UNIT 3 COGNITIVE AND LANGUAGE

DEVELOPMENT
Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Cognitive Development : The Concept
3.4 Piaget's Concept of Cognitive Development
3.4.1 Underlying Mental Process
3.4.2 Stages of Cognitive Development and Accomplishments
3.4.3 Methodology of Studying Cognitive Developments
3.4.4 Factors Facilitating Cognitive Devebpment
3.5 Divergent Thinking
3.5.1 Concep of Divergent Thinking
3.5.2 Dimensions of Creativity
3.5.3 Identification of a Creative Child
3.5.4 Implication for Classroom Teachers
3.6 Language Development
3.6.1 Specific Nature and Characteristics of Language Development
3.6.2 Functions of Language
3.6.3 Inter-personal Communication
3.6.4 Problems of Language Developnent
3.6.5 lmplications for Teachers
3.7 Implications for Classroom Teachers
3.7.1 Organisation of Teaching-Learning Environment
3.7.2 Problems Related to Cognitive Development
3.7.3Identification of and Providing Remedies of Cognitive Development Problems
3.8 Let Us Sum Up
3.9 Unit-end Exercises
3.10 Suggested Readings
3.1 1 Answers to Check Your Progress

3.1 INTRODUCTION -- -

In Unit 2 you have gained insights into various developmental aspects viz., physical, social,
emotional and moral. As a teacher you are aware that those aspects are crucial indicators of a
child's growth and development. In this unit you will study the development of certain
intellectual processes viz. cognition, creativity and language.
A discussion on cognitive development will help you understand children's comprehension,
underlying mechanisms and methods to facilitate the development of cognition. Divergent
thinking deals with the dimensions of creativity and its processes, and the characteristics of
creative children.
Similarly language development of children will acquaint you with the specific nature and
characteristics of language, inter-personal communication and implications of language
development for teachers teaching at the secondary school level. Besides, we discuss the
implications of cognitive development for teachers so that they facilitate cognitive
development of their students.
C~~dcrstanding the Development
of the Learner 3.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to :
discuss the concept and factors facilitating cognitive development;
discuss the various stages of cognitive development and related accomplishments at each
stage;
define divergent thinking and its demensions;
discuss various dimensions of the creativity process;
0 describe the nature, characteristicsand problems of language developmcnt;
discuss d i f k n t types of inter-personal communication mechanisms; and
discuss the organisation of a teaching-learning environment in accordance with the
cognitive needs of children.

3.3 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT :THE CONCEPT

Development, as you have studied in Unit 2, is the process of quantitative and qualitative
growth of Ihe child and the emergence and differentiation of capabilities over time. It is the
function of maturity as well as inwrdction with the environment.
Cognition means to perceive, comprehend, conceive or simply to know. Cognitive
development would then mean the growth and capability of knowing, comprehending, or
understanding over time, facilitatcd both by maturity and interaction with the environment.
Cognition involves the ability to construct mental images involving thought, reasoning,
memory and language. Mental images are constructed by an individual as the surroundings (the
world around) are observed, understood and internalised as a mental process. Thus every
individual has a unique model based on a unique process of observation. This is how a leaner
learns about the world around himher.
According to Burner, cognitive developmcnt occurs in three phases-enactive (doing), ikonic
(object modcls of pictures) and symbolic (signs and symbols). For instance, for a young child
cognising what an apple means would be touching or holding or tasting it (enactive mode),
later as he grows up seeing pictures of it or a model of it (lkonic model), and still later gradually
dcciphering the word "apple" (symbolic mode).

3.4 PIAGET'S CONCEPT OF COGNITIVE

DEVELOPMENT
Jean Piaget offers a rich framework for conceptualising the development of the child's thinking
and cognition during the span of his growing/development to an adult. To him, cognitive
development means how knowldge is acquired and developed through successive stages and
at various age levels. Hence his theory of cognition is sometimes callcd genetic epistemology.
It focuses attention on the interaction between his biological inheritance and his environment
for cognitive development.

3.4.1 Underlying Mental Process

In order to progress further into Piaget's cognitive development processes, we could cognisize
or understand the fact that all cognition takes place due to two processes :
Assimilation which means taking in or absorbing stimulilinformation from the
environment, and
0 Accommodation which means making room for or adjusting to incoming
stimuli/information.
These twin processes together facilitate adaptation. Adaptation is an ongoing process which
helps the individual internalise or store in all that one comprehends. This then, forms schemes
or mental representations or maps of the world.
All learning is adaptive as an infant learns to cry when hungry, or an adult learns to speak a
 nalive language in a foreign land. All these have adaptive value. In Unit 10, Section 10.5.3, you Cognitive and Language
Development
will read about the schema, equilibration, assimilation, adaptation and accommodation.

