5ho\\n iII
Fis.2.94(b).
Let node G be the reference node and po- 1o
tential of nodes 1 and 2 be V, and V, respec-
tively. Applying KCL at node 1 we have
10-v1 Y . v'-V' (a)
1+1 1 I
or 5Vt 2V2= l0 ...o
Applying KCL at node 2 we have
vl v2 _ v2-5
t2
or 2Vt 3V2= 5 ...(i,
"t+i"
Solvirg Eqs. (i) and (ii) we have
*il'',._"
v. = 19v ana v^= 1iv
' lI ' lt
15 V Fie.2.94(c)
Open-circuilorThevenin'voltage.V. = V,
' = ll
Thevenin's equivalent circuit is shown in F15.2.94(c).

Example 2.39. Find Vrh and Rrh for the circuit shown in Fig. 2.95.
IU.P. Technical Unir. Electtical Engineering Odd Semester 2013-14]
Solution: The equjvalent rcsistance ofthe network (with voltage sourcereplaced
by a short circuitand curaent sources replaced by open-circuits with reference to
terminals P-Q [Fig. 2.96]
Rr=4+6ll (4+2) Fig. 2.95
=4+6116=4+3=7fi Ans.
.---r--4 4 .--t-
The give[ circuit may beredrawn, as illushated
in Fig. 2.97. The curaent sources are converted into JLJh
their equivalent voltage sources, the circuit with
terminals PQ kept open.
|
€2!!

Fig.2.96
un
t "
ts"
Fig.2.97
DC Circuits 6A

16 12 96
Currenr flowing through closcd loop.
' | - 2+4+6 = *12 = oo

Thevenin's voltage, V* = Voltage across branch BC = 96 + 6I = 96 + 6 x (-4) =72 V Ans.

Example 2.40. Using Thevenin's theorem lind the current flowing through 6 O resistor of the network shown in
Fig. 2.98. lR.G.T.U. Basic Electtical and Electronics E,188., December'20121
4()

, 12V
,2o
)
Fig.2.98
Fig. 2.98 Fis,299 Fig.2'I00

Solution: For determination of equivalent resistance of the.circuit w.r.t. terminals 4 and ,, the voltage source is short
circuited and curent source is open circuited and 6 Q resistance is removed as shown in Fig. 2.99
So'Rr=2Q
For determination ofopen-circuit voltage across terminalsa and 0,6 f,) resistor is removed and the circuitbecomes as
shown in Fig.2.100.
Vo. = Open-circuit voltage acrcss terminals a and b' Y ou = 12 - 2 x 2 = 8 V
current flowing throu* t n *t:t:r,-
8
Rr +RL= 2+6 = 1A from terminal4 to terminar D. Ans.

Example 2.41. Find the Thevenin's equivalent circuit of the circuit shown in Fig. 2.101 to the left of ttrminals
a-r, Then lind the current through RL = 6 O, 16 O and 36 Q.
IDCRUSTM Electricdl Technology, Decembet'201 I/Jdnudty'2012)
401Aa
4c) 1c} 4cr 1c)

), fa( ) 2^

Fig. 2.101 (a) (b)

Fig.2.102

Solution: For determi[ation ofThevenin's equivalent rcsista[ce ofthe ciicuit w.r.t. terminals a and 6, the voltage source
is short circuited and cuffent source is open circuited, as shown in Fig.2.lo2(a).

Thevenin s equivalenl resistance. R, =1+ 12l 4=; , ,L =4O

a*1
124 Rr=+o
R1
Converting curent source into equivalent voltage, the circuit becomes as shown in
Fig. 2.102(D). When terminals a and 6 are open, the current flowing through the closed mesh.

I= 32-24
,',. =os'l
+-l- Fig.2.102(c)
So open-circuit voltage, vr = 32 - 4 x 0.5 = 30 V
Thevenin's equivalent circuit is shown in Fie.2.l02(c).
V'=
Currenl lhrough Rr . l=
" =
Rr+RL
7'

64 Basic Elecarical Engineer -.

I= _4+6 =3A
30
A[s. tbr Rl =6--
30
1.5 A Ans. tar RL = 16 .-
4+16 =
30
t= O*jo =0.?5AAns. tbr Rr_ = 16 !-

Example 2.,12, Applying Thevenin's theorem to the circuit given below

(Fig. 2.103), calculate the current through 2 C) rcsistor'
lB.P. Univ. of Technolog! Btsic Electti&l Engineertug' 2010)
Solution: For determination ofThevenin's equivalent resistatce of the circuit w.r.t.
terminals A and B, the voltage sources are rcplaced by short circuits and 2 Q resjstor
is removed as shown in Fig. 2.104(rr)
Thevenin's ecluivalent rcsistance,
Rr =(3 ll l)+(4 li l)
I 4 31 ^
4520
For determination ol Thevenin's voltage
across terminalsA and B. let us determine the
potentials ofterminals A and B (Fig. 2.104(6).
. 5 J-
15 (d)
A.\'.
' = t-]-
Potential of ternrinr I
4 Fig.2.104
t0
Potcntial ol rerminitl B. \'B = t -4 4=8 \'

Therenin svoltaSc.Vro = 8-
,.=-4ll,
4
Current through 2 Q resistor connected between terminals A and B,
Vt Veo-
t,= Rr_R,
.. -- Rr+k= jj^tllo-, =rt.il o frolr1 terminal B to terminal A ,A.ns.

Example 2.43. Calculate curreDt in branch AB in the unbalanced bridge in

Fig, 2.105 by Thevenin's theorem.
LRajdstha Tetlnical Utti. Jatlua\) Februat!" 20111
Solution: Aller renoving thc 3.6 Q resistor between terminals A and B, the circuit
takes the tbrm shown in Fig. 2.106(d).
Now in the circuit sl'roun in Fig. 2. 106(zr), potential of le ninal A w.r"t. terminal D,

V-^ = 4o . -.uq r
-12
8 + 12

Similarl\ V"^ = q0
36 - Jo v
,-4+1()
PD hetween terminals A a)rd B.

Vr= V-qr, VBD=24-36= 12V

Shofi circuiting the,10 V battery. equivalent resistance of the
network with reference to terminals A and B [Fig. 2.106(&)],
Rr= 8c)1112 ()+4r)1136c)
x12 x36
- 8 +12+ 44 +36
8 B
-4.8+3.6=8.4() (b)
l'ig.2.106
DC Cincuits
6i
V-
Curentin branch AB I =
R;l R;
=
-),2 i.e. 1 A from terminal B to terminal A Ans.
a.4 + 3.6

Example 2.44. State Thevenin's theorem and calculate current ina 1,000 O
-:-lA
resistor connected between terminals A and B, as shown in Fig' 2'107'
lElect rical Enginee ring U.P Technical Ul1iN-, lune-200 I ;
G.B. Technicdl Univ. Ocld Semester,2012'13 l

Solution: Now in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.107,

Potential ofpoint B w.r.t. terminal D
5x880
= 2.340426\
1,000 + 880
Big.2.107
Potential ofpoint A w.r't to terminal D

v ^ - 5:!!5,Ss-o.os = 2.iA324 v
100 + 85

PD between terminals B and A,

''tr = 2.340426 - 2.321324 =OO161Y

After replacing battelies by short circuits in the circuit, equivalent resistance of the
netwolk withrcference to tenninals A and B (Fig. 2.108),
Rr = loo ll 8s + l,ooo ll 880

l70u
.. 2'.nn
___::-
= 17 +20+22 +25 =514o
Current in 1.000 C) resistor connected between tetminals A and B,
v- 0.0161
*' t *" B

