Mzuzu University

Centre for Open and Distance Learning

Foundations of Geography Teaching Methods

1

VY Mgomezulu

1
 Mzuzu University

Centre for Open and Distance Learning

Foundations of Geography Teaching Methods 1

VY Mgomezulu

i
Published by Mzuzu University

Centre for Open and Distance Learning

P/Bag 201

Luwinga

Editor:

Designers: Centre for Open and Distance Learning

Typesetters: Centre for Open and Distance Learning

First edition 2011

© Mzuni 2011

All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form by any means electronic,
mechanical: photocopying, recording, microfilm or otherwise without written permission
form publishers.

ISBN: 978-99908-57-92-4

Printed by the Centre for Open and Distance Learning

ii
Acknow ledgements

I would like to thank all the people who have contributed directly or indirectly to the
production of this module. Special thanks should go to staff and students in the
Department of Geography, and the production team at the Centre for Open and Distance
Learning for their technical support and advice.

iii
Introduction to the module
This is the first in the series of three modules you will be expected to study in Geography
Teaching Methods. This module consists of five units. The first unit deals with the
introductory issues over the relevance of geography in education in Malawi and world
over. The second unit handles the theories of learning, teaching and social constructivism.
Unit three deals with approaches to lesson preparation through planning. Unit four looks
at developing and selecting instructional media and teaching aids. At last, unit five
concludes by looking at application of modern educational technologies in the teaching of
geography.

You should also be aware that the module is not complete on its own. It must be used with
other recommended and suggested reading materials which are at the end of each unit or
in some cases appearing under references section at the end of this module.

How to use this module

This module has been produced to meet the course requirements of your field of study.
As prospective teachers, you will find this module useful reference material even after you
have completed your course. However, the module has been designed like a workbook
with activities interspaced in between, and self-assessment tests at the end of each unit. It
is important that you interact with the text by doing the activities.

Visual icons
The following is a list of icons you may find in this module and an explanation of the kind
of information they represent.

Learning outcomes

These are unit objectives. They identify what you are expected to know and
understand by the end of the unit. Use them to test your understanding at
the end of each unit.

Key w ords

This is a list of important new terms and phrases used in the unit. Ensure
that you understand their meaning in the context that they are used.

iv
Activity

This is a practice activity at the end of each reading text. You have to work
out this activity either on the space(s) provided or in a separate notebook.
After that, check your response(s) with the answers suggested at the end of
each unit.

Self assessment test

This is a test at the end of each unit. Work out the answers and compare
them with the suggested answers at the end of each unit. Do not turn it in
for marking.

Unit summary

This is a brief account of the main ideas you have read and learnt in the unit. Make
sure you understand the unit very well before you move to the next unit.

References

This is a list of books pertaining to information in the unit. This is a useful

guide on choosing appropriate reading materials. Make all possible efforts
to supplement information in the unit by additional reading from this list.
This will enrich your content of the course.

Module test

This is a sample of the end of module examination. Make sure you are
familiar with the format of the examination.

v
Contents
Acknowledgements…………………………………..……………..….......…...........................iv

Introduction………………………………………………………………....................................v

Unit 1 Relevance of Geography in Education in Malawi.............…………...........................1

Unit 2 Theories of Learning and Teaching…………………..……...........................................7

Unit 3 Lesson Planning in Geography......................................................................................22

Unit 4 Developing Instruction Materials and Teaching Aids…..…………………..............31

Unit 5 Application of Modern Edu-technology in the Teaching of Geography.................38

vi
Unit 1 Relevance of Geography in Education in Malawi and
Worldwide
Introduction

The intention of this unit is to help the reader understand the importance of Geography
as a school subject and why it makes sense that everyone must study it. The unit also
highlights some relevance of geography on individuals when viewed that it promotes
appreciation and informed management of the local environment. In this regard, the
teaching of Geography must begin with the local environment.

Areas of emphasis

They include:

 Types of geography
 The importance of studying geography as far as Malawi is concerned
 The importance of studying geography with regard to the world
 How geography may be taught

Key terms

Environment, geography, human geography, physical geography, geographic

techniques

Pre-requisite knowledge

It is assumed that you would have studied geography at ‘O’ level. It is therefore hoped
that this unit will put in perspective why you studied and are still studying the subject.

Learning outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 list the types of geography and their branches

 elaborate at least six points that reflect the importance of studying geography
 explain why it is important to start the teaching of geography from the local
environment.

Materials and resources

See “Further reading”

1
1.1 Definitions of the term ‘geography’

There are many definitions of the term. The following are only some of them:

 A study of the earth and its lands, features, inhabitants and phenomena.
 A study of the earth and its features and of the distribution of life on the earth,
including human life and the effects of human activity.
 A scientific study of the earth’s surface and its various climates, countries, peoples
and natural resources.
 Science that broadly deals with the structures and processes of the Earth’s physical
and human environments and the interaction between the two, particularly in their
spatial contexts.
 Science that involves explaining the processes operating below and above the
Earth’s surface and the ways in which these processes have created the landscapes
around us and continue to change, and why human structures and activities have
developed in different ways in particular places and etc.

1.2 W hat geography does

Geography gives a summative picture and an explanation of man’s environment in its

totality. For example, it will give what is in space, on the surface of the earth and inside
the earth. Furthermore, it explains how various systems and phenomena work and how
so intertwined they are so that they form a system called the universe. Geography also
shows and explains the relationship between the environment and man and how the two
impact on each other. In short, Geography provides a window that allows man to
understand what is and what happens around him, in particular, and in the universe in
general. It further shows how man’s actions and activities affect his immediate and
distant environments in the short and long terms.

1.3 Types of geography

There is no one understanding of the types of geography. Some experts categorise

geography into Physical geography and human geography. Others group it into
Physical geography, Human geography and Environmental geography. Others still
categorise geography into Physical geography, Human geography and Geographic
techniques. This discussion will adopt the latter categorisation.

1.3.1 Major sub-disciplines of physical geography, human geography and

geographic techniques

Physical geography: Hydrology, climatology, biogeography, geomorphology,

meteorology, pedology etc.

2
Human geography: Social geography, cultural geography, economic geography,
behavioural geography, political geography, urban geography etc.

Geographic techniques: Remote sensing, quantitative methods, cartography, global

positioning systems (GPS), geographic information systems (GIS), etc.

1.3.2 Some of the phenomena studied in physical and human geography

and geographic techniques

Physical geography: rocks and minerals, landforms, soils, animals, plants, water,
atmosphere, rivers and other water bodies, climate and weather, etc.

Human geography: population, settlements, economic activities, transportation,

recreational activities, religion, political systems, social traditions, human migration,
agricultural activities and systems, urban systems, health, etc.

Geographic techniques: vegetation types and cover, measuring and recording quantities
and spatial distribution of features and phenomena, location of natural and man-made
features or activities etc.

1.4 Importance of studying geography in schools

Geography is probably the oldest subject and is said to be a compendium (synthesis) of

all subjects. Most of the subjects we know today, such as Biology, Soil science and
Geology, among others, developed from Geography. When learners study Geography,
they study all the other subjects. Geography allows them to understand what different
subjects are about and how related they are.

1.4.1 Importance of studying geography with regard to Malawi

i) It guides and sharpens the enthusiasm of people to take part in activities that deal
with real life problems e.g. controlling soil erosion, afforestation, etc.
ii) It opens up a wide-range of opportunities for geography- related professions such
as climatologist, geologist, pedologist, hydrologist, town planner, demographer,
etc.
iii) It allows people to see beyond what a common eye can see e.g. when a landslide
takes place; a geographer will probably ask ‘why did it happen?’ What needed to
have been done to stop it from taking place, Etc.
iv) It promotes a more holistic understanding of the interdependence of man and
his/her environment and of the various systems e.g. interdependence of the
hydrosphere and the biosphere.
v) It helps man understand the behaviour of nature/natural forces e.g. what is the
general behaviour of an earth quake? And what are the likely consequences?
3
vi) It is an important subject because it is used in issues of security e.g. the army will
use it to determine the best place for hiding their weaponry.
vii) It helps man understand the spatial relationship between him and the
environment e.g. where should I build my house? Why there? Where should the
main entrance face? Why? Why are certain locations preferred for settlement, why
do certain places develop faster than others? etc.

Activity 1.1
a) Differentiate between physical geography and human geography.
b) List five examples of how people use geography in their lives, knowingly or
unknowingly.

1.4.2 Importance of studying geography with regard to the world

i) It provides appreciation of the world problems e.g. climate change,
desertification.
ii) It promotes human solidarity and international understanding as a condition for
dealing with geography-related problems which are usually transnational e.g.
climate change or river basin management, such as the Songwe and Shire.
iii) It empowers people to understand what is happening elsewhere and be able to
make sensible contributions to debates regarding international events e.g. you
will be able not to make a fool of yourself by making statements, such as, the
capital city of Kenya is Cairo or Kenya is in Nairobi.

