CIE 118:

BUILDING SYSTEM
DESIGN

LESSON 1:
Building Systems
A building is an assemblage that is firmly attached to the ground and that
provides total or nearly total shelter for machines, processing equipment,
performance of human activities, storage of human possessions, or any
combination of these.

Building design is the process of providing all information necessary

for construction of a building that will meet its owner’s requirements and
also satisfy public health, welfare, and safety requirements.

Architecture
Architecture is the art and science of building
design. Building construction is the process of
assembling materials to form a building.
Building design may be legally executed only by
persons deemed competent to do so by the state in
which the building is to be constructed.
Competency is determined on the basis of
education, experience, and ability to pass a
written test of design skills.
Designing buildings to effectively meet the
conditions and realities of a climate-changed
world will require a shift in our current
understanding of what constitutes good building
design and sound building practice.
Many of the practices that we now take for
granted, like cladding our buildings in curtain
wall building envelopes, in future, may no longer
be economically feasible.
To address these needed changes in building
design and construction, building should now be
responsive to the changing environment.
Buildings should be designed to be highly
energy efficient and include the use of highly
insulated building envelopes, triple insulated
glazing, and, where possible, passive solar
heating with thermal mass storage systems.
Where required, lighting systems should use LED
task lighting in combination with natural day-
lighting.
Design to allow for natural ventilation, and
simple low energy mechanical systems.

Foundation System
Whether modern structures are made up of reinforced concrete, steel,
wood or any other material, they all require foundations to support
them. As various types of loads like dead load, live load, wind load,
earthquake load and snow load are acting on the structure, these loads
are eventually transferred down to the foundation, which helps
transmits them to the earth beneath.
It is important to make the foundation
strong in order to withstand these loads
throughout the service lifespan of the
structure.
Depending upon depth we know that the
foundation can be shallow
or deep depending on the soil pressure.
A weak soil like here in
downtown Dagupan requires pile driving.
A footing foundation is a shallow
foundation type which can be made up of
materials like brick masonry or
concrete, they are mainly constructed
right beneath the wall or column of the
structure. Drawn on the right is an
isolated footing in the design of foundation.

Floor System
The floor system usually composed of concrete slab, beams and girders
and supported by columns. When constructing the floor system it is
important to take into consideration the type of flooring, the laying
of pipes and reinforcement.
The type of flooring in a house must
be adequately supported.
Nowadays, parking buildings like in
SM, Ayala and Robinson’s malls are now
using steel materials for slab, beams,
girders and columns for faster
construction.
On the right is an example of a
flooring system using steel decking.

Roofing System
To select, detail, and specify the most appropriate roof system for a
project; past experience with several of the available
material options and an understanding of roof assembly materials and
system options, and an understanding of roof design considerations is
recommended.
The purpose is to provide design guidance
for designing high-performance low- and
steep-slope roof assemblies.
When specifying roof assemblies, designers
have many materials
from which to choose. A design concern
when designing roofs in cold climates is
the possibility of falling ice and snow.
The term roof system refers to the air
barrier or vapor retarder (if present), roof insulation (if present),
and the roof membrane, flashing, and accessories.

Walling System
The basic function of the envelope or enclosure of
a building or structure is to protect the covered
or otherwise conditioned interior spaces from the
surrounding environment. This fundamental need for
shelter is a concept that is as old as the
recorded history of mankind.
However, as our needs have evolved and
technologies have advanced, the
demand placed on designers to both understand, and
integrate, a wide range of increasingly complex
materials, components, and systems into the building enclosure has
grown in equal proportion. This is particularly true when one considers
the emerging threat of terrorism, climate change and the impact of that
threat on the design and construction of the building enclosure.
However, despite the recent emphasis on blast-resistant wall
systems and hardening of the building, uncontrolled rainwater
penetration
and moisture ingress remain two of the most common threats to the
structural integrity and performance of the building enclosure. Our
country is now using state-of-the-art SRC (Steel Reinforced Concrete)
Panels in walling system.

 In general, all foundations are divided into two categories, -

shallow and deep foundations. The terms Shallow and Deep
Foundation refer to the depth of the soil at which it is placed.
 Generally, if the width of the foundation is greater than the
depth, it is labeled as the “Shallow Foundation”.
 If the width is smaller than the depth of the foundation it is
called as “Deep Foundation.”
 However, deep foundation and shallow foundation can be classified
as shown in the following chart.