=,';?lr"JiL-,",-inars B to A Ans. Fig.2.l0B

1.5 kO
Example 2.45, IIow Norton's theorem is equivalent to Thevenin's theorem?
\lso write the limitations ofThevenin's theorem and lind the voltage across
load resistance RL using Thevenin's theorem, when load resistance is 2 kO' 45V r2mA t 3lo
[A.K- Techniiat Ltniv Basic Electrical Engineering First Se ester,2015'16]
Solution: For determination of Thevenin's equivalent rcsistance of the circuit
\r-r.t. terminals A and B in Fig.2.109, the voltage sourceis replaced by a short and
Fig.2.109
curent source is open circuited, as shown in Fig. 2 110(a).
t
Thevenin's equivalenlresislance. Rr = 1.5 ll 3= t , =ltO
1i*J
Removing load resistance R, and applying KVL to the toop formed by 45 V
45
source, 1.5 kQ resistor and 3 kf) risistor we have, ifthe curent supplied by the
V source is I mA, as shown in Fig 2.l l0(b).
1.5 x l0l xIx t
10-3 3 x 103 x (l
12) x l0-3 =45
or 1.5I x 3I 36 =45
orI = 45n36
4.5
=ts.e
Current through 3 kC) resistor =l 12=18-12=6mA
Thevenin's voltage, V, = Voltage drop across 3 kcl re-
sistor (keeping teminals A and \b)
B open) Fig.2.110
=6x l0
lx3 x l0r= l8V
7

66 Basic Electrical Engine=- .

Cur-renr lhruugh loild resistorol) kf). lL l8

RL+Rr (2+l)x103
Voltage across load resisrance of 2 ke,, VL = IL x RL = 6 x l0 3 x 2 x 103 12 V Ans.
=
Example 2.46. Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 2.111, Determine 2!2 2\)
open-circuit yoltage across AB terminals shown in Fig. 2.111 by
Thevenin's theorem,
[U.P. Te.hnical U ir. Eled cal Engineerh? Otltl Seuester.20t3 ]41
Solution: For determining the Thevenin's equivalent resistance of the
circuit with reference to terminals AB, the 6 V source is replaced by a
short circuit and 25 A source is repiaced by an ope[ circuit, as shown in Fig.2.11l
Fig.2.112.
2A 4()
Thevenin'sequivalentresistance, Rr = I l) @ + 2 + 2 ll1)
=81(4+2+1)
=gll" z=
8 7 = 56 o 2a

8+7 15
I
For determination of short-circuit cunent Isc i.?. current in zero
rcsistance connected across terminals AB [Fig. 2. I I j], Kirchhoff s voltage Fig,2.ll2
lalv is applied to loops I and II.
2lt+212=6 11 2!t
orll+12=3 bl t,- lt-12+25
and 2 (Ir - 12) +4 (lr -1. + 25) - 212 = 0 6v t2o 254
or6Ir-812=-100 ...(ii) I Ii
Solving Eqs. (i) and (ii) we have

r.= !2 I Fig.2.113
Fig' 2'113
-7
and I, = -{ n
Short-circuit current,Isc = Current flowing through 4 O resistor

=t,-r)+2s= ;! Tr2s=rn
open-circuir voltage, voe =I.n x R-= 4^!9 = +t.s v arr..
Example 2.47. Determine the current in the I O resistor connected across AB ofthe network ofFig. 2.114 using
I'hevenin's theorem.

2t)

t 3Q 20

Fig.2.l14 (a) (b)

Fig.2.115
Solutioni The given circuit may be redrawn. as illustrated in Fig. 2.1l5 (a). Now the curent source is converted into irs
equivalentvoltagesource,thecircuit,wirhterminalsABkeptole.becomesasshowninFig.2.1l5(D).
Open-circuited voltage across te Dinals AB,
l- I
V, =l
,_Z"J-t.8V
DC Circuits 67

The equivalent resistance of the network (with voltage soulce replaced by a short 2t2
circuit and curent sou.ce teplaced byan open circuit) 'with reference to terminals A-8.
lFig.2.115 (c)l 3!l 2a.
2=
R"i = 31 =tzo 3(l
3+Z
vr -1418 B
curent in I c) resistor =
Rr +l
= l.Z+l =0.82AAns. (c)
Fig.2.115

This theorem is in fact, an aiternative to the Thevenin's theorem. Whereas by

Thevenin's theorem a complex two-terminal network may be srmplilied for solution
by reducing it into a simple circuit in which the so called open-circuit voltage and
looking back resisiance are connected in series rvith the load resistance, by Norton's
theorem network is reduced into a simple circuit in which a parallel combination
of constant curent source and looking back resistance feeds the load resistance.
Fig.2,116
In both theorems use of resistance looking back into the network fiom the
load terminals. with all sources removed leaving their intemal resistances in the circuit, is made. Ilowevel,
rvhile solving circuit by Thevenin's theorem, the open-circuit voltage is detemined at the ioad teminals
with the load removed whereas in Norton's method usc of a fictitious constant cu[ent source is made, the
constant curent delivered being equal to the curent that would pass into a short circuit connected across
the output terminals of the given network.
Now for understanding this theorem let us consider a circuit shown in Fig. 2.1 16 in which ioad curent
IL is to be determined.
Ir Rr

(a) (b) (c)

Fig.2.ll7
For determination of shofi-circuit curreflr lsc, terminals A and B are short circuited by zero resistance
thick wire, as illusrated in Fig .2.117(a).

Equivalent resistance ofthe retwork, R = (R, +r)+R, llR3 =1n,* * ffi ...(2.28)

Current supplied by battery,Il

R .Ri+r+- R,R.
' R2+Rl
Short-circuit current, lsc = Current flowi g through resistance R3,

R.
I^=l.x By curent division rule
R2 r Rl
- ER, ER
...(2.30)
-K,+r+ ' R.' R, R. +R, (r + Rr) (R2 + R3) + R2 R3
' R7 +Rr
68 Basic Electnical Engineer -.

Fbr determination of internal resistance R,n (or R*) of the network ulder consideration, remove the io.:
rcsistance RL from telninals A and B and also remove voltage source from the circuit leaving belrind or.
in intemal resistance, as illustrated in Ftg.2.l11(b)
Equivalent rcsistance (R*), as viewed from the open-terminals A and B is given as
RN=R:+Rz]l(Rr+r)
_D , R-,(Rt -r) _ R,Rr-(Rr +,.1R2 -Rrr ...(2.31t
' Rr+R, +r Rl +R2+r
Now when load resistance RL is connected across teflninals A and B, the network behaves as constaft
current source of curent lsc in parallel with a resistance RN, as shown in Fig. 2.1 l7(c) and current flowing
tfuough the load resisrance is given as
Isc R"
' = RN +RL
1. By curaent division rule

ER: .. n. n, +(n, +r)(n, +n,)

(.-R,(R2- n,),nrn-, Rr,Rr-'
R:R, (Rr . r){R) -R.)_p -
Rl+R2+r
...(2.32)
& R....G;.XR,. R.j.i,-(R;R, .,J
Norton's equiva-tent circuit is illusuated in Fig. 2.117(c).
Nortol's theorem can be stated as follows:
The curent in any passiye circuit elemell (which may be called RL) il1 a fletwork is the same as would
flow in it if it were connccted in parallel with RN and the parallel pair were supplied with a constant current
Ir.. R, is the resistance measured "looking back" into the original circuit after RL has been disconnected
and all the sources have been replaced by their internal resistances: Isc is the current which will flow in a
short placed at the terminals of R, in the original circuit.

NORTON'S

A Thevenin's equivalent can be converted into its Norton's equivalent and vice versa. A Thevenin's
equivalent is depicted in Fig. 2.118. According to statement made in Art 2.16. Norton's culTeltt source
equals the curent Isa which flows through a short across
terminals A and B.