Check Your Progress 1

Notes : a) Write your answer in the space given below.
bj Compare your answer with those given at the end of the unil.
i) Fill in the blanks:
a) Cognition means ...................................................................................
b) Accommodation which means ...............................................................
c) Cognitive development is a product of interaction between ....................................
and .............................................
ii) Cognitive development according to Burner occurs in three phases. List them.
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3.4.2 Stages of Cognitive Development and Accomplishmer~ts

You will read the stages of cognitive development in detail in Unit 10, Sub-section 10.5.3.The
table below shows the major accomplishments at each stage of development

Stage-age Type of thinking Major accomplishments

Sensori-motor stage Sensori-motor Pre-verbal
(0 - 2 years) Repetition of movements
Triba-r behaviour.
Emergence of goal
directed behaviour.
Object permanence.
Animism.
Pre-operational stage Transductive Egocentrism.
(2 - 7 years) thought Imitation.
Intuitive thought Perceptual reasoning.
Imaginary play.
Centration.
Inconsistent casual reasoning.
Concrete operations Inductive thought Decentration Diminished
stage (7 - 11 years) ego-ccnuism, Explanation
Conserves, Seriates etc.
Makes,
Transformations.
Classifies.
Fantasizes, etc.
Formal operations stage Deductive thought Applies logic.
(1 1 onwards) Infers.
Verbal hypothesis.
Idealistic thinking.
Collaboration with others.
Proportionality probabilistic
and cornbinamrial reasoning.
Casual relations.
Early in life (0 - 2 years) the child learns by touching and scnsing. You must have observed
lillle babies holding the objects of their attention and putting it in their mouth. This is a stage
called sensori-motor stage. As the child grows he develops some amount of rcasoning. He tends
i to imitate in order to learn, though he himself is the centre of all attention. This is the

I pre-operational stage.
Understanding the Development At the concrete operational stage the child learns enough to make transformations in what he
of the Learner
observes. His imagination power moves to propel him to the formal operational stage. At this
stage he can apply logic to hypothesize to build relationships and to infer fromthe relationship.

3.4.3 Methodology of Studying Cognitive Development

Piaget's method of studying cognition is a one-to-one verbal interactive, inquiry-oriented
method, popularly known as the clinical method. Certain mental-operation tasks, in
accordance with age and stage of development with supporting material, are prepared. For
example, a typical Piaget task on probabilistic reasoning for a 14-year-old student is given
below:
Purpose of the task : To assess the child's comprehension of probability.
Materials : 96 one-inch wooden blocks of 4 different colours (36 red, 36 blue, 20 yellow and
4 green), a paper bag, a box.
Procedure : Separate blocks into four colour groups, divide each colour group into half. Give
one half to the child and instruct him to put them in the paper bag or box. Keep the other half
in front of the child as a reference set.
The teacher says, "I will pull out two blocks out of the bag without looking at them. Could you
guess the colour that will come out?"
The procedure is continued till all the blocks are pulled out and the teacher keeps asking, "Why
do you think'it will be red?" and so on in order to assess the reasoning of the child. Note the
justifications given and also note the strategy the child uses for predicting. Intermittently, the
teacher uses counter-suggestions such as, "I think the next two would be yellow and blue (low
probability colours), what do you think? Transfer of tasks related to probabilistic reasoning we
taken up If the teacher is sure that the existence of cognition is based on logic and one could
further as$ess its wider application through transfer.

Criteria for assessment

In order to assess a specific level of reasoning, the student should be able to :
make the correct judgement
logically justify that judgement
successfully resist a counter-suggestion,
provide a successful performance on a related task (Strauss, 1972).

3.4.4 Factors Facilitat~ngCognitive Development

Factors facilitating cognition are internal readiness, environmental experiences, social
experience and equilibration.
For Piaget andother cognitivists such as Wadsworth, Flavell, Sullivan,etc., the important thing
is interactions and equilibration. The key to cognitive development as it relates to educational
practice is the activity of the students, their apions on objects, events and other people. While
interaction refers to internal organismic readiness, environmental experience is obtained
through physical experiences or repetition reinforcement, manipulation of things in the
environment and logic-mathematical experiences. Social interaction relates to cognition
through interactive modes with people where one learns about relationships, concepts, namely
cooperation, competition, cultural mores and practices, etc. Language IS the medium of social
experiences (verbal and non-verbal). Equilibration refers to a self-regulatory process and
assimilation and adaptation where a balance is struck and a new cognition takes place or a new
schema comes into being.