SHALLOW FOUNDATION

Isolated Footing
 - This is the most widely recognized and most straightforward shallow
foundation type, as this is the most economical type.

Wall Footing
- also known as continuous footing. This type is
used to distribute loads of structural or
nonstructural load-bearing walls to the ground in
such a way that the load-bearing limit of the soil
isn't outperformed. It runs along the direction of
the wall.

Combined Footing
- foundations which are made common to more than one column

Cantilever or Strap Footing

- the foundation under the columns is built
individually and connected by a strap Beam

Raft or Matt Foundation

- recommended in situations where
the bearing capacity of the soil is inadequate,
the load of the structure is to be distributed
over a large area or structure is subjected
continuously to shocks or jerks.
DEEP FOUNDATION

Pile Foundation
- a common type of deep foundation. They are used to
reduce cost, and when as per soil condition
considerations, it is desirable to transmit loads to
soil strata which are beyond the reach of shallow
foundations.
Pier Foundation
- foundations. It is usually shallower than piles. The
pier foundation i s generally utilized in multi-story
structures. Since the base region is determined by the
plan strategy for the regular establishment, the single
pier load test is wiped out. Along these lines, it is
increasingly well known under tight conditions.
Caisson Foundation
- a watertight retaining structure used as a bridge
pier, construction of the dam, etc. It is generally used
in structures that require foundation beneath a river or
similar water bodies. The reason for choosing the
caisson is that it can be floated to the desired
location and then sunk into place.

LESSON 2:
Different Codes and Standards
  Building codes are a series of regulations, co-created by politicians
and building professionals, that are designed to govern the design,
construction, repair or alteration and general maintenance of
buildings. These codes apply to virtually every type of structure, from
garages and houses to schools, churches, agricultural and commercial
buildings.
 For this reason, we always recommend checking in with your local
building department before commencing the construction of any building
on your property to make sure you adhere to local building regulations.
Failure to do so can result in serious penalties, fines and even the
demolition of your building if it doesn't meet the current building
code requirements.
 Building codes are handed down at the international, federal, state
and local levels. Typically, municipalities adopt the overarching
building codes set forth by the International Building Code (IBC).
 This prevents them from having to "reinvent the wheel" and provides a
solid foundation. These codes are in constant evolution in response to
building innovation, technological advancements and/or real-life
scenarios in which devastation could have been prevented with a change
in the building code.
 Building codes are revised based on current situations. An example of
revised building codes are Seismic Building Codes, which are created to
provide the minimum qualifications a building must meet in order to
withstand a certain level of seismic activity.

STRUCTURAL
Proper structural design in civil engineering helps ensure that public
works projects don’t end in tragedy.
It also ensures the structure will last at least as long as the
planners expect. Sometimes, though, even civil construction engineers
with many successful projects under their belts get things wrong.
Civil and Structural engineers are responsible in the design of
buildings. The design should be based on Structural Code of the
Philippines. Therefore, familiarity with the codes is a must for
designers.
Leon Moisseiff had designed the Golden Gate Bridge, the George
Washington and Manhattan bridges in New York City, and the Ben Franklin
Bridge in Philadelphia. In fact, he designed so many successful bridge
projects that his name graces an annual award for published papers on
improving engineered structures.

Example of Structural code :

“Wood columns shall be protected against decay and the columns shall be
restrained to prevent lateral displacement at the bottom end. Wood columns
shall be not less in nominal size than 4 inches by 4 inches (102 mm by 102
mm). Steel columns shall be not less than 3-inch-diameter (76 mm) Schedule
40 pipe manufactured in accordance with ASTM A53 Grade B or approved
equivalent. For reinforced concrete columns minimum area should be 96 square
inch or 8” x 12” / 200mm x 300mm.”
ARCHITECTURAL
 The Architectural code was designed to be compatible with National
Building Code as its implementing rules and regulations. Similarly,
with all other referral codes prescribed under NBC, it is subject to
periodic changes and in accordance with universal advancements in
science and technology.
It prescribes rules and regulatory measures to ascertain good building
design and construction with inherent considerations and provisions for
the safety and protection of limb, life, property, health and general
public welfare within a sound and wholesome environmental setup.

Example of Architectural code :

- “Architect is the one responsible for the design of buildings and other
structures. During the design process, the architect communicates with all
engineering discipline and other professionals involve in the project.”