H.n..l"- = k ...(2.33)
"' R,^
Likewise a Nofion's circuit cal] be converted into
its Thevenin's equivaient. The Thevenin's equivalent : Voc or Vr
source Voc or Vr is the voltage on open circuit and is
B B
given as
Theyenin's Equivalent Norton's Equivolent
Vo. or V, = Iaa \n ...(2.34)
Fig.2,l,LB Thevenit's Equivalent Compated With
Each theorern is dual of the other. Notton's E.lubuleflt
Example 2.48. }-ind the value of current tlowing through 4 f,l resistarrce in the
given circuit (Fig,2,119) by using Norton's theorem.
lL(.D. Utlir. Electricnl Tech,Lology, May-20121 3v 1A TO

Solutionr For deternination olNorton's equivaleDt rcsistance ofthe given circuit,

.'1 Q reristor is remov(d and xll tlrc batterier are shor't circuitcd. as shuwn in

Fig. 2.120(a). Fi9.2.119

 69
DC Circuits

3o
Norton s equivalent resi stance,
14
R. = 2'l rl' l,Q: t--t =-!')
b
,*4'
For determination of short-circuit current l.. let us detetrine vT firsl After
removal of 4 O resistance from the circuit showrl in Fig 2 I 19 we have circuit
as
(a)
shown in Fig. 2.120(D). 3e)

Curreni flowing through the closed mesh ofcircuit shown in Fig 2 120(')
1c)
5-l I
I' =
lrlt2 =-A3 5\'
-(t) -''al-r--l)= u 23.,
Open-circuil loltirpe. Vr = l5 31
\-r (b)
\, 2314 6e Fie.2,'120
Shon-circuil cufienl. I., = l! = ,; = - A
"' R. 4li 16
Curent through 4 O resistance,
1 69116 4 69x4 69
=1078AAns,
RN +RL 16x 16 64
1_q J
3
Exampre 2.4e. Find Norton's equivare,t circuitto thc reftof te.**",,'l;l;l,r;I:iiiiriil,#rtf'";!l;,^
source. thereforc Isc or l- = 0'
Solution: As the circuit to the left ofX-Y in the given figure does not have ary independent
be keptopen c cuited and a dc voltage Vdc
For determinatio! oiRN ofthe given circuit w.r't terminals X-Y' let X-Y
be applied. input cunent being Idc. Now, we have

J = \'0.*6.5;*-vo.
'c46
v0.,6.5r]4.-J* = -\:.- ;= 19.
466to
Fig.2.121
- *r=*=2o Aru.
in a 15 O resistor connected between
Example 2.50. Using Norton's theorem, find the current which wodd now
points A and B in the following figure: lchhattis|arh Vi|ekana d Tech ical U\liv 2006'071
Solutiol: Equivalent resistance of network when viewed from
terminals A and B, keeping all the voltage short-circuited,
lFts,.2.l23(.a)l
RA=sll r0 ll 20

- 1 -20o
lllT
Fis.2.122
51020

(b)
Fig.2.t23

4
7o Bssic Elecbrical Engineer' - =

Short-cir cuit current i. ?. lhe c urrent in zero resistance conductor connected

across ienninals AB tFig. 2. 123(r)l I=0.8A
t0 t0 -r0
tsc = tL+r:+rr=?-;*;=s.5A ?" D l*..=?n 15a

Cuaent through a resistance of l5 O connected between points A and B.

__ 20
)) B
,t" -'A=0.88,\ Fig. 2.123(c)
t- = Ans.
Ri\ +RL^R"" ?9+15
1
Example 2.51. Refer to Example 2.42 and verify your answer with the help of Norton's theorem.
IB-P. Uni\,. of Tech]lolo$, Basic Electtical Engineering, 2a1a';

Solulion: Norton scqui\alent ctrcurl.R. =n-= i!.)

,_^r_ n0 ."

Thevenin's voltage, Vo. = ]] V, as detennined in Example 2.42

shorr cjrcuir curre,rr. r, = =

+ ]i; =
H^
85 31
and load cunent, I, = lJ!\
" RN +RL= 45 = 94 = I o, same as worked out in Example 2.42.
i-l +.Z 7tl20 7l
20
Example 2.52. StateNorton's theorem. Pind current through 15 Q 4i)
by using Norton's theorem. IU.P. Technical Unn,. Basic Electrical
Engitrcering Odd Senester, 2013- 141 8a
Solution: Norton's equivalent resistance of the give11 network (,.e. 30 v. t R1 =15o
equivale[t resistance ofthe network afterterminals A and B are open 0.5!l
0_5 c)
cilcuited,30 V battery removed from the circuit leaving its internal
resistance of 0.5 Q in the circuit and remirving 4 A current source
leaving 0.5 C) re.istance in thc cilcuit t a! iiewed ftom termincls A and
t-is.2,124
B shown in Fig.2.125 (a)
Rr =6+,itO.S=tO.SQ
For determining shofi-circuit eurrent Isc i.e. cuiaent in zero resistance
connected across terminals A and B, resistance Ri of l5 o is replaced by a zero
resistance as shown in Fig. 2.125 (r).
Applyi[g Kirchhoff's voltage lar, to outer loop we have
(0.5+4)I+6(I 4)=30
' ot 10.5 t =54
36
. orl ,7

168
Short-circuit current, Isc =I 4=:-: 4= A
'77
cufienr rhri,ugh l5 o resisror
' ^ '"- ,
= RN+ht nn

= _ N7 x 10.5
10.5 + l5
(b)
= -l
t7
e .q.^.
Fig.2.l2s
DC Circuits 7a

Example 2.53. Draw the Norton's equivalent circuit across AB,

and determine current lloning through 12 fl resistor for the
network shown in tr'ig. 2.126'
Iu.P. Technical Lt iN. Ele,:trical Engheerinq
Second Semeste t, 2003'047 fl,oa !'" io" 12')

40v
Solution: As illustrated in Flg. 2.121 (a), terminals A and B have
rerroving l2 C) resistor.
been shorted after
B
Now short-circuit current is determined by making use of
Fig.2.t26
superposition theorem.
5()
5Q e c ^!.9

t 1,.^
40v
"f ""1
20A 8() 4!)
lscl

I
8.l
40v
4!)

='. B D
B

(cr) (b) (c)

Fig.2.127

(i) When orlll current source is present lFiE.2.12'7 (b)l

ln this case 40 v battery is replaced by a short circuit. The 20 A curent divides at pointc between parallel combination
of 8 !) and 5 C, (no current will flow through 4 O resistor being short circuited at terminals A and B)'
Iscr = Current through 5 g) lesistor due to culTent source alone
8 5t)
=2ox 8+5 =160A , 145 .
13

(ii) When only toltage source is ?resent 12!)

lFis. 2.12"1 (c)l
In this case, current source is replaced by an
open circuit. Voltage across terminals EF is equal
to voltage across terminals A and B i.e. zerc. So @ (e)
short-circuit cuuent, Fig.2.L27
.40
-4 -
I^- .-_'''
's.2= Currelt throush 4 Q resistor = l0A

shorl circuit currenl. 156 = 15,

,
+ lsc.2 = 'oo - = Iuo o
'n
As seen from Fig. 2.127 (4, Ndfion's equivaient resistance of the network,
Rr. =all rs+8\=4ll ll= I 152
t=t7!2
. -+-
413
_ f)'
Fig. 2.127 (e) shows the NPrton's equivalent circuit with the load resistor of 12

'
. R" )eo s2fi1 r.ryg
curfent, IL = \. " RN;*; = tl ' = 1SA =4.5312s A Arr.
..Load SZ , ."
t1