1.5 How to make geography relevant to learners and society

One can appreciate that geography includes a very wide range of aspects. It is usually
not necessary for one to study all of them.

This suggests a notion of selective learning or selective teaching of geography. Selective

learning must concentrate on the problems that the people need to solve so as to provide
for the needs for the ever increasing population, protecting and redressing the
environment which has experienced rapid degeneration as a result of wanton human
activity. In other words, to make geography lively and interesting, the teaching must be
based on problems which concern the learners’ localities, regions or countries in relation
to uplifting their lives in terms of better food supply, improved shelter and security. If
this were done, geography teaching would have become more live and more attractive
than it is when learners are taught facts which have no relevance to their lives.

4
In short, the essential purpose of geography is to study the relations between men living
in society and the environment in which they exist. The teaching of geography to
learners must begin with the study of learners’ locality. Only then can they learn content
from other regions, countries and continents.

Summary

In this unit, the term ‘geography’ was defined and the branches of geography were
examined. The importance of studying or teaching geography was presented. A
meaningful approach to the teaching of geography was discussed. It is believed that you
now understand what geography is and how important it is for individuals,
communities and nations.

Unit test

1 List 10 geography-related professions.

2 List four geography-related problems that you can see in your environment.
3 Explain the notion of ‘selective teaching’ and why it is important.
4 Write a short essay that will demonstrate that geography is a source of useful life
skills.

5
 Further reading

Source book for Geography Teaching (1969) London: Longman/UNESCO.

Bailey, P. and Fox, P. (eds.) (1996) Geography Teacher’s Handbook. Sheffield: The Geographical
Association.

Kent, W.A., Rawling, E. and Robinson, A. (eds.) (2004) Geographical Education. Glasgow: Scottish
Association of Geography Teachers.

Consult Internet Sources (Refer section 5.2 of this module).

6
Unit 2 Theories of Learning and Teaching

Introduction

There are so many theories and methods of teaching and learning such that this unit
cannot afford to examine all of them. Given this wide range and the many possible
circumstances in which learning and teaching takes place, it is not possible to prescribe
the details of how teaching geography should be done. This unit will only attempt to help
you understand some of the principles that underpin particular teaching and learning
strategies. In short, by the end of this unit, you should be able to make informed choices
of which strategies could be appropriate in your particular circumstances. This unit will
include theories of learning, theories of pedagogy and contemporary thought about
learning and teaching.

Areas of emphasis

 theories of learning and teaching

 theory of social constructivism
 how the theories apply in practice

Key words

Behaviourist, cognitivist, constructivist, stimulus, conditioning, learning, teaching,

pedagogy.

Pre-requisite knowledge

Having gone through education institutions, it is expected that you can relate your
experiences to the theories and how they were applied. You should also have learned
some of the theories from the ETS modules.

Learning outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 explain the different theories that have been studied

 indicate the differences between the theories
 cite examples of how the theories apply in a classroom situation
 apply theories that encourage interaction between the learner and the teacher.

7
Materials and resources

 Leach, J. and Moon, B. (2008) The Power of Pedagogy. Los Angeles: Sage.
 Leach, J. and Moon, B. (eds.) (1999) Learners and Pedagogy. London: Paul Chapman
Publishing.
 Mwamwenda, T.S. (2004) Educational Psychology: an African Perspective. Sandton:
Heinemann.
 Woolfolk, A. (2004) Educational Psychology. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

2.1 Theories of learning

Theory is a collection of related statements whose main function is to summarise and

explain observations.

Learning theory is an attempt to systematise, and organise the observations, hypotheses,

principles or guesses that have been made about human behaviour.

Theory as a tool: because a theory is merely a research tool it can not be right or wrong;
it is either useful or useless. If a theory clarifies the various observations that have been
made, and if it generates additional research, then it is a good one in either aspects, the
researcher is likely to research for a new theory. If a hypothesis generated by a theory is
confirmed, the theory gains strength. If a hypothesis of a theory is rejected, it is
weakened and must be revised or abandoned. Whether a theory is maintained, revised
or abandoned is determined by the outcome of the empirical research generated by the
theory.

Principle is a statement that relate to some predictability in nature. A principle is a

generally agreed upon conclusion that is thought to be true because it is based on solid
evidence.

2.1.1 Behaviourist theories

Some of them are Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning, Connectionism, and

Social Learning. The behavioural view of learning is based on a model of a stimulus and
response (S-R) which advocates that learning occurs on the basis of association made
between the stimulus and the response made to such a stimulus as well as the presence
of some form of reinforcement.

As you study the behaviourist theories, observe how the following principles play out:

The principle of contiguity: It states that whenever two or more sensations (stimuli)
occur together often enough, they will become associated. Later, when only one of these

8
sensations occurs, the other will be remembered too and a corresponding response will
be given.

The principle of extinction: it applies when a conditioned stimulus is presented

repeatedly but is not followed by the unconditioned stimulus. The conditioned response
gradually fades away and finally is extinguished-it disappears.

The principle of generalisation: It states that when an organism, such as a dog, learns to
respond to a given stimulus, it will also respond to stimulus that is close to the original
stimulus.

The principle of discrimination: It states that an organism will respond to a given

stimulus, but will not respond to stimulus that is markedly different from the initial
stimulus.

2.1.1.1 Classical Conditioning by Ivan Pavlov

Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, discovered Classical Conditioning in 1920. Classical

Conditioning focuses on the learning of involuntary emotional or physiological
responses such as fear, increased muscle tension, salivation, or sweating. These are
sometimes called respondents because they are automatic responses to stimuli.

Pavlov was interested to find out how a dog responded to stimulus, such as food. He
and assistants collected saliva from a dog through tubes inserted in a dog’s cheek. The
purpose was to determine the amount of saliva that flowed in the absence and presence
of food. Pavlov provided food to the dog at the same times for a period and naturally as
most dogs do, the dog salivated/produced so much saliva (Unconditioned stimulus).
Earlier in the experiment the dog, naturally, did not salivate when Pavlov came to the
cage without food. Over time, the dog learned that at certain times Pavlov brought him
food. So the dog associated food and Pavlov. The dog believed that every time Pavlov
came he brought food. At this point Pavlov was not sure whether the dog salivated
because he saw the food or saw Pavlov. In the following days, Pavlov entered the cage
without food and the dog still salivated so much.

Pavlov did another experiment: he used a bell as the neutral stimulus that would be
paired with the presentation of food. Over some period, he rang the bell and then gave
food. The dog was conditioned (associated food with the bell). After this conditioning,
Pavlov rang the bell only-the dog salivated.

The following are the key terms you need to know in order to understand the
experiment:

9
Unconditioned stimulus (US) refers to the providing of food to the dog which had always
been done before Pavlov started the experiment.

Unconditioned response (UR) refers to the observed behaviour of the dog before Pavlov
started the experiment.

Conditioned response (CR) refers to the observed behaviour after Pavlov started the
experiment. He had been giving it food at a certain time and that time was signalled by
a bell.

Conditioned stimulus (CS) refers to the ringing of the bell without giving the dog food.

Before conditioning: Provision of food naturally made the dog salivate (US UR)

He rang bell and dog did not respond (CS no response)

During conditioning: He rang bell and gave dog food, dog salivated (CS +US UR)

After conditioning: He rang bell and gave no food, dog salivated (CS CR)

This demonstrated that the dog had learned new behaviour since the dog was able to
respond to a neutral stimulus that it had not responded to prior to its repeated pairing
with food. It was argued that humans can also learn through the process of
conditioning. For example, when students have positive experiences when Mrs X
teaches geography, they will be conditioned to liking geography and Mrs X. The
opposite is also true.

2.1.1.2 Operant Conditioning by Burrhus Skinner

He experimented with a rat which was put in a cage with a lever sticking in the inside of
the cage. Food pellets were released only if the rat touched the lever. Skinner believed
that there are other forms of learning which occur independently of any specific
identifiable stimulus. Therefore, Operant Conditioning is a relationship between a
response (behaviour) and consequences. According to Skinner, what stimulated the
bar-pressing behaviour of the rat is not very important. What is significant is that the rat
pressed the bar and as a result received reinforcement. Whether or not the rat will
repeat the behaviour is determined by the consequences of the behaviour. If the
consequences are negative the chances are that the behaviour will be avoided and will
over time disappear. On the other hand, if the consequences are pleasant, the behaviour

10
will be repeated and sustained for as long as it is reinforced. Behaviour that is reinforced
has a tendency to increase in frequency, magnitude or probability of occurrence.