“Such allied engineering professionals and experts include but not limited
to the following depending upon the architect’s project requirements.”
1. Consultants
2. Civil Engineer
3. Structural Engineer
4. Professional Electrical Engineer (PEE)
5. Professional Mechanical Engineer (PME)
6. Sanitary Engineer
7. Electronics and Communications Engineer
8. Environmental Engineer / Planner
9. Safety Engineer
10. Master Plumber
11. Geodetic Engineer
12. Interior Designers
13. Landscapers

“The bedroom should be located on the side of the direction of

prevailing wind. The location should be such that the bedroom receives
sunlight during morning hours. The minimum window area should be 1:10th
of the floor area.
In bedrooms 9.5 cubic meter per adult and 5.5cubic meter per child
space should be available and suitable allowance should be made for
furniture. The room sizes and their location provides spaces for
movement, sunlight and natural air for residents.”

PLUMBING

Improper installation of plumbing may affect health

of the occupants of a building and create a center
point for the spread of disease. The right of the
government to regulate the details of plumbing on
the principle for the protection of public health.
 Below are some of the basic principles of governing the National
Plumbing Code

 Plumbing fixtures, devices and appurtenances shall be supplied

with water in sufficient volume and pressure adequate to function
satisfactorily and without undue noise.
 Devices for heating and storing water shall be so designed and
installed as to prevent dangers from explosion through
overheating.
 Septic tanks should be designed such that there’s a leaching
chamber and digestive chamber and with two manholes for easy
access in cleaning and maintenance.
 Every building abutting on a street, alley or easement with a
public sewer shall connect its plumbing fixtures to the sewer
system.
 Plumbing fixtures shall be made of smooth non-absorbent material,
free from concealed fouling surfaces and shall be located in
ventilated enclosures.
 Vent terminals shall extend to the outer air and installed to
prevent clogging and the return of foul air into the building.
 Plumbing systems shall be subjected to such tests to effectively
disclose all leaks and defects in the workmanship.

FIRE CODE

 It is the policy of the government to

ensure public safety, promote economic
development through the prevention and
suppression of all kinds, of
destructive fires, and promote the
professionalization of the fire
service as a profession. Towards this
end, the government shall all laws,
rules and regulations to ensure
adherence to standard fire prevention
and safety measures, and promote
accountability in the fire protection
and prevention service.
 Fire alarm, fire extinguisher, fire and smoke detection with automatic
fire sprinkler systems, communication systems, shall be installed in
the building for the safety of occupants.
 Fire Hydrants should be located at the entrance of the building and
proper location of Fire Escape / exit passageways should also be
provided

ZONING CODE
Zoning regulations specify whether zones can be used for residential,
commercial, institutional or open space purposes, that may also
regulate lot size, placement, bulk (or density) and the height of
structures.
Zoning consists of dividing a particular region of land into districts
or zones and specifying the types of land uses that are allowed and
prohibited for each zone. This is performed by the municipality upon
application of building permit and is typically specific to certain
unincorporated areas.
Zoning, in its basic form, attempts to separate residential property
use from other property uses.
 Zoning and Land Use Planning in Urban Areas

Zoning is a planning control tool for regulating the built environment

and creating functional real estate markets. It does so by dividing
land that comprises the statutory area of a local authority into
sections, permitting particular land uses on specific sites to shape
the layout of towns and cities and enable various types of development.
Zoning has a relatively short history as a tool for land-use planning.
It determines the location, size, and use of buildings and decides the
density of city block.

Why is zoning necessary?

 The purpose of zoning is to allow local and national authorities to
regulate and control land and property markets to ensure complementary
uses.
 Zoning can also provide the opportunity to stimulate or slow down
development in specific areas.
 The planning and zoning process functions differently around the world
and is controlled by different levels of authority.
 Most commonly, a local authority such as a municipality or a county
controls zoning (as in Australia or the United States) whereas in other
cases zoning is implemented at the state or national level (as in
France or Germany).
 Sometimes zoning is governed by a combination of the two approaches.
Beyond these immediate controls, additional regulations that affect
zoning are often used, such as planning scheme overlays in Australia or
impact assessments in Germany.

Can zoning regulations be amended?