2.18
(or L) or mesh-
Three resistances connected nose-to-tail as shown in Fig. I2.128(a), xe said to be deha
comected (they form a mesh). Three fesistances connected together at a commor point O' as shown in
Frg.2.128(i), are said to be star (or Y)-connected.If the nodes (A, B, and C) to which the two sets of
raJirtun"a, are connected are part of a largel network, it is possible to assig values to the two sets of
 72 Basic Electrical Engineering

resistances so thatthey have exactly the same effect

on the network. If, therefore, delta-colnected
resistances are paft of a network it is possible to DELTA-STAR
substitute them by the star-connected ones and vice
STAR.DELTA
versa. The obvious advantages are that a delta-star
transformation eliminates a mesh which reduces
by one the variables and equations necessary to
c
solve a network by mesh analysis whereas star-
delta transformatior eliminates a node (node O) (a) (D)
which reduces by one the variables and equations Fig. 2.128 Delta- Star Trunsfotmation
necessary to solve a network by node analysis.
2.18.1. Delta-Star Transformation. Tlu e replacement of delta or meshby equivalent star sysrem is kno,r,n as
star transfo rmatio n.
de lt a-
The two systems will be equivalent or identical ifthe resistances measured between any pair of lines is
same in both of the systems, when the third line is open.
Hence resistances between terminals B and C-

R, /R, +R,l
R",.-R,ll(R,+R,)- ----:--'' indelrasvsrem
Rr -R)
Rl
and RBC = RB + Rc in star system
Since the two systems are identical, resistances measured between terminals B and C in both of the
systems must be equal.

So RB+RC = ...(2.3s)
Rl+R2+R3
Similarly resistances between teminals C and A being equal in the two systems

Rc+RA= ...(2.36)
Rl +R2 +R3
And resistance between terminals A and B

RA+RB = ...(2.37)
Rl+R.+R3
Adding Eqs. (2.35), (2.36) afi (2.31) wehave

2 rRA+ RB +Rc, =
2(Rrh' xlxr:xl3')
Rl+R2+Rl

or RA + RB + Rc -
Rr Rr-+ RrRr
1Rr R2
...(2.38)
Rl +R2 +Rr
Subtacting Eqs. (2.35), (2.36) and (2.37) from Eq. (2.38) we have respectively
R, R.
R^= ' '
' Rr+R2+Rr ...(2.39)

Rr R,
^
^t= n,li.iq ...(2.40)

Rr R,
"..- R,*Rr*& ...(2.4t)

L
DC Circuits 73

These relationships may be expressed as follows:

The equivalent star resistance connectecl to a given terminal is equal to the product of the two delta
resistances connected to the same terminal divided by the sum of the delta-connected resistances.
If the three delta-connected resistances have the same yalue RD, the three rcsistances in the equivalent
star for identical systems will be
Ro R,
p-= = Bu ...12.421
" RD+RD+RD J

2.1E.2, Star-Delta Transformation. Multiplying Eqs. (2.39) and (2.40).

(2.40) and (2.41) and (2 41) and
(2.39) and then adding them )ve get

RARB+RBRC+ RCRA =
(n, +n. + n,)r
_ Rr & R:(R:+R:+Rr) = Rr RzR: ...(2.43)
(n,+n.+R.,)2 Rr+R2+R3

Dividing Eq. (2.43) by Eqs. (2.39), (2.40) and (2.41) separately we have

*,-t*'#t*=n,*n.' \fc ...(2.44)

u= R^&:j,ojc IlI o -p^ *s. * E.t R,- ...(2.45)

"r RB Rts

Ro Ro
ond q = SrIclSaIdBc&
Rt = Ro * R,
'r " -& ...(2.46)

The above relationship may be expressed as below:

The equivalent delta resbtance between two terminals is the sum of the hao star resistance\ cotxtxected
io those terminals plus the product of the same divided by the third star resistaDce'
Ifthe three star-connected resistances have the Same value, say Rr, the three resistances of the equivalent
delta for identical systems will be
Ro=RsrRs+
*ilt =,*, ...(.2.4'7)

The advantage of delta-star transfomation may be shown by reference to netwolk of Fig. 2.129.
Frg.2.129(a) illuitrates the network before conversion, where the dotted lines are dtav,,n around the delta
The
connection to be transformed into a star. Fig. 2.129(&) itlustrates the same netwolk after traEstbrmation
lurrents in the transformed form [Fig. 2.129(D)] are much simpler to determine'

Fis,.2.129 Fig.2.130
74 Basic Electr cai Engineer |.

The advantage of star-delta transformation can be illustrated by refererce to network of Fig. 2.130.
Figure 2.130(a) illustrates the network prior to transformation, with the dotted lines around the star to be
tiansformed. Fig. 2.130(b) illustrates the same network after ffansformation. The oliginal retwork is no\\
reduced to a simple series parallel connection of resistances.
Example 2.54. Three resistors each of RC, are connected in delta. If they are transferred to Y-connection, nhat
will be the resistancc of each resistor?
Solution: Three resistances in ihe equivalent star will be Biven as

R^ R
R= --!z- QAns. Refer to Eq. (2.42)
3

Example 2.55. 'Ihree resistances r, 2 r, and 3 r are connected iD delta, Determinc the resistances for an equivalent
star connection. IU.P. Technical univ. Electtical E gi eerillg Jonuarj 20031
Solution: Resistances for the equivalent star-connection
(Fig. 2.131) are worked out as below:

R = R,R, r')r
=-3 Ans.
" Rt+R2+Rt t+2r+31
R. R, 2r x3r
"B- R +R.+Rr - r +2r +3|

R.R 3rxr r .
Ans'
lat Deltu-Connected (b) Equival ent St a r- C onne cted
' Rr iR,+Ri Rrri.\'aol'.t Resirtors
Fig.2.13l
Example 2,56. Pind ths current in 10 O resistor in the network
showll by star/delta transformation in Fig. 2.132,
IG.G.S.l.P. Univ. D?lhi Electtk:al Science Mar 2011)
Solution: Converting delta ABC and delta DEF into equivalent star, we
have
12
R^ = R"=R-= -4Q

!\D - . 30
10()
^E-,.F- I
'lhe equivalellt cilcuit becomes as shown in F-lg. 2.133.
The equivalenl resistance of the circuit showr in Fig. 2.133 is
given as
R=4+l(4+31 + 10) l(4 + 10 + 10)l + l0
45x24
= izl+ 45+24 =29.65Q

Curentdr.rwn.I = .^ -
180
- =6.07A
/9 65
Current through l0 Q resistol'

. (4+3t+10)
(4+31+10)+(4+10+10)
45 Fig.2.133
= 6.07x-
69

= 3.96 A Ans.
DC Circuits 75

Example 2.57. In the network in Fig. 2.134, find the resistances between
the points A and B. LM.D. Llfiit. Electrical Te& olo8!, Md!-'20I 11

Solution: Converting internal ADEF into equivalent star having resistance of

D - lz= O
I
Now intemal star become as shown in Fig. 2.135(d). Now this star has an
r )\ II
(oui\ alenr resislance ol JI :\l L O, i... -l O

This star cal be convefiedinto equivalent delta having resistance

R;= 3R; = J,
I = tto' Fig.2.134
When combi[ed with external delta, the circuit becomes as shown in
Fig.2.l3s(b).

3_4375 O

(a) (b) (.)

rig.2.135

The circuit shorrn in Fig 2.l35(r) is reduced to that shown iD Fig 2 l35(c) having resistance of 5 A ll l1 O' i'e'

lj-l] = 3.4375 o in ur...