Check Your Progress 2

Notes : a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the unit.
i) List four factors that facilitate cognitive development.
"...
.............................................................................................................................................
. .
 ..
............................................................................................................................................ Cognitive ahd L.awuagc
LiQvelopmMt
...........................................................................................................................................
) ............................................................................................................................................
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ii) Fill in the blanks:
a) A fifteen years old student is said to be at the ..........................stage of thinking.
b) ...........................................
t e of reasoning characterisesa fourteen years old
child.
c) Some of the mental operation tasks are .......................................................and
..................................
d) ............................................. method is one to one, and an interactive process.

3.5 DIVERGENT THINKING

Divergent thinking or lateral thinking is the essence of cognitive development. In Section 3.4
you have read about the concept of cognitive development. Take this example: what is the
opposite of the word bright? Dark is an acceptable answer. Now consider another situation.
what is the opposite of a cupboard? Or what ideas come to your mind when you think of
sunset? The answers to these questions are not straight jacketed. They may be unlimited, with
varying degrees of acceptability. This is the essence of divergent or lateral thinking which
means to think in unusual, novel and unique ways.

3.5.1 Concept of Divergent Thinking

In divergent thinking. we think in different directions, sometimes searching what, and
sometimes seeking variety. Lateral thinking is another expression used for divergent thinking.
it means an original line of enquiry. Creativity or divergent thinking can be identified with
openness in expressing feelings, receptivity to ideas, concern for others, desire to grow as a
person and actualise one's potentials.
Hence creativity is the playful exploration of thoughts by a person who is open, curious and
imaginative.

3.5.2 Dimensions of Creativity

Creativity is related to divergent thinking. Therefore,creativity is a multi-dimensional concept.
We discuss here the main dimensions of the creative behaviour of a student. This will help you
understandcreativity better by developing an insight into the nature of creativity and divergent
thinking. You will study about creativity in Section 5.6 of Unit 5 of Block 2 also.
A child with the following characteristic dimensions gives more evidence of divergent or
crcative thinking than others :
I) Fluency : Ability to manage successfully when a number of ideas are sought.
It is the total number of relevant responses given by an individual to
a given stimulus.
Example : In how many ways can you use a brick, a chair, a toothbrush, etc.?
In how many ways can you earn money?
Scoring : Count the number of ideas produced in each case; their total is your
fluency score.
ii) Flexibility : The ability to shift your f m e of reference and thlnk of varying
alternatives. It is the capacity of an individual to use different
approaches in responding to a stimulus.
Example : List five different factors you would bear in mind when you opt for
a career.
Scoring : Each new multiple criterion gets a score. The more the alternative
criteria, the more the flexibility score.
L,nderslanding the Development ui) Originality : The production of novel, unsual ideas which are also useful,
of the Learner
relevant and apt. It is the capacity of an individual to give original
responses to a stimulus.
Example : Form a figure using these lines o r m e the words rough, smooth.
fault, and vault and make a poem.
Scoring : The idea which is novel, unique and relevant gets a score.
iv) Elaboration : The ability to generate various alternatives (details) that implement
or spell out an idea.
Example : Sarah put her foot on the 10 foot long snake.
Scoring : Varied details that have facilitated or elaborated get a score.

3.5.3 Identification of a Creative Child

To some extent every child has the capacity of creative behaviour but some have specific
creativity in some areas such as science, artistic contribution, etc. It is, however, a difficult task
to identify a creative child. For this, you have to identify the characteristics of creativity or
divergent thinking. The following are the major characteristics you may like to look for in your
students :
original thought, expression, action and behaviour
ask uncomfortable questions at times
persistdargues for his or her point of view
proposes alternatives to solutions
displays a high degree of risk-taking behaviour
self-concept is high, tends to be more anxious and possesses a greater degree of need for
achievement
more tolerant of ambiguity, and
curiousity/independent judgement and exhibits more automony.