For example, many students work hard at school not because they have been
conditioned, but probably because the prospect of a good job reinforces them.

Reinforcement

Reinforcement process:

Behaviour Reinforcement Strengthened or repeated behaviour

Two Types of Reinforcement:

1. Positive reinforcement: It occurs when the behaviour produces a new stimulus.

For example, if a geography teacher write ‘Excellent’ on your marked work, the
behaviour that produced the good work is strengthened and will probably be
repeated. There are two major forms of reinforcements:
 Continuous reinforcement: this is rewarding a learner every time it makes
a correct response. This is recommended when a learner is learning new
behaviour.
 Intermittent/Partial reinforcement: this is rewarding a learner after it has
made more than one correct response. This type of introduced after a
learner has mastered the behaviour. The reason of rewarding
intermittently is to ensure the learner does not forget the behaviour.
2. Negative reinforcement: is the withdrawal of stimulus or reward in order to
discourage a behaviour. For example, a student may be told if you submit your
assignment by 6 PM to day you will not be punished. Withholding the
punishment is negative reinforcement. It is not punishment.

Punishment involves decreasing or suppressing behaviour. A bad behaviour is followed

by punishment and is unlikely to be repeated.

Punishment process:

Behaviour Punishment Weakened or decreased behaviour

Educational Implications for the Geography Teacher

 Students may absent themselves from your lessons because they associate certain
bad things that take place in class. Students will not miss your class if they can

11
 associate your lessons with pleasant/worthwhile experiences. The question is: Do
you prepare for your lessons well so that you can teach effectively? If you are
disorganised, the students will associate negative experiences with geography
lessons offered by you.
 Just as Pavlov continued to give the dog food when it produced positive
behaviour and the rat was rewarded for pressing the bar, so too you must
reinforce every positive response/behaviour. If you do not continue to
reinforce/reward positive behaviours, they will likely be forgotten.
 Negative behaviours can be discouraged by not rewarding them or giving them a
negative reinforcement. For example, when the rat did not press the bar it was
not rewarded. If a student does not do their homework, you do not smile at them.
You warn them. This is not punishment. If the behaviour persists punishment
may be necessary.
 Students should be given opportunities to repeat the positive behaviours.
Repetition in learning new things is important. This means that you may have to
re-teach certain difficult topics or give more assignments on certain important or
difficult topics, such as, map work and some topics in physical geography.
 Students should also be taught to generalise what they learn to new situations.
For example, if students learn that landslides will happen in sloppy areas that
have been cleared of trees, they should not themselves be cutting trees carelessly.

2.1.2 Cognitivist theories

Jean Piaget is one of the greatest scholars on the subject of human intellectual
development. He did a lot of experiments with children to understand the development
of their thought. From these experiments, he learned that what takes place in the brain is
closely related to or influenced by what is in the physical environment and how the
environment is organised. Based on how the environment is organised, the brain adapts
to the environment and organises experiences based on it. To understand the process of
intellectual organisation and adaptation you need to understand four basic cognitive
concepts of: Schema, Assimilation, Accommodation and Equilibration.

Schema

Piaget believed that the mind has hypothetical structures (not physical structures) that
help us adapt and organise our experiences. These structures can be viewed as files or
compartments. Each compartment stores different kinds of information and is
responsible for certain specific operations. Children have fewer files and they increase
as children grow. These files help us organise information. For example, one may have
12
a file for information to do with Geography, another for Mathematics, and so on. If you
are asked a geography question, your brain will check in the geography file. If the
relevant information is available, you will give the correct answer. If there is no such
information, you will be unable to give the correct answer. Since children have fewer
files, they have problems in understanding many things. For example, if a child has only
seen a dog in their life, when they see a cow for the first time, their brain will search the
file and they will only find a dog. So they will call a cow a dog. The problem is that they
can not discriminate, instead they generalise.

Assimilation

This is a process by which an individual cognitively adapts to and organises the

environment. For example, a child will try to fit new events/experiences/stimuli into the
schema they have at the time. In the above case, the child tried to make sense of the cow
by using what was already in the file. So assimilation is the cognitive process of
placing/classifying new stimulus into existing schemata.

Accommodation

When confronted with a new stimulus, a child tries to assimilate it into existing
schemata. Sometimes this is not possible. Sometimes a stimulus cannot be placed or
assimilated into a schema because there are no schemata into which it can easily fit. In
such a situation, a child can do one of the two things: (1) they can create a new schema
into which s/he can place the stimulus, or (2) s/he can modify an existing schema so that
the stimulus will fit into it. Both are forms of accommodation. It therefore makes sense
that since older people have seen more things in life they will have a larger schema than
younger people.

Equilibration

The process of assimilation and accommodation are necessary for our intellectual
development. It is also important that the two are at balance with each other. For
example, imagine the outcome in terms of mental development if a person always
assimilated stimuli and never accommodated. Such a person would end up with a few
very large schemata and would be unable to detect differences in things. Most things
would be seen as similar. For a child mentioned above, a cow would remain a dog. On
the other hand, what would happen if a person always accommodated and never
assimilated? It would result in a person having a great number of very small schemata
that would have little generality. Most things would be seen as different. The person
would be unable to detect similarities. Either of these extremes would result in

13
abnormal intellectual growth. Therefore, a balance between them is necessary. The
balance is called equilibrium. Equilibration is the process of moving from
disequilibrium (imbalance) to equilibrium. When disequilibrium occurs, it provides
motivation for the child to seek equilibrium. In other words, if something does not make
sense to the mind of the child, it will try hard to make sense by assimilating or
accommodating.

The cognitive view of learning emphasises insights (the ahaa! experience), thinking,
meaningfulness and organisation of information as being essential for learning to occur.
It maintains that learners are capable of controlling their learning activity and organising
their field of operation, and have an inherent capacity to learn. Some of the theories are
Discovery Learning and Reception Learning.

2.1.2.1 Discovery Learning by Jerome Bruner

This involves learner’s discovery of what they are capable of doing and thinking for
themselves. To encourage discovery, it is vital to provide learners with opportunities to
engage in thinking, insights and problem solving as an integral part of their education.
This can be done by exposing them to inductive processes that will ultimately lead to the
discovery of the principles and concepts underlying whatever they may be studying or
investigating. Example of inductive reasoning: If the colour of the water in a flowing
river is dark, there is probably erosion taking place up the stream and the soils are
probably alluvial or clay. The learner should then go up stream to find out exactly what
is happening there. The findings are the discovery.

2.1.2.2 Reception Learning by David Ausubel (also known as Meaningful

or Verbal Learning or Sub-sumption theory)

Ausubel believed that learning occurs as a result of whatever students learn being in
some way related to what they already know. A person is in a better position to learn,
understand and recall a body of information if it is related to what he/she already
knows. Therefore introduction of new information must be founded on what the learner
already knows. It is therefore the duty of the teacher to establish what the learner
already knows and use it as foundation for the new information.

14
2.1.3 Constructivist theory

It is sometimes said that Jean Piaget is the father of Child-centred Learning Theory.
Cognitivist theory is closely related to Child-centred Learning Theory. Constructivist
theory is founded on Child-centred theory. Constructivist theory emphasises the need
to give learners responsibility for directing their own learning experiences.
Constructivist theory is founded on the principles of Assimilation and Accommodation.

The principle of Assimilation states that new experiences are perceived or interpreted in
terms of existing knowledge or experience. For example, young children tend to suck
anything placed in their mouths based on their experience at their mother’s breast.

The principle of Accommodation refers to a child’s tendency to change his/her pre-

existing experience or knowledge to fit a new situation or experience. For example, if
food was placed in the child’s mouth, he/she would accommodate/adapt his/her sucking
to chewing. In this case, the child has accommodated the new object/idea in the already
existing structure of knowledge (schema).

Assimilation and accommodation enable us to make sense of the world and that sense-
making contributes to the way we think and perceive and make sense of the future
experiences. Piaget therefore suggests that effective learning is an active process of
assimilation and accommodation that does not depend on an adult, such as a teacher to
‘kick-start’ it.

W eaknesses of Piagetian theory

i) The assumption that children can independently determine what and how they
learn is gravely exaggerated.
ii) Learner-centred learning seems to work well with younger children who are still
playful rather than older ones.
iii) Not all children fit into his scale of child development. Some grow mentally
faster than others.
iv) The theory overemphasises the individual and ignores the social context in which
learning takes place. In so doing, the potential of teachers, other children and
adults to support each child’s learning is underestimated.

Based on these weaknesses, Lev Vygotsky hatched Social Constructivist theory. (Refer
2.3).