-\+11 "u"h

Now resistance RAB = (3.4375) O ll (3.4375 + 3.4375) O

= 3.1375
()ll 6.875 ()

_ 3.43'75 x 6.8'75
3.4315 + 6.8'75
=2.292e
^r$.
Example 2.58. Find the current supplied by l0 V battery t y using star-delta trans-
formation. LJ.N. TechDological Ltntr. Electical Ci,c it A',ulJ'\is, Decenbet'2q121
Fig.2.136
Solution: By transforming delta formed by resjslors of 4 Q, 2 A and 3 Q into star
lFig.2.l37(d) and (D)1, we have
RAa x RAB
"A - Roc +Res +Re. o\-
-,,'B
=
2 4 8^!t
2+4+3 9 ^rffi-7" ;3\A: ,o\
2-
3t' 5rt

Similarl\, R- -= ^3
4 4 12(}
2+4+l l
),.3 2 (,-
VI c c
and R^ - (d) (D)
' 2+4+3 3 Fig.2.l37
-=
 76 Basic Electrical Engineefl-:

Now the given circuit is reduced to that as shown in Fis. 2.137(ct.

Resistance betweeD terminals a and d
38x19
q= l,12 r"'J"r a,sl- 8,lIl, Iq-8 lb,rle 8 -o ,16
q'l..r r.z)lt :'-r q-l'TJrr r'q'Trr : s38 19 q
-+_
33
Current supplied by battery.I = I=-ll=1i=t.qsr a .lns,
R 4619 23
Example 2.59. Derive the relatioruhip 10 convert delta-connected resistances to equivalent star, Also determine
the equiyalent resistance betryeen the terminal A.B shown in Fig. 2.139.
IU.P. Tech ical Unir. Electricctl Dngineeing Fitst Seircster, 2014-t5l
C

r,i9.2.138 Fig.2.139 Fig.2.140

Solutiona As shown in Fig. 2.139, delta ACD has been recluced to its equivalert star.
Rac Roo 4 t, 24
''n - coa*R-*nro --
+,2-o = ' =zsz
similffty R-=.4^: =?o
t2 l
and R^= 9^2 =rcl
"t)
Hence the given circuitis reduced to that shorvn in Fig. 2.140. As seen there are twoparallel paths betweelpoints N
/. \ 44
and B, one is ofrcsistun"" I'
\l , ; ".. IO andtheolhei is(l-
, l+ ]ei 10!Qi... llO
44
_xll
Theircombined resistance i, f-
jl lI 44o
j4rll = 11 = 1'
3

So total resistance ofthe network berween terrninals A-B is Z+! = i!e, .r".
7'7
Example 2.60. Using delta to star transformation determine ihe
.esistarce between terminals a-, and the total pcwer drawn from
the supply in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.14I.
IU.P. Technicol Ut1iv. Electticat Engin?erhg Fl.st Senle$er, 2006-On
Solution: By fansforming de]ta formed by resistors of g O. 7 e and
3Q into star u,e have 10Y:
p. = Rec " Ran =
3x8
^ Roa. + R.no -r Ro" 3+8+'7 3
Fig.2.141
SimiiarlyRu-?=i!"
aadn^=3"7=Zei
- 18 6
DC Circuits 77

Now the given circuit is reduced to tlrat as shown in Fig. 2.142 (c)'
Resistance between lerminals a and D,

4 t:1 I /28 I 4 ll.. l18

n=-+l "'4llll ': l0l= I- r-ir = 1.3333 + 3.7062 = 5.04 O Ans.
I ^-
e
-l \6 i !9 )
v2 102 ls 84 watts Ans.
Total power drawn, P = -
i ;i- =

10\r:

{.a)
Fis.2.142

Q Hishtishts
as an enefg!' soufce (.ot
1, An electric cifcui' (or network) is an interco[nection of physical electrical devices such
sources), alr er?e/B] cor relr.,t or conve ors (load orloads), and c'oru th't connect them'
'-'o'd
2, A jurtction (or ttor)e) is a point in a netwol* where two or more br'anches meet'
3, A loop is a closed path in a network formed by a number ofconnected blanches. ,4/r ?sli is a loop that contains no other

loop within il.

4. Network elements may be classified into two categories viz. active elemetts and passive elements'
The elemerts which supply energy to the network are known as 4.rive elements. The voltage sources like
batteries,
generatoB, ac generatois and cunent sources like photoelectric cells, metadyne generators fali underthe category
dc
oiactive elements. Mosr ofthe sernicondoctor devices like transistoB ale teated as current sources.
Tlrecomponentswhichdissipateorstoreenergyaleknownaspassiyccotnponents.ResistoN,inductorsand
capacitors fall under the category of passive elements. Thc resisto is the only component which
dissipates electrical
energy. The inductors and capacitors are the components which store enelgy, the illductor stores energy by virtue of
a cu;;nt passing though it whereas the capacitor storcs energy by ofpotential dilTetence across it'
'ifiue ofcurrent
5, A voltage source ol voltage vs aDd intemal resistance R,n can be converted into an equivalent cunent soulce
a current sorirce oioutput cufient Is in parallel with resistance Rin
\ = Vrh,,, aud a resistance Rln acloss it. Similarly
c"an bJconvertttlinto an equi;alent voltage source of voltage v, = I,R,n and a resistance &n in series with it'
A voltage soulce-series resistance combinahon is equivalentto a curent source-parallel resistance combination
ii
short-circuit cunents are equal.
and only ifiieir respective open-circuit voltages a'e equal, and theirrespective
meeting
6. According to r(irc hl.Lt{f'sJirst law lor ctLffent law),the algebtaic sum of curents in two of mole conductors
at apoint (iunction) is always zero
i.z. !l=0
While applying above law, incoming cunents a.e taken as positive and outgoing cunents as negative'
Acc'otdinEtoKirchhoff'ssecotd'lttl+,(otvoltttge,a,,),thealgebrajcsumofemfsactinginrmyclosedcir.cuitormesh
is equal to the algebraic sum oi the products of curents and rcsistances ofeach part of thai closed
cilcuit or mesh i.e.
XIR = !emi
7, Accordirg to superposition tlleorem ifthere are a number of voltage and curent soulces acting simulraneously ill any
linear biiateial letwork. theii each source can be considercd actillg independently of the others'
lr, toop method of arall'ri.r, independent mesh cunenls are taken and the network is solved by framing
equations
3.
according to Kirchhoff's second or voltage law (KVL)
78 Basic Electrical Engineering

9. lnnor)al anall,sis independent nodes ate considered and voltages are assumed atthese nodes w ' t one leterence tode.
called the datunt node. The equations are framed according to Kirchhoff's cunent law (KCL) which reveal the desired
results after their solution.
10. Thevenin's theorem may be stated as follows:
The culTent in any passive circuitelement (r'.,hich may be called R") in a networt is the same as u'ould be obtained
if RL wele supplied with a soulce voltage Voc or Vr in seties with an equivalent resistance Rin or Rr; voc being_the
opei-circuit voltage at the terminals from which R,_ has been rernoved and RT being the resistance that would be
measured at these ter.milals after all sources have been removed and each sour-ce has been replaced by its internal
resistance.
11. Not-ton's theoren is an alternative to Thevenin's theorem. According to this theorem, any two_terminal active
network, rvhen viewed from output terminals, is ecluivalent to a constant curent solrrce in parallel with a resistance.
t2. I delta stLl. tr.,$.formdtior?, the equivalent star resist^nce connected to a given terminal is equal to the product of the
two della reSiStances connected to the same terminal divided by the sum ofthe delta connected rcsistances.
In star-deha traisrt)nxdrion, the equivalent delte resis'.ance between two terminals is the sum of the two star
resistanceS connected to fhose terminals plus tlte product ofthe same divided by the third stal lesistance.