 The zoning ordinance is a legal framework, but it must also be flexible

enough to accommodate and guide development. Amendments can be made to
alter it either by the local authority or by the public. An amendment
is usually made to “achieve a desirable planning outcome or to support
a new policy direction”
 As such, it must have planning merit and be consistent with the future
strategic directions for the local government.
 Zoning amendments are especially important in urban regeneration
projects, as governments can use them to increase the building volume
allowed for development to be profitable and attractive enough to the
private sector. In most cases, either a zoning text amendment (changing
the zoning regulations) or a zoning map amendment (changing the zoning
designation) is necessary to allow for a specific development in a
specific location or configuration, currently not permitted.
 Making or requesting an amendment is not a simple process. Indeed, it
has significant planning implications and will affect the wider
community because it “changes the way land can be used or developed in
the whole neighborhood.”
 Making an amendment to most planning schemes is also a rigorous
process, often requiring a higher level of government.
 Types of buildings can be classified based on several criteria such as
size, function, construction, style, design etc. However, the
International Building Code (IBC 2018) and Uniform Building Code (UBC)
categorize buildings based on occupancy and use.
 LESSON 3:
Different Building Parts and Building Types
TEN TYPES OF BUILDINGS
1. Assembly Buildings - Church, Araneta Coliseum, SMX Convention Center
2. Business Buildings - Offices
3. Educational Buildings - College, training institute
4. Factory and Industrial Bldgs - Aircraft manufacturing, gas plant, power
plants
5. High hazard Buildings - Fireworks, hydrogen peroxide
6. Institutional Buildings - Hospitals, nursing homes
7. Mercantile Buildings - Department store, drug stores
8. Residential Buildings - Apartments, dormitories
9. Storage Buildings - Warehouse, Cold storage
10. Utility & Misc. Bldgs. - Tanks, towers

 Criteria from IBC and UBC are logical since they control the design and
construction of structures. Added to that, each building type represent
varying levels of hazard and risk to building occupants and adjacent
properties

STRUCTURAL PARTS OF A BUILDING

Two Categories of Structural Components :

1. Sub-Structure – structure below natural ground level Footings, Pile

Caps, Footing Tie Beams, Grade Beams

2. Plinth – the part between surrounding natural ground level and Finish
ground level Ground Floor Slab, Columns, Wall Footings

3. Super Structure – part above plinth level Walls, Floors, Columns,

Floor Beams and Girders, Lintel beams, Steps & Stair, Roof Beams,
Parapet Walls

Every part of a building is subjected to outside

forces, gravity, wind, snow loads (in winter
countries), earthquake and temperature changes. An
engineer should have the specialized knowledge,
training and expertise in analyzing and designing
force-resisting systems for buildings and other
structures.

Foundation
Foundation is the most critical work of building construction. A load
of buildings depends on the foundation which is the strength of
buildings. It is one kind of substructure.
Foundations can be divided into two categories such as Shallow and
Deep Foundations.
The words shallow and deep indicate as the depth
of foundation in the soil. Shallow foundations
used for small and light buildings for e.g. a
small or medium size houses, small shopping
centers, etc. and deep foundations used for heavy
 and large buildings for e.g. tall buildings, huge shopping malls, large
hospitals, and universities, etc.
Generally, shallow foundations can be made in depth of as little as 3ft
(1m) and deep foundations made at depth of 60-200ft (20-65m).

Plinth
The plinth is that part of between surrounding ground surface and floor
space immediately the above the ground of a building.
Plinth resists entry of rainwater and insects inside the building.
General plinth height is 45, 60, 75, 90, 120 cm.

Superstructure
The Superstructure constructed above the underground level. The
location between the underground level and the ground level is known
as the plinth. In this structure, walls and rooms are constructed and
transfer loads from the upper part to the substructure. In this part, a
building has the following components:

Floor Structures
It is an important element of building construction. It is located at
the lower level surface of a room. Floors can decorate in various ways.
Floors are here to move around for e.g. walking from room to another
room.

Roof Structures
It is located at the upper-level surface of a room. Depends on the
weather, roofs can be different categories such as- blue roof, cold
roof, collar roof, fabric roof, a domestic roof, domestic roofing,
fiber cement, flat roof, green roof, pitched roof, mono-pitched roof,
warm roof, shell roof, metal roof, roof tiles, etcc. Most of the time,
flat roofs and fiber cement roofs are used in building constructions.