15
 Activity 2.1

a. Explain the major difference between the behaviourist and cognitivist theories.
b. Think deeply about this statement: ‘Learner-centred learning seems to work well
with younger children who are still playful than with older ones’. With regard to
the secondary school learner; do you agree or disagree with the statement. Give
reasons for your position.

2.2 Theories of pedagogy (science of teaching)

There are many theories of pedagogy. This scenario suggests that the nature of teaching
is a highly contested subject. For example, what should be taught and how should it be
taught are questions of constant public debate. In addition to the documented theories,
many people also have their own undeclared theories (intuitive theories) of how learners
learn. Such theories which are usually personal and not explicit are known as ‘Folk
psychology’. How learners learn, leads to how they should be taught, which ‘Folk
Pedagogy’ is.

If it is a given fact that many people have folk theories, it means that introducing a new
theory will have to compete or replace or modify the folk theories that already guide
both teachers and pupils. In short, teaching is inevitably based on the beliefs and
assumptions the teacher holds about the learner. This section is partly meant to
challenge your folk theories (beliefs and assumptions). By the end of this unit, your folk
theories should be consolidated, altered or completely replaced. Stated differently, the
choice of your teaching method should be guided by appropriate theory or combination
of theories and not merely ‘common sense’.

2.2.1 Models of mind and pedagogy

There are four dominant models of learners’ mind that have held sway in our times.

2.2.1.1 Seeing children as imitative learners

When an adult demonstrates or models a successful or skilled action to a child, that

demonstration is implicitly based on the adult’s belief that the child;

a) does not know how to do it,

b) can learn how to do it by being shown,
c) wants to do it.

Such modelling is the basis of apprenticeship, leading the novice into the skilled ways of
the expert. The expert seeks to transmit a skill he/she has acquired through repeated
16
practice to a novice who, in turn, must then practice the modelled act in order to
succeed.

By using imitation as the vehicle for teaching, demonstrates an assumption about human
competence;

a) that it consists of talents, skills and abilities, rather than knowledge and
understanding,
b) that competence comes only through practice,
c) knowledge grows as habits, and is not linked to theory.

Simply demonstrating ‘how to’ and providing practice at doing so is known not to be
enough because it does not get one to the same level of flexible skill. A combination of
practice and conceptual explanation (practice and theory) is important e.g. a guitarist can
play so well but without theory he may be limited in how far he can grow musically. In
other words, this model does not deal with ‘why?’ things must be done in a certain way
and not differently.

For reflection: how does this model compare with the Social Learning
theory?

2.2.1.2 Seeing children as learning from didactic exposure

Didactic teaching usually is based on the notion that pupils should be presented with
facts, principles and rules of action which are to be learned, remembered, and then
applied. To teach this way is to assume that the learner does not know. What is to be
learned is conceived to be in the minds of teachers or books etc. This is most widely
adhered to line of folk pedagogy in practice today.

This view presumes that the learner’s mind is a blank slate (tabula rasa). The child’s
mind is passive, an empty vessel ready to be filled. Teaching is not a mutual dialogue.
The learner is not an active participant in the learning process. If the child fails to
perform adequately, the failure can be explained by his lack of mental abilities or low IQ.

For reflection: do you think Reception Learning theory would agree with
this model? Why do you think so?

2.2.1.3 Seeing children as thinkers

The teacher is concerned with understanding what the child thinks and how she arrives
at what she believes. Children like adults, are seen as constructing a ‘model’ of the
world to aid them in constructing their experience. Pedagogy is to help the child
understand better, more powerfully, less one-sidedly. Understanding is fostered
17
through discussion and collaboration, with the child encouraged to express her own
views better to achieve some meeting of minds with others who may have other views.

Such pedagogy of mutuality presumes that:

 all human minds are capable of holding beliefs and ideas which through
discussion and interaction, can be moved towards some shared frame of
reference.
 Both child and adult have points of view, and each is encouraged to recognise the
other’s, though they may not agree. The child is not merely ignorant or an empty
vessel, but somebody able to reason, to make sense, both on her own and through
discourse with others.
 The child is capable of thinking about her own thinking and of correcting her
ideas and notions through reflection.
 Knowledge is what is shared within discourse.
 Truths are the product of evidence, argument, and construction rather than of
authority.

This model of education is more concerned with interpretation and understanding than
with the achievement of factual knowledge or skilled performance. In short, knowledge
or truths are human constructs. They can be deconstructed. Negotiating knowledge and
truths is one way of confirming them or discovering other/new truths/knowledge.

2.2.1.4 Seeing children as knowledgeable

It should be realised that although some form of knowledge/truth can be constructed,

there are others which have stood the test of time, and are not negotiable. There are a lot
of truths/knowledge from our culture/previous experiences e.g. truth from the Bible.

For reflection: how can a child’s knowledge be used in the teaching/learning

environment? Are physics, chemistry, maths, geography given truths or negotiable?
What is truth? Shall truth always and everywhere remain true?

This model has internalist-externalist dimension. Externalist theories emphasise what

adults can do for children from outside to foster learning. Internalist theories focus on
what the child can do, what the child thinks he/she is doing, and how learning can be
premised on those internal states.

Modern pedagogy is moving to the view that the child should be aware of her own
thought processes, and that it is crucial for the teacher to help her to become more
metacognitive-to be aware of how she goes about her learning and thinking, and about

18
the subject matter she is studying. Achieving skill and accumulating knowledge are not
enough. The learner can be helped to achieve full mastery by reflecting as well upon
how she organises information, how she learns it, and how her approach can be
improved. Equipping her with a good theory of mind or a theory of mental functioning
is one part of helping her do so.

Activity 2.2

a) Explain why a teacher is discouraged from using folk psychology and folk
pedagogy.
b) Having studied the models of mind and pedagogy, write a short essay in which
you are taking a position of what you believe is/are the correct model/models.
Support your position with elaborated reasons.

2.3 Contemporary thought about learning and teaching: a Social

Constructivist approach

Vygotsky states that we must view learning and teaching as social activities that take
place between social actors in socially constructed situations. He says that emphasis
should be placed on relationships between thought and language. He further says that
teacher’s instructional input should not ‘wait on’ a child’s internal development
processes, but that it can actually influence a child’s development, moving it along into
areas in which it can handle increasingly complex ideas.

By placing emphasis on the importance of social processes and the importance of

language in the classroom situation, Vygotsky’s work implicitly invites teachers to adopt
strategies that are not only ‘learner-centred’ but that create spaces for students to
elaborate what they think as a way of developing concepts, and that involve the teacher
in a partnership model of teaching with the student (see Figure 2.1).

Zone of Proximal Development (the ZPD)

It describes the gap in terms of ‘mental age’, between what a child can do unassisted
and what that same child can achieve with the benefit of adult assistance. Note: the
term ‘proximal’ refers to a point or space located between two points.

The ZPD concerns each child’s potential to ‘make sense’. Given a child’s present state of
understanding, what developments can occur if the child is given appropriate assistance
by more capable others. If support is appropriate and meaningful, then, it is argued, the

19
understanding of children can be extended far beyond that which they could reach alone
(see Figure 2.1).

Such assistance in learning can come in many ways. It may take the form of an
explanation by or discussion with a knowledgeable teacher; it may reflect debate among
a group of children as they strive to solve a problem or complete a task; it might come
from discussion with a parent or from watching a particular television programme (see
Figure 2.1).

The second key insight originating in Vygotsky’s work concerns the role of the culture
and the social context of the learner in influencing his or her understanding. This
influence starts in informal ways from birth. Children interact with their parents and
family and through experiencing the language and forms of behaviour of their culture,
also assimilative particular cognitive skills, strategies, knowledge and understanding.
Cognition, language and forms of thought thus depend on the culture and social history
of the learner as well as on any point in time. This influence of culture on learning
continues throughout life. Indeed, it is what makes learning meaningful. Ideas,
language and concepts derived from interaction with others thus structure, challenge,
enhance or constrain thinking. Whatever role they play, they cannot be excluded from
our consideration. Thus, learning is social as well as individual. We therefore have to
look at the context in which learning takes place in schools as well as at the nature of
specific learning tasks.

20
 Figure 2.1: A Social Constructivist model of roles in the teaching-learning
process

Children Activity and Activity and Activity and make

discussion by discussion discussion sense
children

Area of work
and activity ZPD ZPD Evaluation
negotiated reviewed

Adult Reflective agent Reflective agent

(support and instruction) (support and instruction)
by teacher

2.3.1 Practical implications of Vygotsky’s theory

i) Children’s cognitive development is achieved most effectively by elaborating
ideas and understanding in discussion with their teachers and peers.
ii) Children perform and develop better with help than without help, and ought
to be given tasks that will test what is developing in them rather than what has
already developed. (Formative rather than summative tests)
iii) Children must develop ‘conscious mastery’ over what they have learned
rather than merely being able to recite facts (understanding rather than
memorising).
iv) The development of such expertise is not subject-specific, and once acquired
becomes a tool through which all learning is facilitated and enhanced.