)8, Exercises
1. Explain the fbllowing:
(i) Active and passive elements
(li) Unilaieral and bilateral elemeflts
(iii) Time variant and time inva ant elernents
(I,) Distributed and Iumped parameters. IU.P. Techni.{l Uni!. Electrical Engide.riDg Odd Senester 2011-l.ll

2. Discuss the charact,3l istics of the following elements:

(d) Capacitor (b) Inductor. tu.P. Technical Univ. Ele.rric.l Eneinee.ing second seDester 200E-0el
3. Distinguish between mesh and loop ofnetwork. IRr;.P.\,. Basic Electrical Ensnrceritrs JanJFeb 2006l
4. Discuss different types ofvoltage and cuLrent sourccs. [G.8. Techni6l Unir. f,lectrical Eosineering First Senesttr 2009"10]
5. Distjnguish between dependent and independent sources. tR.c. Techni.nl Univ. B.E.E.E. Jun.-20r41
6. Explain in detail voltage and current sources. tJ.N. Technolosicrl Unir. Elechical Circuit AtrilysiE December_2or21
7. Distinguish the following:
Voltage source and current source. IR.(;. Tcchnical U.ir. B.li.E.E. Jtrne.20l3l
8, Dil}'erentiate between ideal voltige source and practical voltage source with the help of examples.
lR.G. TechDicat Unit. Basic Electrical Dngine€riDg, June_2orsl
9. Explain volEge and curreut sources of a nerwork with characteristics. Explain source ffansformation p nciple in any
ciacuit. tEtectrical Engincerin8 c.B. T€chnical Univ. rirst Semestcr 2011-l2i U.P. Techrical Univ. E'en Senesler 2013.141
10. Draw V-I characteistics of voltage and cur'rent sources. Explain source transformation theory in any circuit.
lNlanamala Technical Uniy. El€.hical Enginee.ins Second Semester 2010_1U
11. Obtain the cu entsource equiv alent of a practical voltage Source. tv.T. Univ. Nclqork Analysis, Detehber-20101
12, Explain the conversion of currenl source into equivalent voltage source for solving a ploblem
Iuttarakhrnd Technital Univ BNic Electrical EDgineering, 20121
13. Explain the source translbl-mation techniquc. I^nna udiv. circuit Theory, Maydune.20l3l
14. Stateand cxplair Kirchhoff's laws. tPb. T€chnical Univ. B.II.E.E. December-2ol]i ADn. tjniv. Circuit Theory, Maydune_20131
15. State and explain the superposition theorem. IU.P.s.c In.s. E.r.E-I,200;:I;r;Jil;ffiLHr1l;i
16. State irnd explajn the superyosition thcor em. IllLlshate the application ofthis theorem with reference to an appropriate
electric cilcuit. IRrjrsthan T€chnical U.iI. B.E.E.f,., DecembeF2olll
17. Explain thc loop cunent method of solving a network. {R.G.T.U. Brsic El€c. EDgineering June 20071

18. State and expiain the nodal meftod of analysis. lNl.D. Unir. Ele.tri.rl TechnologX July 20011
19. State and prove Thevenin's theorem. Show Nith example, how this theorem can be usefully elnployed in circuit
analysis. lR.G. Tcchnical Unir. Network Analysis. June"2014l
 79
DC Circurts

of example'
20. Write the statemeni of Norron's theorem and discuss it with the help
tc.ts. Te.hnicat Univ Electrical EDgincering First Scmester 2010-11l

21. Explain the duality between a Thevenin's and a Norton's equivalent circtits'
Sem6ler 2011_121
IG B. Techbical UniY Ele'ldcal Etrgintering Second
stllr-to delta
c terion for srar-delta
22. What is the traDsibrmatior? Develop the relationship for delta-to star and
201:rJt]
transformation. IGR Tech'ical U'i!' Et€'tdcal Ensin'ering Eren Semesler
their equivalent for della resistances'
23. Three resisiances R,r, Rr" and R,, are connected in star' Obtain EdgiD€'ring' Juuar}'20111
Icuiarat Technologicat Ilniv lllements or Elechi'al
24. Write short notes on the following:
(i) Thevenin theorem.
(ii) Norton . theorem.
(iii) Superyositiontheorem.
(iv) Nodal aralysis.

Short Answer Questions With Answery

Q. 1. What is an electric network?

devices such as an energy sol]rce (or sources)' an
Ans. An electric network is an interconflectiol ofphysical electrical
ot (load or loads), and conductors that connectthem'
"n".gy "onr"r,o. "onvertors
Q. 2. Whatis an energY source'l like' is a de\ ice that conveds
,irrr. .Ln .oorJ. ior soulcel. such as primary or secondaly cell' a generator' and the
"n",gy
chcmica], mechanical. thermal or some other fol m of energy
into the elect cal energy.

Q.3. What is an energy convertor?

appliance' or eJectric motor' converts eleclrical
Ans. An energy convertor, also called the load' such as iamp' heating
energy into light, heat, mechanical worketc'
GGslP Msrch 20111
Q.4. Whaiis an aciive elemerrt? voltage souces like battedes'
Ans, The elements tvhich supply energy to ihe netwo: k are l:nown as actite elements.The generators fall under the
sour'ces like photoelectric cells' metadyne
dc ge[e]aloN. ac generatols oni
"''ot"nt like transi\fo1s are treated as cunent soutces.
catJgory of active ilemeDts. Most of the semiconductor <levices
by 'linear bilateral ciicujt"l lMr'u second s€D€ster 20rr-121
a.5. il;;;;"r.ean whose characteristics orproperties are same
Ans. An electric circuit, thathas linear volt ampcre (v-I) characteristic aDd
the linear bilateral circuit'
in either dilection (e.g., adistribution or ffansmission line) is
called
network tM D- r'ni! Elect'ical rechooli'sy' Dccenber'201r1
Q. 6. Distinguish betweenlinear ancl nonlinear
is a straight line IFig 2 2(1/)l are called lir?ar' and the
Ans. Resistive elements for which the volt-ampere characteristic
electdc circuits containing only linear resistances are cal!ed lifl?4'"
'i)?Ilils'
Resistiveelementsforwhichthevolt-amperecharacteriSlicisothelthanast].aightlinearetetmednottlitear'ald
sotheeleci].iccil.cuitscontainingthemareoallednoli]P.o.cilcuits'Examplesofnonlinearelementsaretungsten
lamps, vactum tubes and transistol-s, etc'
Ma!-20121
Q, 7. Distinguish between unilateral and bilateml network lNr'D Univ Electrical Technologv'
in either direction (e.g. a disttibution ortransmission
Ans, An electric circuit, whose characreristics 1t1-ploperties aae sarne
iransmlssioll linc can be made to pertbrm its function equal]y
line), is called the bilaieral cir-cuit. The djst ibution or
well in either direcCo .
Anelectriccircuit,whosechnmcteristicsofplopertieSchangewiththedirectiorlofitsoperatjon(e.g,adiode
rectification in both directions'
rectifier), is called the unilateral circuit A diode;ectifier cannotperfolm
What do you understand by "time Yariant" and "time inrariant"
eiements?
Q.8.
Ans.Circuiteiementwhosecharacterjsticscr.Propeltiesdonotchangewithtimeiscalledthetimeinvaant'othe\'ise
it is said to be tirne va arrt.
circuiTs?
Q. 9. What do you undetstand by "lumped" and "disributed" parametel
Ans'Acilcttitconsistingofalimited(fini!e)ntlmberofcilcuitelementsisr.efcrredtoas,lun4ledparametercit.cttii
is called adisrrib ledpara letercircuit.
while a circuit containing unlimi;d (iniinite) numbel of circuit elements
Transtnission line is an example ofdistr ibuted parameter neiwork
 8o Basic Electnical Engineering