3.5.4 Implication for Classroom Teachers

The teacher can provide certain conditions which will increase the fluency, flexibility,
originality and exploration of the students thinkingkhaviour. The following are the important
conditions which can foster students' creativity.
Pose open-cndcd, divergent questions with the focus on alternativeresponses and novclty,
and not on right or wrong.
Excessive discipline, reliance on text books, emphasis on rote learning or criticising
students for wrong answers reduce their creative potential.
Encourage childrcn to experiment, innovate, discover, hypothesise or imagine possible
solutions to any pressing issue.
Develop a spirit of inquiry, tolerate uncertainty; help to speculate, cultivate a deliberate
pace of thinking, etc.
Adopt a multi-disciplinary approach to teaching.
a Create a supportive environment.
Appreciate students' creative efforts.
Assign/suggest activities of an inter-disciplinary nature.
Use teaching aids that stimulate imagination.
Resist from premature evaluation.
 Cognitive and Language
Development
Notes : a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the unit.
i) What is divergent thinking ?
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ii) List four dimensions of creativity.
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iii) Identify the characteristics of students who you think have a creative mind.
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LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
It is assumed that every living being has its language. But all of them cannot communicate like
humanbeings. The language of humanbeings has certain characteristics which give a definite
meaning to their communication. We can talk about the past, the present and the future with the
help of language.
Language development and its usage both verbal and non-verbal is universal and central to
human existance. Language functions as a means of communication, as a means of reflecting
on and reorganising experience, and as a way to receive and transform the accurnulatcd
knowledge and values of the community.

3.6.1 Specific Nature and Characteristics of Language Development

All cxcept those who are severely impaired develop their language in similar ways, though at
varying rates. In such cases the maturity of the child plays an important role.
Details of language and how it is used is influenced to a large extent by experience (the role of
the environment). Much of language is learned through socialisation. Bernsteium (1971)
differentiates varying language development and communication systems between children
belonging to positional families where communication is closed and children are seen and not
heard so much, and those belonging to personcentred families who have more open
communication and their language develops with ease.
According to Chomsky (1968). language development is the result of the progressive gain of
maturity - the unfolding of the child's genetic capability for language. Chomsky's (1976)
model of language development attributed an innate understanding of fundamental rules,
which get activated by the language the child hears and accounts for the speed and regularity
of development.
Weil (1985) presents a universal sequence of developing language. His finding is that
infrequent use of certain language items emerge in the sequence in a delayed manner. For
example, Mother-Ma-Amma is uuered early in the sequence than Master, etc.
Underbmding the Devdopmcnt Imitation and contingent conversation seems to develop children linguistically and cognitively
of the Learner
as well (Wood, 1980; Tissard and Huges, 1984).
Characteristics of language development :The following are the characteristics of language
development :
a Semanticity : The quality of language in which words are used as symbols for objects,
events or ideas.
a Syntax :The rules in a language for placing words in proper order to form meaningful
sentences.
a Productivity : The capacity to combine words into original sentences.
a Displacement : The quality of language that makes one communicate information about
objects and events in another time and place. Language makes possible the efficient
transmission of large amounts of complex knowledge from one person to another, and
from one generation to another. Displacement permits parents to warn children of their
own mistakes. Displacement allows children to tell their parents what the) did in school.

3.6.2 Functions of Language

Language performs a number of functions based on the purpose of its use. Language with a
functional plsrpose is illustrated by Michael Halliday as follows :
Instrumental :Language performs'an instrumental function the way an individual satisfies the
need by asking for something (May I drink some water?).
Regulatory : It performs a regulatory function controlling another's behaviour (e.g. Teacher
asks the student, "Stay quiet, please").
Interactional : It performs an interactional function-used for maintaining interpersonal (eg.
wishing a friend a happy birthday).
Personal : Language performs a personal function - where one talks about oneself (e.g. I am
feeling very elated today).
Heuristic : It performs a heuristic function to find out about the world in~general(e.g. Is there a
drug to cure AIDS?)
Imaginative : It performs an imaginative function where one talks about one's imagination (e.g.
write an essay on the topic "you are on the clouds").
Informational : It also performs an informational function - to seek and give varied types of
information (e.g. What is the current rate of population growth in our country ?).

Language and culture

Language helps children learn habits, trdditions, religions and customs of their culture. It is a
carrier of one's culture. Every culture defines what to say, when and to whom, just as it dictates
pronunciation, syntax and vocabulary. In culture where politeness is valued, for example,
children learn polite forms of expression at a very early age. Sometimes children have to cope
with the demands of two different cultures at the same time. Children whose sole language has
been the mother tongue are at a great disadvantage in those public schools which do not
recognise the mother tongue as a legitimate dialect and teach classes in the standard language.
These children may have difficulties in school. At home their speech is monitored by their
parents for the proper expression of respect and familarity. but at school it is monitored by their
teachers for its analytical and problem solving qualities.