2.3.2 Implications of Vygotsky’s theory in classroom practice

i) Do not wait to teach something until the child is deemed able to ‘absorb’ it.
ii) Diagnostic tests are misleading because they forbid any help being given to
students by other students or by their teacher (if test results are poor, that
student is said to be of low intelligence, and that student is considered dull
and unhelpable).

21
 iii) Emphasise on deep thinking processes of learning rather than memorising.
iv) Strive to work towards a student-teacher relationship which encourages
dialogue rather than monologue.
v) Some notions of intelligence are misleading teachers into condemning
students unnecessarily instead of providing the assistance they need.
vi) Encourage co-operative learning: students should work in pairs or groups.
The debate/arguments in a group are useful to reduce disequilibrium and
bring about equilibrium.

Summary

This unit looked at behaviourist, cognitivist and constructivist theories of learning. It

also discussed the models of how the mind is said to work and how good teaching can
be achieved. The unit ended with social constructivist theory which reflects the latest
understanding of learning and teaching processes.

Unit test

Considering your folk psychology and pedagogy, and what you have studied so far,
explain how you now think of learners learn and how they should be taught. Give
reasons for your views.

Further reading

Bartlett, S. and Burton, D. (2007) Introduction to Education Studies. Los Angeles: Sage.

Cohen, L., Manion, L. and Morrison, K. (1996) A Guide to Teaching Practice. London:
RoutledgeFalmer.

Farrant, J.S. (2004) Principles and Practice of Education. Essex: Longman.

Lambert, D. and Balderstone, D. (2000) Learning to Teach Geography in the Secondary

School. London: RoutledgeFalmer.

Moore, A. (2000) Teaching and Learning. London: RoutledgeFalmer.

Petty G. (1998) Teaching Today. Cheltenham: Stanley Thornes Ltd.

Pollard, A. (1997) Reflective Teaching in the Primary School. London: Continuum.

22
Unit 3 Lesson Planning in Geography

Introduction

This unit briefly looks at issues of lesson planning so as to establish a foundation for
what is to follow. You may have studied similar content from ETS modules. But this
module sets standards of what will be expected of you as far as geography teaching is
concerned. Among other aspects, the module focuses on the learning phases which the
teacher must incorporate in their lesson.

Areas of emphasis

 Learning phases
 Stages of a lesson planning

Key words

Lesson plan, learning phases

Pre-requisite knowledge

It is assumed that you have learned similar content from other courses.

Learning outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to incorporate the learning phases in your
lesson planning and delivery.

Materials and resources

See ‘Further reading’

3.1 Overview of lesson planning

Lesson planning is:

 A tool to help a teacher structure and plan activities in a lesson

 An important element for classroom management
 A crucial aspect of facilitating student learning
 A step-by-step procedure for delivering a lesson.

23
Lesson planning has many aspects, including:

 Identifying lesson objectives

 Selecting appropriate teaching methods
 Selecting and/or developing instructional materials and teaching aids to achieve
the stated objectives
 Allocating time to various lesson activities
 Producing lesson notes
 Identifying appropriate methods for evaluating whether learning has taken place
or not.

When planning a lesson, internal consistency among three components of instruction

should be sought. These components are:

 The lesson objectives

 The teaching methods, materials, media, aids, learning
 Evaluative procedures

Other experts express these elements in terms of fundamental interrogatives, thus:

 Where am I going? Or What do I want students to know after the lesson is

completed? (objectives)
 How will I get there? (steps by means of which the objectives are achieved)
 How will I know when I have arrived? (lesson evaluation)

3.2 Learning phases that need to be included in a lesson plan and its
delivery

Gagne has identified eight phases. These are:

 motivation phase,
 apprehending phase,
 acquisition phase,
 retention phase,
 recall phase,
 generalisation phase,
 performance phase,
 feedback phase.

Motivation phase: once attention has been secured, the beginning of a lesson should aim
at arousing appropriate motivational states in the learner especially where these are not
strongly intrinsic.

24
Apprehending phase: success in apprehending on the part of the learner depends on the
teacher’s skill at timing, ordering and structuring the various stimulus events. He/she
must draw the class’s attention to significant features in the situation and explain
difficulties. Varied examples will often help at this point.

Acquisition phase: it is here that the teacher can facilitate the process of storing away
the new learning by suggesting ways in which the data may be encoded more efficiently.

Retention phase: the consolidation of learning and the storing away of what has been
learned on a more permanent basis will take place at this phase. The teacher will
provide all manner of learning guides and procedures at this point in the learning
process.

Recall phase: in terms of what the teacher does, these may take the forms of reviews,
questions and answer sessions, quizzes, tests or exercises.

Generalisation phase: here the teacher provides numerous and varied contexts in which
the learned material can be used and applied.

Performance phase: the teacher here provides opportunities for the learner to apply
what he/she has learned. Such application may take a written, oral, creative or practical
form.

Feedback phase: where it is not self-evident, the teacher evaluates the learner’s
performance and informs him of the outcomes. This is an important stage for the teacher
too for he finds out at the point whether the lesson objectives have been achieved or not.

3.3 The following is a lesson plan guide using the learning phases as a
framework

Class lesson plan Corresponding learning phases

Stage 1: Introduction Motivation

Stage 2: Presentation Apprehending

Acquisition

Retention

Stage 3: Application Recall

Generalisation

Performance
25
Stage 4: Conclusion Feedback

The four stages may be briefly explained thus:

Stage 1 Introduction

Here the teacher induces a mind set that will be alert and ready to learn. This activity
may include: recall of previous knowledge of the subject; informing pupils of the
learning objective and the ways in which they can benefit from achieving it; appealing to
the basic motives and interests of the pupils; asking a provocative question; doing
something unusual like lighting a candle and covering it with a bell-jar as an
introduction to a lesson on the composition of air; and showing the class an object and
using it as a basis for a series of questions.

Stage 2 Presentation

This embraces the apprehending, acquisition, and retention phases in the model. This
will be the point where new material to be learned or studied is introduced. This will
involve presentation, exposition, and explanation on the part of the teacher. His main
functions will be to;

 draw the class’s attention to the significant features of the material,

 structure it in such a way as to assist the pupils understanding and assimilation of
it,
 deal with any difficulties,
 provide learning guidance to ensure a form of encoding that will enable the
learner later to recover what he has learned and display it as some kind of
performance.

Stage 3 Application

This will be a point in the lesson where the children will have the opportunity to
demonstrate what they have learned and it will therefore be necessary for the teacher to
provide opportunities for testing the newly-acquired knowledge and/or skills and for
using them in new situations. If the teacher wants to bring about transfer of learning it is
at this stage that he/she must consciously plan for it.

Stage 4 Conclusion
It follows logically from the preceding application stage and will be mainly concerned
with the evaluation of the children’s work and informing them of the outcome of this.
The stage may also include a final summing up by the teacher, with possible suggestions
for future study so that the lesson may be linked to later ones.

26
3.4 Geography Scheme of Work Template

Week/ Work Planned Teaching Number Teaching Work Evaluation/Remarks

Day Unit Lesson Method of and Done
topic content Periods Learning
Materials

3.5 Geography Lesson Plan Sample

LESSON PLAN
GEOGRAPHY, FORM 1A, TERM 1

Topic area: The shape of the earth

Period/Time: 40 minutes
Aim: To teach that the surface of the earth is curved

Specific Objectives:
i. Given a ball and a torch, students should be able to demonstrate and explain that the earth’s
surface is curved.
ii. Given a chart showing a ship, students should be able to demonstrate and explain that the
earth’s surface is curved.

Previous knowledge:
Students already know the planets in the solar system.