Lintel, Sunshade & Parapet

Lintel beams are provided near openings to bare the load coming from
the superstructure above the door or windows. Lintels can be steel
lintels, reinforced brick lintels, stone lintels, timber lintels, etc.
The sunshade is one of kind of slab, which is made on the top of
windows and doors. It protects the doors and windows from rain and
heavy heat of sunlight. Based on their position, sunshades can be
Internal, External, and Inter-panel.
Internal Sun-shading is protecting from solar radiation
and balance useful daylight availability; for example- curtains and
Venetian blind, roller blinds, pleated blinds, blackout binds, etc.
External shading can be horizontal, vertical or egg-crate devices.
External Sunshades are considered better to protect the building from
weather or climate changes. Sunshades maintain a comfortable indoor
temperature and minimize the solar radiation and coolness of the
weather, which dramatically affect building energy performance.
The parapet is a low wall constructed above roofline that usually spans
around the perimeter of a building. A parapet wall can be constructed
around balconies or at the edge of terraces and stairs.

Precast Concrete – a construction product produced by

casting concrete in a reusable mold or form. That’s the
main difference between precast concrete and site cast
concrete, which is poured into its final destination on
site.
 simplified overview of the precast concrete process:

 Precast concrete is poured into a wooden or steel mold with wire mesh
or rebar. This mold may also have prestressed cable, if needed.
 It is cured in a controlled environment — usually at a plant.
 Once finished, the precast concrete is transported to a
construction site and put into place.

Prestressed Concrete - is a type of reinforced concrete in

which steel has been tensioned against the concrete.

Two methods of prestressed concrete :

1. Pre-tensioned Concrete
in this method, the prestressing tendons are initially tensioned
between fixed abutments and anchored. With the formwork in place,
the concrete is cast around the highly stressed steel tendons and
cured. When the concrete has reached its required strength, the
wires are cut or otherwise released from the abutments. As the
highly stressed steel attempts to contract, the concrete is
compressed. The stress is imparted via bond between the steel and
the concrete.

2. Post tensioned Concrete

in this method, the concrete is cast around hollow ducts

which are fixed to any. The steel tendons are usually in
place, unstressed in the ducts during the concrete pour.
When the concrete has reached its required strength, the
tendons are tensioned. Tendons may be stressed from one end
with the other end anchored or may be stressed from both
ends. The tendons are then anchored at each stressing end.
The concrete is compressed during the stressing operation
and the prestress is maintained after the tendons are
anchored by bearing of the end anchorage plates onto the
concrete.

What are tendons in pre-stressed concrete?

 A basically high tensile bundled steel cable or
wire used in prestressed concrete structural
elements like beam, column, slabs, etc.
 LESSON 4:
Building Materials
There are many types of building materials used in construction such as
Concrete, Steel, Wood and Masonry. Each material has different
properties such as weight, strength, durability and cost which makes it
suitable for certain types of applications
. The choice of materials for construction is based on cost and
effectiveness to resisting the loads and stresses acting on the
structure. Building material depends on:

 the size and nature of building

 its design
 intended purposes
 availability of resources
 location

The production of structural-grade building materials is subject to

quality control procedures that involve inspection and testing
according to national standards and scientific testing methods.

Part of the structural engineer’s responsibilities is to prepare the

project specifications including all building materials and applicable
standards and provision to comply with. This is a crucial part of any
project to specify the quality and properties of materials to be used.

materials used with their corresponding sample strength:

1. Steel - 300MPa
2. Concrete - 25 MPa
3. Masonry - 10 MPa
4. Wood Parallel to grain - 5MPa
5. Wood Perpendicular to Grain – 3.5MPa

Steel reinforcement bars or rebars are used to improve the tensile

strength of the concrete, since concrete is very weak in tension, but
is strong in compression. Steel is only used as rebar because
elongation of steel due to high temperatures (thermal expansion
coefficient) nearly equals to that of concrete

MAJOR TYPES OF STEEL BARS USED IN CONSTRUCTION:

1. Mild Steel Bar

2. Deformed Steel Bar
 TMT Bars (Thermo mechanically treated bars)
 High Strength Deformed Bars
3. European rebar
4. Carbon Steel Bar
5. Epoxy coated rebar
6. Galvanized Rebar
7. Glass Fiber-Reinforced-Polymer (GFRP0
Reinforced Concrete as a Material

Reinforced concrete is one of the most widely used modern building

materials. Concrete is an “artificial stone” obtained by mixing cement,
sand, and aggregates with water.
Fresh concrete can be molded into almost any shape, giving it an
inherent advantage over other materials.
It became very popular after the invention of Portland cement in the
19th century; however, its limited tension resistance initially
prevented its wide use in building construction.
To overcome poor tensile strength, steel bars are embedded in concrete
to form a composite material called reinforced concrete (RC).
The use of RC construction in the modern world stems from the wide
availability of its ingredients – reinforcing steel as well as
concrete. Except for the production of steel and cement, the production
of concrete does not require expensive manufacturing mills. But,
construction with concrete does require a certain level of technology,
expertise and workmanship, particularly in the field during
construction.
Despite this need for sophistication and professional inputs, a large
number of single-family houses or low-rise residential buildings across
the world have been and are being constructed using RC without any
engineering assistance.