Q' 10' Differentiate between active arld passive componenls. tpr,. rechnical uri!., May-201J]
Ans. The components which supply energy to the nerwork are known as actfue comp.)r?nrs. The voltage sourcs like
batte es, dc generators, ac generators and cunent sources like photoelectric cells, metadyne generators fall uDder
the category of active componeDts. Most of the semiconductor devices like transjstors are reated as curent
sources.
Tlre components which dissipates or store energy are known aspassive co tponents. Resistors, inductors alld
capacitors talls under the category ofpassive components. The resistor is the only component which dissjpates
electrical energy. The inductors and capacitors are the components which store energy, the inductorstores energy
by virtue ofcLlffent flor,ving thr.ouglr it whereas the capacitol.stores energy by virtue ofpd across it.
Q.11. What is meanr by 'node'?
Ans, A junction or node is a point in a network wher.e two or more branches meet.
Q'12' Di$tinguish between rnesh and loop of an electric circuit. tADna univ. ci.cuit rheory, MajrJuDe-21rll
Ans. A loop is a closed path in a electric circuit fomed by a number ofconnected branches. Mesh is a loop that contains
no other loop within it.
Q. 13. write the properties ofideal voltage source. [c.l.T.u., Firsr sehester 20rr-r2i u.p.T.u. second semester 20Lr-14]
Ans. An ideal voltage souce is a constant voltage souce and is capable of supplying any curent at a given voltage. The
internal resistance ofan ideal voltage source is zero and therefore, the terminal voltage (voltage across the load) is
always equal to the source emfand is independent ofthe magnitude of curle[t supplied.
There are two noteworthy points regarding ideal voltage sowce.
l. Ideal voltage sour.e cannot be short cil.cuited
2. Two ideal voltage sources ofunequal output cannot be placed in parallel.
Q. 14. Enlist properties ofvoltage and current sources. [M.T.U. First ScDest.r 20ll-121
Or
What are the properties ofideal voltage and currenr sources? IU.P.T.U. Odd Semester 2013-l4l
Ans, \roltage and current soulces are energy sources such as batteries, dynamos, alternators, photoelectric cells,
metadyne geDerators etc.
The energy source (voltage or current) may be independent or dependent. A source is said to be independenl
when it does not depend on any other quantity in the circuit. A dependent source is one which depends on some
other quantity in the circuit.
Voltage source is said to be an ideai or constart voltage source ifit is capable ofsupplying any cuuent at a given
voltage A voltage source having zero internal resistance is known as an ideal or constant voltage source.
Similarly curent source is said to be an ideal oL constant current source ifit is capable of supplying a constant
current to aload even ifits impedance varies.
Practically, a voltage source is not different from a current source. In fact, a source can either operate as a curent
source oras a voltage source.It merely depends uponits operating conditions. If load impedance is very large in
comparison to internal impedance ofthe source, it will be advantageous to treat the source as a voltage source. On
the other hand, ifthe load impedance is very sn1all in comparison to the intemal impedance of the source, it is better
torepresent the source as a curent source. From the circuit pointofview itdoes not matter at all whether the souce
is lreated as a voltage source or a curent source. In fact, it is possible to convert a voltage souce into a curent
sour-ce and vice versa
Q. 15. What are respeciive values ofintemal resistances ofideal voltage and idealcunent sources? ls it possible to convert
an ideal voltage into an ideal culrent source or vice versa? tNr.r.u. se.onrr se,est& 20rr-rzl
Ans. Internal resistances ofideal voltage and ideal current sources are zero and infinite respectively.
!tis not possible to convert ideal voltage souace into idealcurrent source and vice versa.
Q. 16. Defirre Kirchhoff's cunenr law (KCL).
Ans. According to KCL law irr any network of wires carrying currents, the algebraic sum of all cunents meeting at a
point (or junction) is zero or the sum cf incoming culaents towards any point is equal to the sum of outgoing
cunents away from that poitt.
Q. 17. State Kirchhoff's voltage law. lM.D. uniy. M!y-20111
Ans" According io KVL law in any closed circuit or mesh the algebraic sunr of emli acting in that circuit or mesh is equal
to the algebraic sum of the products ofthe cunents and resistances of each part of the circuit.
DC Cincuits
8r

INI.D. Utriv., 20ll! HiB. Tech cal Univ., 20141

Q. 18. Whatis superyositio[ theorem?
Ans. According to superposition theorem if there are a number of voltage and curellt sources acting simultaneously in
any linear-bilateial network, then each source can be considered acting independently ol
the others.

Q. 19. What is the utility of superposition theorem ?

l{ns. This theorem is applied when we are to determine the curent in one particular branch of a network containing
seveml voltage sources or curre[t sources or both voltage soulces and curent sources-
Q.20. What is Thevenirl theolen1 ?
Ans. Thevenin's theorem may be stated as follows:
The cunentin any passive circuit element (whichmay be called R) il, a netrvork is the same
as wouldbe obtained

souce voltage Voa or Vrin series with an equivrLlent resistance Rin orRr; Voc beinq
if R, were supplieilwith a
the resistance that would
the ipen-circuit vottage at the terminal; fro;-whichRa has been removed and Rr being
removed and each source has been replaced by its
be measured at these teminals aftei all sources havtbeen
intemal rcsistance.
Q. 21. What is the utility of Thevenin theorem ?
l{.ns. Thevenin,s theoiem is advantageous when we are to deternine the current in a pafiicular element
ofalinear
find the current which flows through a resistor for its different
bilateral network particularly when it is desired to
values.It makes the solution ofthe compticated netwolks (pafticularly electonic networks) quite simple.
Q.22.InwhatrespectisNorton'stheoremsimilartoThevenin'stheorem?Inwhatrespectdotheydiffer?
IG.G.S.I.P' Univ. Delbl Electrical ScieDce Mav 200E1

-{ns. Norton's theorcm is in iact, an alternative to the Thevenin's theolem. whereas by Thevenin's theorcm a complex
two-terminalnetworkmaybesimplifiedforsolutionbyreducingitintoasimplecircuitinwhichthesocalled
open circuit voltage and looking.back resistance are connected in series with the load resistalce, by
Nofto.,s
reduced into simple circuit in which a parallel combination ofconstant current source and
theorem network is a
looking-back rcsistance feeds the load resistance
In both theorems use of resistance looking back into the network from the load terminals, with
all sourc€s
removed leaving their intemal rcsistances in the circuit is made. Howevel' while solvi[g circuit by Thevenin,s
in Norton's
theorem, the open-circuit voltage is determined atthe loadterminals with the load removed whereas
cufent delivered bei[g equal to the current
method use ofa fictitious constant curent soulce is made, the constant
thatwouldpassintoashortcilcuitconnectedacrosstheoutputtelmi[alsofthegivennetwolk.
Q.23.Givetherelationshipbetweenresistancesconnectedindeltaandequivalentstarsystems?
i{.ns. The equivalent shr;esista[ce counected to a given terminal is equal to the product of the two delta resistances
connected to the same terminat divided by the sum ofthe delta con[ected resista[ces'
Q. 24. Give the relationship between resistances connected in star and equivalelt delta systems ?
The equivatent delta resistance between two terminals is the sum of the two star resistances connected to
those
i{.ns.
terninals plus the product of the same dividedby the third starresistance'