STAGE AND TIME TEACHER STUDENT MATERIALS

ALLOCATION ACTIVITY LEARNING (teaching and
ACTIVITY learning aids)
INTRODUCTION:  shows different  identifying the orange, brick,
Gaining attention shapes of objects shapes of objects notebook, egg
(1 minute)
Recall previous  asking students  Answering orange, brick,
knowledge about the shapes of questions notebook, egg
(2 minutes) the objects
 asking students  Answering
about the planets in questions
the solar system

27
Presenting learning  Inform students  Write down the None
objectives about the objectives objectives
(2 minutes) of the lesson
 Write the objectives
on the chalkboard
PRESENTATION:  Displaying a ball  Observing what the Balls, torch, a chart
Present learning and a torch teacher is doing showing a ship
materials  Displaying a chart
(2 minutes)
Provide learning  Demonstrating how  Students observe Ball, torch, a chart
guidance (5 minutes) the earth moves by showing a ship at
rotation different positions on
 Let the students  Students practice the lake
practice the activity
 Explain the reason  Students observe
why there is a the picture
difference in
sunrise and sunset
 Explain how the
students will use
the picture
Elicit performance (10  Ask students to  Students practice Ball, torch, worksheet
minutes) practice how the how the earth
earth rotates in their moves by turning
groups the balls whist the
torch is stationary.
 Students answer
questions on a
worksheet (activity Worksheet, chart
1) showing a ship
 Ask students to  Students observe
observe the pictures the drawings on
and answer the chart and
questions on the answer questions
worksheet on worksheet
(activity 2)
Provide feedback (3  Go round to help  Using the Torch, balls, worksheet,
minutes) students as they worksheet students a chart showing a ship
practice work on the
activity
 Reinforce students  Students continue
as they work on the answering the
activity questions on the
worksheet
CONCLUSION:  Summarise the  Answer questions  Chalkboard
Retention activity main points by and copy notes
(5minutes) asking them
questions and give
them notes

28
 FOLLOW UP  Ask students to on  Copy the take away  Reading reference:
Retention activity (2 ‘the effects of the activity Strides in Geography
minutes) earth’s shape’ Book 1, Pages 29-30.
LESSON AND TEACHER EVALUATION

3.6 Teaching Methods in Geography

Geography teachers can use a wide range of teaching methods. The choice mainly
depends on knowledge and creativity of the teacher. However, some methods are more
popular than others. Such methods include; Lecture method, Discussion method, and
Discovery method.

Lecture method

It is very useful when used properly. It is used in introducing new ideas, explaining
difficult concepts, and others. If you want a complete lecture lesson use the following
tips:
 clearly state the objective of the lecture
 lecture should not be more than 20 minutes. Listeners tend to switch off attention
when the lecture is long.
 use simple language
 speak slowly, loudly and pronounce all the syllables
 use short sentences
 pause after every main point
 include signposts, such as, firstly, finally, to begin with, more importantly, etc
 structure it into Introduction, Body and Conclusion
 lecture must be accompanied by audio-visual aids, such as charts, maps, video
show etc.
 Allow questions or discussion

Discussion
It is one of the most effective methods of teaching. In order for discussions to be useful
and worthwhile, the teacher must do a lot of planning and also impart discussion skills
to the learners. Note that Question and Answer method is not discussion.

Making Discussion successful:

 The teacher must explain the topic so that groups know exactly what the point of
discussion is in order to avoid time wasting on the part of the debaters
 The group outcome should be presented to the whole class, preferably on a chart
or chalk board so that everyone can see. If students are not given the opportunity
to present, it makes them feel like it was a waste of time
 The topic should be appropriate for the group(considering level and age)
 Group size should be not less than 5 and not more than 8

29
  Help them establish the group manager to manage the activity, and secretary to
record and report.
 Remember that good discussions come from controversial issues, such as, climate
change does not affect Malawi.
 The teacher must encourage the students to take heed of the following guidelines:
 Listen to the speaker carefully
 Focus on the main points of the speaker
 Take down the important points of the speaker and note down your own
ideas as they come to mind
 Value other people’s ideas
 Don’t interrupt a speaker
 Only speak when it is your turn
 Avoid personal attacks or trying to make the other person feel bad or
stupid.

Discovery learning/Experiential learning/Field w ork/Enquiry

In Discovery Learning method, the content to be learned, the method by which that
content is learned as well as the time for learning are decided by the learner. In a
classroom situation this is difficult to apply. Instead, Guided Discovery/Structured
Discovery/Planned Discovery method is used. The teacher designs learning materials
and situations which enable the learner to discover under the guidance of the teacher.
Note that the role of the teacher is that of guiding and advising.

Guide to a successful discovery lesson

 the teacher should give clear objectives to the students
 the objectives must be achievable
 tasks should stimulate interest and imagination
 tasks must offer clear learning experiences
 the teacher should allow students to exercise choice and use their judgement
 the teacher should only guide but the discovery should be made by the student.

Summary
This unit looked at what lesson planning entails and the phases of lesson planning that a
teacher needs to consider in the planning of a lesson and in the way that lesson plan will
be delivered to the learners.

Unit test
Consider a teacher who teaches a topic ‘weather and climate’ without planning. Explain
the problems a teacher may face.

30
 Further reading
Briggs, L.J. and Wagner, W.W. (1981) Handbook of Procedures for the Design of Instruction.
Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.

Farrant, J.S. 1985. Principles and Practice of Education. Singapore: Longman.

Gagne, R.M. and Briggs, L.J. (1979) Principles of Instructional Design. New York: Holt,
Rinechart and Winston.

31
Unit 4 Developing and Selecting Instructional Materials and
Teaching Aids

Introduction

In this unit, you will learn about what to consider when developing and selecting
appropriate instructional materials, teaching aids and teaching methods that are suitable
for teaching your lessons. You will also learn about the art of improvising instructional
materials and teaching aids.

Areas of emphasis

 Relationship between instructional material and teaching aids

 Factors that influence development and selection of instructional materials and
teaching aids
 Procedures of selecting instructional materials and teaching aids
 How to improvise instructional materials and teaching aids

Key words

Instructional materials, teaching aids, learning content, learner characteristics, teaching

methods, events instruction, instructional objective, improvisation

Pre-requisite knowledge

It is assumed that you would have studied instructional design from other courses.

Learning outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 explain the relationship between instructional material and teaching aids

 explain the factors that influence development and selection of instructional
materials and teaching aids
 apply the procedures of selecting instructional materials and teaching aids
 improvise instructional materials and teaching aids

Study materials and resources needed

Refer ‘Further reading’

32
4.1 Pre-instructional activities

Most of what should be taught in schools has been specified in the subject syllabus by
the Ministry of Education. The syllabus contains an outline of what should be taught,
basic instructional materials, teaching aids and teaching methods. However, this does
not mean that you have no further pre-instructional activities to perform. In fact, the
instructional materials, teaching aids, and teaching methods recommended in the
syllabus are intended to help you. When planning teaching activities, you should
endeavour to use, when necessary, additional instructional materials, teaching aids and
teaching methods that will help you enrich your instruction.

Definitions

Instructional materials: are sources of information for a learner e.g. text book

Teaching aids: are devices used for clarifying what is being taught e.g. a sample of
sedimentary rock.

Teaching method: is a particular approach to delivering to the learners a particular body

of information e.g. lecture method, group discussion etc.

4.2 Factors that influence development and selection of instructional

materials and teaching aids

When planning instruction you may find it necessary to modify or add to the materials
recommended in the syllabus. This is because the materials may be too difficult or not
adequate for teaching the lesson. Here are some considerations to help you
develop/select appropriate instructional materials and teaching aids to supplement those
recommended in the syllabus for your area.

a) Relevance to learning content

The first thing to consider is how well instructional materials and teaching aids match
the content of the lesson. Apart from the basic reference materials for the topic, you will
probably find a variety of instructional materials and teaching aids that address different
aspects of what you want to teach. As you search for the materials, you should be
thinking of how they relate to the topic and the different aspects of the lesson such as
introduction, content, conclusion, exercises and follow up activities.

b) Learner characteristics

Since students are the focus of all instructional activities, instructional materials and
teaching aids should be suitable to their ability, interest and learning experience.

33
Teaching aids appeal to students according to how well they are able to help them in
understanding what is being taught. Generally, the less sophisticated your students are,
the simpler the teaching aids should be. Instructional materials such as reading
references and exercises should match the reading experience and the ability of the
students. Difficult instructional materials are frustrating and discouraging to the
students.

c) Teaching methods

Teaching methods can influence the type of instructional materials and teaching aids for
the lesson. For example, if a lesson is on “The economic importance of mining in
Malawi”, you may choose to use the lecture method for content presentation and a small
group method for exercises. During the lecture phase of the lesson, you cold use a film for
introduction, a large map, graphs, tables and diagrams for content presentation. During
the small group method phase, you may provide blank maps to help students do the
exercises.