EXTERIOR MATERIALS

Exterior walls can be finished with a wide array of materials and

techniques. Exterior wall finishes can produce significant savings for
the contractor and building occupant alike, and many options are
available to protect from fire, extreme heat and cold.
Browse through all of these options featuring advantages, tips,
benefits and cost saving solutions for materials used in building
construction. Cladding is now most commonly used in exterior surfaces
of a building for it is faster to install.
Cladding is an application of one material over another to provide a
skin or layer and to provide a degree of thermal insulation.

Types of cladding used in exterior surfaces in buildings:

1. Aluminum Cladding
2. Metal Cladding
3. Concrete Cladding
4. Composite Cladding
5. Metal Mesh Cladding
6. Solid Surface Cladding

 In hot countries like Saudi Arabia, marble is being used in exterior

finishes for residential buildings.
 Marble is considered to be a strong, hard stone and one of its
properties is, it is heat resistant, thereby reducing the heat inside
the rooms.
  In cold countries, exterior wall is of the biggest concern – air,
moisture and heat loss. Most cold weather construction effectively
combats these concerns through the use of double walls, which involves
building two stud walls; one that is load-bearing and a second wall
that is not. The load-bearing wall is generally sheathed in plywood to
permit insulation to be installed from one side, whereas the double-
wall system still includes components of a standard wall-like
structural sheathing and housewrap.
 The space between the two walls is then filled with insulation, which
can include materials such as blown-in cellulose, blown-in fiberglass
or fiberglass batts, all of which are recommended materials by the Cold
Climate Housing Research Center in Alaska. Blown-in insulation is
common, as this type of insulation material effectively fills in all of
the spaces present in the double wall system, such as the voids that
are present between inner and outer wall studs, blocking and corners.
Both cellulose and fiberglass blown-in insulation materials are sold in
compressed bales that are inserted into a blowing machine, which is
then used to chop up the bales and pump insulation into the wall
through a hose and a blower.

INTERIOR FINISHES

Interior designers are now concerned with the environment and now they
are using green products for this are environment friendly materials
and have unique aesthetic as well. Some of the organic materials used
in interior are:
1. Tiles made from coconut shell
2. Tiles made from leather scraps
3. Fabric Wall Panels
4. Laser Cut Sheet Metal Panels
5. Bronze Art Tiles – can withstand any weather
6. Laminated Resin
7. Strand woven bamboo flooring
8. Cork Flooring
9. Resin wicker

LIGHTWEIGHT MATERIALS

Floor is one of the critical load path components in high-rise

building, because it will dictate how much lateral load from wind or
earthquake can be transmitted to the lateral load resisting system.
This is in addition to resisting gravity load from dead and live load
acting on it.
Economically, floor composes 20% of the total structure weight and it
will contribute to the foundation demand of the building. Conventional
floor system for high-rise buildings is composed of reinforced concrete
(RC) slab connected to steel beam (or RC beam) via shear connector.
The RC slab can be made cast in-situ with corrugated metal plate or
designed with prefabricated system. The alternative floor system is
utilizing ultra-lightweight (ULW) slab such as cross-laminated timber
(CLT) connected to the beam via the shear connector that is normally
made of long-screws pre-drilled through steel flange up to a certain
design depth. It should be noted that there are many other type of ULW
slabs that are potentially applicable as those of the CLT slab.

Lightweight Concrete
 a concrete made with lightweight coarse aggregates and normal weight
fine aggregates with possibly some lightweight fine aggregates.
 Lightweight concrete has a unit weight or density which normally ranges
from 320 to 1920 kg per cubic meter. Three different lightweight
concrete is based on their strength range.
 Low density concrete have a strength of 0.2 to 2.0 MPa.
 Moderate strength concrete have a strength of 7-14 MPa.
 Structural concrete have a strength of 17 to 63 MPa.
 Lightweight concrete are used in high rise buildings, long span
bridges, offshore platforms and large projects. A number of advantages
in using low-density lightweight concrete in construction are due to
its low density, low thermal conductivity, low shrinkage and high heat
resistance, in addition to reduction in dead load, lower haulage cost
and faster building rate.