? Problems
C) into its equivalent voltage source'
Convert 4 A source with its parallel resistance of 15
lAns. Voltage source of 60 V in series with a resisiance of 15 Ql
Convert 240 V source with a series resistance of40 O into its equivalent curent solllce'
- tAns. Current source of 6 A is parallel with a resistor of 40 Ol
Find our the current through 6 Q resistance 4() 6()
using source transtbrmation (Fig. i).
[MNIT JaiPrr 2006] [Ans. 0.79 A]
5V
.1. Two curent sources and a 2 C2 resistor are 6V
aranged as shown in Fig. 2,
(i) Find the power dissipaled by the resistor-
(ii) Determine the voltage drop across the
parallel combination of the circujt Fig. 1 Fig. 2
elements.
(iii) What power is associated with the 3 A cunent sowce ? How is this pover disffibuted ? IMNI'I Jaipur 20061
(D 8 W. (ii) 4 V, (iii) 12 W; Power delivered bv 3 A source is 12 W out of which 8 W is absorbed by 2 Q
tAns,
resistor and the remaining 4 W is absorbed by IA current sourcel
82 Basic Electrical Engineering

5. Find the voltage drcps across Rt and R2 (Fig. 3). The resistance R3 is not specified.
lG.B. techrical Univ. Electrical ErsiDeeriDg odd Senesler 2010-lll [Ans. 30 V, 30 V]
6, Find the cunent in, and voltage across, the 2 O resistance in the ioUowing figure (Fig. 4).
IU.P. TechDical Univ. Ele(trical Ensi&eriDs Fiist Semesrer 200s-091 [Ans. 5 A, 10 V]
7. Applying Kirchhoff's curent law, determine curerr Is in the electric circuir of Fig. 5. Take V0 = 16 V.
lU.P. Technical Univ. Etec. EnsinceriDs, February 200| [Ans. I A]
R2=10(l 0.5A 10a T0v A ..1! B r,r

Ir r'z

R3 € 80!) Ig I ) 6o r ,,<t
\T,' 8')
:100v Tvr T

Fig. 3 Fig.4 Fig. 5

8. Find the current I, which llows through the 3 Q resistor in the circuit of Fig. 6. lAns. 4 Al

6V

2A I
D
, r,, Ii
1:
3(] :3o 13 ()
8c!
II

Fig.6 Fig.7
9, A network excited only by cutrent sources is in Fig. 7. Dete.mine the curent through the 2 O resistor.

lRajd\rhan rccbni.ar |nn. Msrch 200ot tAns.

't'7- 19a I

10. Calcuiate the node voltages in the circuit shown in Fig. 8.

IDCRUSTM Elecrricat Technotogy Decenrber.zotldanuary-2or21 [Ans. Vl = 13.33 V,=20V]
11. Calculate cureflt supplied by 20 V source as shown in Fig. 9.
lB.P. UDiv. of Tecnnolosy Basic Ete.r.ical EDsineeridg secoDd sem€eer 2010t [Ans. 11.11 A]
12. In the circuit shown in Fig. 10, using superposition theorem, determine the currents in various resistors and the
voltagesource. [Ans.Il = I A (from right ro lefr); Iz = 2 A downward; Ir 2 A downwar.d; I_- I A upward] =

Rr=2o

E =6V Rr=3{) 5R3=411 l=34

Fig. 8 Fig. 9 Fig. 10

13, Compute the power dissipared in 9 f,) resistor by applying supelposirion in circuit of Fig. 1 l
ind Elect.onics ltngineerirg, Ja.uary/Februmy-2013] [Ans. 100 W]
[Raiasthan Tecbnic.l Utriy. Basie El€ctrical
14. ForFig. 12, find the cufl ent which flows though the 15 Q resistor by using the mesh method. Check your solutiol
by using superyosition theorem. lc.c.S.LP. Univ. Dell,i Eleclricat science NIar 20l1l [Ans. 1.667 A]
15. Find ioand ifromthe circuitusing superposition theolem in the Fig. l3. [Raj,sthan Techni.at univ. rcbruarr 2010]
lAns.0.l25 A, 1.125 Al
 83
DC Circuits
1() 5o
6!)

in.,
I no( ) 9() 140V
30!) 6V
l i),o (*
( ),rv
(
l-ig. 12 Fig. 13
Fig. 11
16. Find the cunent in the 8 O resistor in the circuit shown
in Fig' 14' (using loop analysis method)

tM D UDi' Electric'l Technotosv' De'eDber'20101 [Ans' ]e from node E to node B]

9

t1. Using nodal method, tind currert through 100 o rcsistor (Fig 15)
LAns. 19161 A]
tutrdrakb{nd Technicat univ. tsasi. Electri.il Engineerins.
Deember-20121

A .5.9^ B lP* -c
15V 25\
8c}

10c}

E
Fig. 15 Fig. 16
Fis. 14

18. In the network sho['n in Fig. 16, find the power delivered by the source'
watts]
using the lodal analysis. tv.r. uni,. o""etuber-2010] [Ans' 360
19. Find the Thevenin's equivalent ofthe circuit ofFig lT'
[G.G.SJ.P Univ Delhi Elecrricil S'icDce Nlav_Jtrne
20091

l r*'I
r

llns. rzev (. )
eo I

L L--.,]
I

20. Find current in 6 O using Thevenin's theorem (Fig l8)

Odd SeDester 2013-r4l
IU.P. Technical Unir' Basic Electric'l Engineering 12 !)
tAns. 3A I
jn the given circuit
21. Find the value of curent flo$ ing through 4 O resistance
using Thevenin's theorem [Fig. 19]'
[lr'I.D. UniY. Elecr cal Technolog!, D€cehber'2011] tAns' +A l

10il a lo r ..19

2A t) .'n l)oo

Fig. 20 Fig. 21
Fig. 19
A4 Basic Electrical Engineerir;

In fie givel Fig. 20, 1'rnd the cunent through 5 O resistor. IRaj,sth,n r'.chnical univ. Feb.u,rJ 2010] [Ans. 20/1 1 i'
State and prove Thevenifl's theorem. Determine Thevenin's equivalcnt circuit which may be used lo represent tL:
networ.k shown below (Fig. 21) at terminals CD.

T
| .--n
+,,
I
^^-c
t"
iAns. .!!.

L
-l
r -o -
For the circuit slrown in Fig. 22, caiculate the curaent in the 6 Q - resistarce by using Norton's theor-ern.
[Ans. 0.5 A fiorn B to A:

6c)
10 c)

Yie.22 l'ig. 23

Determine current in l0 Q resistance using Norton's theorem in the following netwotk (Fig. 231.

II .1,. |'(hniol Unn. Llecrflcal L B,neeflns lir\t semhrer r*-*, 'Ilnr., I Ol

t22 I

26. Three rcsistances of 20 Cl each are cotnected in star. Find the equivalent delta rcsistance. ll a source ol emf of 120 V
is connected across any two ferminals of the equivalent delta-connected resistance tind the cu[ent supplied by the
source. [Ans.60 Ot 3 A]
27, Three resistances of20,25 and 30 ohms are coDnected in delta. Calculate the cotiespording resistances in an equivalent
starconnectio0. [Ans. 8 O, 6.67 O and t0 Q]
28. A netrvor* ofresisiances is shown in Fig. 24. Compute the equivalent network rcsistance measued behreen (i) A and
B (ii) B and C and (iii) C and A.

Lens' 99 o, 2!* a,
26'79 2.,79 2669
at
,o Find the lesistance between -)14
teminals XY of the bridge circuit shown in Fig. 25 by using delta-star ftansfonllations.
lU.P. T!.hnical Uni,. Electrical Enginrering July 20021

lAns.8.234 Ql
30. Find the resistance at the A-B terminels in the electrio cilcuit ofFig. 26 using transformation.
tu.P. rechli@l UEir. Itiec. ^-Y
Itnsinclrirg Fcbruari 20011 [Ans. 36 O]

!'ig.26

iltrtr