If the method of instruction is individualised learning where students are to learn on

their own, the materials given to the students perform the function of the teacher. In this
case, you should assess how well the materials are written at the level your students will
understand.

d) Events of instruction

The events of instruction are the different stages and activities that occur in a lesson. For
example, during the Introduction stage of the lesson, you should consider how you will
gain attention or motivate the students. Each of the instructional events requires
supportive instructional materials and teaching aids. As you search for instructional
materials and teaching aids, you should think of the number of events in the lesson and
materials that apply to each one.

e) Size of class

Many times teachers develop or select instructional materials or teaching aids that are
not appropriate for a large class. Students at the back can hardly see what the teacher is
pointing at. The teacher must pay special attention to this common oversight.

f) Instructional objectives

Instructional objective is listed last because it influences the development and selection
of instructional material and teaching aids in a special way. How an instructional
objective affects development and selection of instructional materials and teaching aids

34
should be clearer after you have read the section below on “Procedures for selecting
instructional materials and teaching aids”. Since an instructional objective specifies the
behaviour a learner is expected to demonstrate, this then becomes the basis for planning
the lesson.

4.3 Procedures for selecting instructional materials and teaching aids

The discussion here will be limited to the procedures for selecting instructional materials
and teaching aids. The choice of instructional materials and teaching aids should be
made at two levels. The first is when planning the scheme of work. Here, you will be
more concerned with materials that are expensive such as films, slides, tape cassettes,
textbooks and those that take long time to produce such as maps, charts and picture
drawings or illustrations. The second is when planning the lesson. Here, you will be
concerned with using materials already produced or available such as films, tape
cassettes, textbooks, and materials that you have to produce for the lesson such as lesson
notes, lesson plans, maps, charts, diagrams and graphic illustrations.

i) Preparing lesson information sheet

The first set of activities in selecting instructional materials and teaching aids involves
preparing an information sheet such as the one in Table 4.1. The information sheet is
intended for listing choice of instructional materials and teaching aids for the lesson.

ii) Selecting instructional materials and teaching aids

The second set of activities involves selecting instructional materials and teaching
aids for the lesson. Table 4.1 shows an example of instructional materials and
teaching aids for a lesson on natural disasters.

35
Table 4.1: Lesson information sheet for a lesson

Form / Year: 2
Subject: Geography
Content: Natural disasters
Aim: To teach about natural disasters that take place in Malawi

Previous knowledge: learners would have done similar work at primary school level

OBJECTIVE SEQUENCE INSTRUCTIONAL TEACHING AIDS

MATERIALS
Given a map of Malawi, Posters and pictures
students should be able to Local environment showing damage
identify some places Map of Malawi
prone to natural disasters Resource person
Textbooks
Modules

Given some visuals Local environment Posters and pictures

showing damage and Video show of disaster showing effects of
displacement, students cases disasters (people
should be able to assess displaced, sick people,
the effects of some hungry people etc)
natural disasters

Given some visuals Resource person from Posters and pictures of

The following is a step
showing damage, by stepDisaster
students description of how tosilos,
preparedness usemedical
the sheet.
people,
be able to suggest Department security people,
Step measures
one: listto the instructional
minimise objectives
Video show of relief helicopters etc
damage and suffering activities

List the objectives according to the sequence in which they will be taught in the lesson.
The objective must be the precise statement of what students should be able to do after
completing instruction. The objective may be complete showing the condition, behaviour
to be demonstrated and the criteria for assessing performance; or abbreviated showing
the behaviour to be demonstrated and the criteria for assessing performance. The
complete form is recommended because it provides more information for selecting
instructional materials and teaching aids.

36
Step two: Select instructional materials and teaching aids

The choice of instructional materials and teaching aids is based on the type of learning
result and activities implied by the objective (see Table 4.1). The process used for
selecting the instructional materials and teaching aids consists of analysing and
answering specific questions relating to the objective.

For example:

Look at the third objective: Given some visuals showing damage, students should be
able to suggest measures to minimise damage and suffering.

The above objective suggests what kind of teaching materials and teaching aids the
teacher must source. For example, such visuals could be posters, pictures, video
pictures, downloaded visuals form the internet, book pictures, etc. The objective also
suggests possible ways of teaching this topic. For example, to help students suggest
measures, the teacher could first of all ask a resource person to talk about a particular
case, or show a video of a disaster case, or ask a student to share his/her experiences of
flooding in Chikwawa or Karonga, or let students discuss in groups, the list of possible
methods in long. What interesting teaching materials and teaching aids are sourced or
developed, and what teaching methods are used depends, to a large measure, on the
creativity of the teacher.

4.4 Improvisation of instructional materials and teaching aids

The question on improvisation is one that deals with using materials at hand to teach
what was planned. Usually, improvisation occurs under a special condition when the
materials that are necessary for instruction are not immediately available or when the
materials that were planned failed to operate. In other words, improvisation is the skill
of adapting very quickly to unexpected events and things you may not have planned for.
Improvisation is commonly used by all humans in different situations. It is used in
music, dance, cooking, speaking and in teaching, among other situations. Improvisation
demands quick thinking and high levels of creativity.

As the above example illustrates, improvisation should always be considered in all

lesson preparations. After deciding on the materials for the lesson, you should examine
each of the materials very carefully to note those that are not already available and those
that are likely to fail due to unforeseen problems. Thus, the list of instructional materials
and teaching aids should include alternative materials as well as a note on
improvisation. For example, the materials for the lesson on natural disasters should

37
include students who might have seen the effects of disasters from the television or news
papers or include getting students to imagine what would happen if a big flood of water
crashed into their village. When the lesson is planned in such a manner, the teacher will
not have to cancel the lesson or teach it poorly.

It is important to point out that many objects in our classrooms can be used as
improvisations.

Activity 4.1

Think of a geographical concept that you would teach, and imagine how you would use
locally found materials in your classroom to improvise your initially planned teaching
aids.

Summary

The relationship between instructional materials and teaching aids has been explained.
The procedure for selecting instructional materials and teaching aids involves
preparation and completing lesson information sheets. The need to develop
improvisation skills was emphasised.

Unit test

1 ‘Instructional objectives are a major factor that determines teaching aids’. Do you
agree or disagree with the statement? Support your view with reasons.
2 You have brought a globe in class to demonstrate the rotation of the earth on its
axis and revolution of the earth around the sun. Unfortunately, the globe is
broken and cannot be used anymore. Using the resources in the classroom,
improvise the planned activities.

Further reading

Briggs, L.J. and Wagner, W.W. (1981) Handbook of Procedures for the Design of Instruction.
Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.

Farrant, J.S. (1985) Principles and Practice of Education. Singapore: Longman.

Gagne, R.M. and Briggs, L.J. (1979) Principles of Instructional Design. New York: Holt,
Rinechart and Winston.
38
Unit 5 Application of Modern Educational Technology in the
Teaching of Geography

Introduction

This unit will explain the uses of modern educational technology and how it can be
employed in interactive teaching. Although many schools in Malawi may not be blessed
with modern technologies, such as functioning computers and reliable internet
connectivity, we cannot escape the fact that soon or later we will have to know how to
work with them. For this reason, this is the time to begin to learn how they can be used
in the teaching and learning of geography.

Areas of emphasis

 Use of modern educational technology in collecting information, organising

information and delivering a lesson.
 Interactive teaching by using modern educational technology.

Key words

Modern educational technology, internet, interactive teaching.

Pre-requisite knowledge

It is assumed that you already know some of the modern educational technologies, such
as computers and internet, and some of you have used them.

Learning outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 use the available modern educational technologies to collect and organise

information
 deliver a lesson in an interactive manner using modern technologies.

Study materials and resources needed

A functioning computer, internet connectivity, overhead projector, television that can

access school programme broadcasts, DVD player.

39
5.1 Definition of modern educational technology

There are many definitions and the following are some of them:

 a system, interactive process for designing instruction or training used to improve

performance.
 the use of technology to improve education.
 a range of tools that might prove helpful in advancing student learning.