3.6.3 Interpersonal Communication

In the preceding sub-section, you read that one of the functions of language is to maintain
interaction with people. This would mean an interface of one to one, or one to many, as
between a teacher and students or a teacher with parents, etc. Interpersonal communication is
the basis for developing interpersonal relationships. They may involve mutual exchange of
information based on mutual contact either directly through speech or indirectly through the
written medium. Various Schools of Psychology have explained interpersonal communication
with different emphasis.
The following conversation between the teacher and the student illustrates interpersonal Cognitive and Language
, Development
communication.
Student : What is the time ?
complementary transaction
Teacher : It is 9 a.m.
Student : What is the time?
crossed transaction
Teacher : Can't you read it?
Student : What is the time? 1
Teacher : Look ! Who is aksing
for the time? f ulterior transaction

As indicated, interpersonal communication breaks down when there is too much of crossed or
ultcrior type of transaction. For positive/healthy interpersonal communication, the teacher
nwds to use and also facilitate. in the student the development of complementary transactions.

3.6.4 Problems of Language Development

Children develop language skills through socialisation. School is a socialising agency where
children learn their language. But all children are not in equal their language ability. Some
children face problems in this regard. The main problems of language development faced by
children are presented as follows :
Lack of initial listening and speaking opportunities.
Inability to express through the spcken or written medium.
Blocks due to genetic impairment of emotional problems of an impoverished
environment.
Ambiguities in comprehension such as phonological, lexical or deep structural ambiguities,
etc.
Inadequate cognition of word meanings.
Poor concept development.
Over emphasis on writing prematurely.

3.6.5 implications for Teachers

The eMective teacher should be aware of the problems faced by students in the classroom. He
shauld create a homely environment in his class where students feel free to express and share
theic feelings, opinions and viewpoints with their teacher. Such an environment will facilite the
acquisition of language competency.
Language is learned and developed in a social context for functional purposes.
'e For older children, one should provide ample scope to develop listening, speaking,
reading and writing skills.
One should create settings where language may be used for various purposes.
One should be cognisant of multilingual interferences,identify them and provide remedies.
One should encourage students creative efforts.
One should de-emphasise excessive writing or rote repetition, provide a relaxed
environment for free expression of ideas, thoughts and feelings, provide structural and
semi-structural setting to express verbal and non-verbal ideas, organise debates, class
discussions and displays, etc.
One should help students develop early reading habits and enable them to do book
reviews.
 Uldcrstilnding the Development
of the Learner
Notes : a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
a) List the four charactelistics of language development.
.............................................................................................................................................
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b) Whal are the functions of language development? Wrile two functions in detail.
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3.7 IMPLICATIONS FOR CLASSROOM TEACHERS

In Wpreceding section, we have discussed cognitive development in detail. You, as a Leacher,
shquld now be able to discuss how to apply this knowledge in your classroom. The following
points shall help you implement what you have leaned already.
Logical thought precedes language. Language is an expression or vehicle of thought.
Hence a teacher nceds to listen and interpret students' thinking coherently and facilitate
apt articulalion.
e Learning is an active process because knowledge is constructed.with learner's support.
e Social interactions mong students are vital. Hcnce more group activities, debates,
deliberations, etc., are to be organised.
8 The teacher's emphasis should be on the developmental process such as classification,
hypothesising, predicting. etc.. and not on rote mastering of content.

3.7.1 Organisation of Teaching-Learning Environment

The responsibilily of children's failure 10 learn lies with the ~eacherand not with the contenl.
Curriculum orgainsation and planning is based on appropriateness to the studying of cognitive
development and its accomplishments. To make the curriculum rclcvant to the learner the
Leacher necds to consider the inlegration of various aspects of cognitive development. The
learning malerial should be selected in order to project varied meaning to the material, e.g.,
scales, measuring tapes, containers, chemicals, floatindsinking objects, etc.

3.7.2 Problem Related to Cognitive Development

Cognitive development may be adversely affected or retarded due to the following factors :
e Deficiency in the learner characteristics (genetic or poor environmcnlal stimulation). This
may be expressed in the ability to comprehend, poor skills, lack of persistence, etc.
e Cognitive problems would arise due to poor attention, assimilation. observalion,
inference, discovery, lack of opportunity for relational work, etc.
The nature of the matcrial used in tcrms of their physical structure and composition,
inappropriateness, conceptual difficulty, sequencing, etc., may pose problems.
The nature of the student may lack in imitation, recall, recognition, problem solving and
crealivily.

3.7.3 Identification of and Providing Remedies of Cognitive Development

Problem
The identification of problems related to cognitive development needs careful observation on
the repeated performance of the students' verbal and non-verbal output. The behaviour of oldcr
ch~ldrcnin seeking interaction verbally would enable a teacher to exactly identify the nature of Cognitive and Language
the problem of their cognitive development Typically a teacher could ask, "Why do you say Development
so? How do you justify that? If you do this, then what do you think will happcn?" On the basis
of diagnosis, you can suggest remedial measures. You can
provide ample scope for questioning,justifying and reasoning
give adequate verbal and non-verbal cues to facilitatecognition
support cognition by giving a number of examples and transfer of learning tasks

. facilitate peer and social interactions

encourage minor' cognitive efforts.

3.8 LET US SUM UP

In this unit you have studied the concept of cognition and the contribution of Piaget to
understanding cognition and cognitive development. The age/stage cognitive development
processes with their underlined mental abilities and accomplishment are critical indicators for
teacher-practitioners. The complex nature of cognitive development and 'application of the
Piagetian concept to educational practice have been delineated with examples.
Creativity in terms of dwergent and lateral thinking has been discussed. Varied creative
dimensions such as fluency, flixibility, originality, elaboration, etc., have been discussed with
examples. Some characteristics which are manifest in a creative child such as curiosity,
persistence, original thinking, etc., are indicators of creative potential. The reasons why a child
gets blocked in creative processes are also presented.
We have also discussed the issues related to language development. Language is a means of
communication and a preserver and transmitter of culture. It serves various functions, such as
personal, regulatory, heuristic, imaginalive,etc. Interpersonalcommunication with reference to
the types of transactions has been explained with the help of illustrative examples. Lastly, the
problems of language development and implications of language development for teachers
havc also been covered.

3.9 UNIT-END EXERCISES

1. Construct a cognitive development task for a 14-year-old child on the classification
concept of metallic and non-metallic materials. Some materials you may use (choose your
own criteria) are erasers, pieces of chalk, wooden blocks, bottle caps, iron fdlings, plastic
lids, paper clips, mica, limestone, etc.
2. Devise exercises to develop the following creativity dimensions in y6ur class children.
Establish a scoring criteria fluency, originality, flexibility, originality which reflect the
characteristics of these periods.

3.10 SUGGESTED READINGS

Elliott, A.J. (1981) : ChildLanguage, Cambridge University Press.
Joyce, Bruce and Weil, Marsha (1985) :Model of Teaching, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi.
Khandwala, P. (1984) :N Eye, A. H . Wheeler & Co. Pvt. Ltd.
Piaget J. (1958) : The Growfh of Logical Thinking From Childhood ro Adolescence, Basic
Books, New York.
Sprinthall, C. Richard and Sprinthall, A. Norman (1990) : Educational Psychology : A
Development Approach, McGraw Hill Publishing Company, New York.
Weils, C. G. (1982) :Language Learning and Education, Centre for Shdy of Language and
Communication,University of Bristol, U.S.A.
Understanding the Development
of the Learner 3.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. i) a) Enactive (doing)
b) Ikonic (object, models or pictures)
c) Symbolic (signs and symbols)
ii) a) to perceive, apprehend, comprehend, conceive or simply to know.
b) making room for or adjusting to incoming stimuli/infromation.
c) maturation and environment.
2. i) a) internal readiness
b) environmental experiences
c) social experience
d) equilibration
ii) a) Formal operation stage.
b) probabilistic
c) age and stage of development
d) inquiry-oriented method
3. i) Divergent thinking can be identified with .openness in expressing feelings,
receptivity to ideas, concern for others, desire to grow as a person and actualise
one's potential.
ii) a) Fluency
b) Flexibility
c) Originality
d) Elaboration
iii) 8 Original thought, expression, action and behaviour;
e asks uncomfortable question at times ;
persisrslargues for his or her point of view;
proposes alternatives to solutions;
displays a high degree or risk-taking behaviour;
self-concept is high, tend? to be more anxious and possesses a greater degree of
the need for achievement;
m more tolerant of ambiguity; and
curiositylindependentjudgement and exhibits more autonomy.
4. a) semanticity, syntax, productivity, displacement.
b) instrumental regulatory, interactional, personal, heuristic, imaginative,
informational.
Personal : Language performs personal functions where one talks about oneself.
Heuristic : It performs heuristic function to find out about the world in general.