5.2 Uses of modern educational technology

i) Collecting information: Remember that modern educational technology can
increase the efficiency of data/information collection.
a) Internet: You are strongly advised to learn and master how to use this
facility because it is a very useful source. There is limitless amount of
information that you can collect from the internet. If you cannot find a
certain piece of information in a library book, you will likely find it on the
internet. For example, you can also read the latest developments in your
subject area by accessing online journals (e-journals) e.g. Teaching
geography; you can download animated graphics etc. Although much of
what is posted on the internet can only be accessed if you are a registered
member or if you purchase it, there is still so much that you can download
for free. You may find the following website addresses quite useful. These
are by no means the only ones:
 www.cloudnet.com/~edrbsass/edgeography.htm
 www.spartacus.school.co.uk/REVgeography.htm
 www.geographyteachingtoday.org.uk
 www.larrylazzo.com/geography.html
 www.educatorlearningcenter.com
 www.thehomeschoolmom.com/schoolroom/geography.php
 www.channel4.com/schools
 www.gwu.edu/
 www.askjeeves.com or www.ericir.syr.edu (they answer questions)
 www.becta.org.uk
 www.ebig.com
 www.spectracom.com/islist/
 www.bbc.co.uk/education , etc

b) CD Rom: Libraries are likely to have CDs for your subject. Check with the
librarian. They contain a lot of information on some specific subject areas.
40
 There are many CD Roms with specific geographical information. These
include CD Roms of encyclopaedias, atlases, database, pictures,
simulations, electronic books etc.
c) Cell phones w ith camera: they can be used to photograph some features,
such as folds, faults or coal seams that can be used in class instead of
having to transport the whole class to see such features. We must take note
that many students have cell phones with cameras and that modern youth
are quite skilful with these gadgets. It makes sense that teaching or
learning activities that would involve these gadgets would likely receive
high rates of interest and involvement.
d) Consider other technologies and how they can be used in a geography
class.
ii) Organising information: You can use modern educational technology to
organise information so that it is suitable for your purpose. You must
remember that much of the information you will come across may have been
produced for a particular readership. You therefore need to rearrange it so
that it is user-friendly for your students. For example:
 Microsoft word and Excel can be used to present information in various
forms such as, tables, graphs, diagrams etc.
 PowerPoint can be used to organise information in animated graphic or
non graphic forms.
 Cartographic software: you can use these to draw sketches, features etc to
your liking. Look for the following graphic packages: adobe Photoshop
and illustrator or Corel Draw or Photo Shop and or Micro-media freehand
and Fireworks or Microsoft paint etc.

iii) Delivering the lesson: You can use modern technology to deliver your lesson.
Using modern educational technology helps your pupils use most of their
senses which promote greater comprehension. Technology can also make
your lesson more interactive (greater active involvement in the process of
learning) and make it more interesting.

5.3 W hat interactive teaching means

Many teachers already practice interactive teaching but they do not do it properly.
Interactive teaching is cyclical and should include the following steps:

a) Give students something to do

b) Get back what they have done

41
 c) Then assimilate it yourself so that you can decide what would be best to do next
d) At this stage, the options may be; to give more explanations if the task was not
done well or if it was done successfully, then you go back to step (a) and give
them a new task.

The essence of interactive teaching is that the learner must be assisted to learn. The
learner must therefore be at the centre of what the teacher does. The actions of the
teacher must be guided by what would be in the best interest of the learners. The notion
of interactive teaching developed as a result of what we have learned from cognitive
science. A central principle that has been generally accepted is that everything we learn,
we “construct” for ourselves. That is, any outside agent is essentially powerless to have
a direct effect on what we learn. If our brain does not do it-that is, take in information,
look for connections, interpret and make sense of it, no outside force will have any effect.
These processes can take place consciously and voluntarily or unconsciously. Our brains
take-in information and operate continuously at many levels, only some of which are
consciously directed. But, conscious or not, the important thing to understand is that it
is our brains that are doing the learning, and that this process is only indirectly related to
the teacher and the teaching. For example, even the most brilliant lesson may result in
limited learning if the student’s brain does not engage in a wanting-to-learn gear. There
are several possible causes why student’s learning may fall short of expectations in such
a situation. They may include:

 Lacking background information which would act as foundation for new

information.
 Lack of interest and motivation to make the mental effort follow the presentation,
understand the arguments, make sense of the positions and assimilate, etc.

Whatever the cause, without interacting with the students, such as in the simplest case
by asking questions, a teacher has no way to know if his/her efforts to explain the topic
were successful.

To address the best interest of the learners and facilitate learning, an outside agent such
as a teacher must seriously consider the following:

a) Learner characteristics: entry knowledge, age of students, interests of students,

culture of students etc. These factors can determine what (or not) to teach and
how to teach it.
b) Choice of the teaching methods.
c) Choice of the teaching and learning materials and their appropriate organisation.

42
 Activity 5.1

a. Based on internet research, write a short essay about tips on teaching geography
in secondary school.
b. Explore creative ways of how you can use your phone camera to help you, in any
way, teach a geography topic of your choice.

Examples of using modern educational technology in interactive teaching

 PowerPoint: this is a very useful tool to deliver your lesson in an

interesting manner.
 Video/ DVD: If you find a CD that could help you teach some topic, you
should use the technology.
 Computer as a teacher: A computer can present instruction directly to
students. Such use is termed Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) or
Computer-based instruction (CBI) or Computer-assisted learning (CAL).

In this mode, the computer can present instruction, use various media
(text, graphics, audio, and video), provide instructional activities or
situations, quiz or require students to do something (interactive), evaluate
learner responses, provide feedback, and determine follow up activities.
For example:
 Drill and practice: repetitive work for rote learning or automatic
student response e.g. arithmetic computations.
 Tutorial: can teach new concepts, can test and evaluate feedback.
Can be used in science, history, English etc.
 Simulation: this involves imitating a real life situation. The method
is popular in natural and social sciences.
 Overhead projector: It can be used in a manner that can actively involve
the students. It is a flexible tool which can be used as if it were a
chalkboard or using prepared transparencies, as a display board. The
teacher can write on transparencies as the lesson progresses and roll it on.
The teacher can role forward or backwards to refer to any section of what
has been written. (Please read pp 344-346 of Farrant, J.S., 2004. Principles
and practice of education).
 Television: although the manufacturers of TVs or the programme designers
do not intend them to be teaching or learning aids, they can be used for

43
 that. There are T.V. stations which broadcast educational programmes.
Some of them are interactive because students can phone in and ask
questions and be answered instantly. What you need to do is make
arrangements for your class to listen to such programmes. If listening to a
live broadcast is not possible, you can record the programme on a CD or
memory stick (flash disk) and then show it at a more convenient time.

These methods of delivering a lesson can be quite effective because they bring a variety
and they are stimulating to the learners.

Examples of using modern educational technology in non-interactive teaching and for

other related benefits:

 Radio and television: There are some radio and television stations which
broadcast school programmes. You can make arrangements for your class to
listen. If this cannot work, you can record the broadcast and show your class at a
convenient time.
 You can download very recent visuals from the internet of some incidences, such
as a volcano or flooding or tornado and give your students the opportunity to see
as it really happens (almost virtual reality).
 You can download and print relevant photos, sketches etc from the internet and
post them in your classroom to improve the learning environment.
 You can explore if playing certain types of music can help your students focus
better on what they are doing.

5.3 Tips on using modern educational technology

i) Remember to adapt/modify the technologies to suit your objectives and
circumstances.
ii) It is important to try to integrate the technology within the learner-centred
classroom environment, that is, use interactive technology.
iii) Try to involve multiple senses of learners (see, hear, feel, etc) in your choice of
technology.
iv) Try to use a combination of instructional methods because they result in an
interesting lesson and more learning than using one method.

1.5 Guidelines for establishing information technology centre in the

Geography department
i) Review what you do already: How far does your geography department make
use of IT?

44
 ii) Does the department need IT? If the answer is yes, then you must justify this
with convincing reasons to the authorities.
iii) Identify what you need to do to develop IT in your geography department:
consider what staff training, hardware and software is needed and establish
what IT equipment is likely to be available. Look at what software packages
are already available in the school.
iv) Create an action plan: plan how you can introduce and develop IT in
geography department over a one-three year period, bearing in mind your
own school circumstances. Have clear aims and identify needs for resources.
v) Evaluate your success: see how the use of IT in geography studies is helping
the pupils.

5.6 Managing your IT lesson

The following is a guide on how information technology can be used to deliver a lesson.

Figure 5.1: Managing your IT lesson

Select Help

Spark Scheduling Check Do it Evaluate Review

Timing Books

Spark: spark the motivation to start using IT.

Select: select a programme that is easy to use and is available.

Timing: choose a time to use the programme with a suitable topic.

Help: ask a school IT teacher/person to run through the programme with you on the
machine.

Scheduling: work backwards through your diary putting in deadline dates for lesson
planning, preparing and printing instruction/resource sheets etc.

Book: book the IT room and machines.

45
Check: do a final run through in the week before to identify possible problems.

Do it: run the lesson.

Evaluate: evaluate the lesson, e.g. did pupils enjoy the lesson/ did learning take place, etc.

Review : share your experiences with the IT man and your department colleagues.

5.7 More modern advancements in educational technology

It is helpful to recognise that there are other developments that may not yet be available
to us. It is good to know of them so that as and when we have the opportunity to use
them we are not surprised. Take the trouble to investigate how the following are used:

 E-tutoring
 Video-conferencing or Tele-conferencing
 Computer-mediated communication between student and teacher
 Computer-based learning (individualised learning)

Summary

This unit tried to sensitise you about the central place of modern educational technology
in the processes of teaching and learning. Among such technologies, the computer and
internet are technologies that every teacher must learn in order to prepare and deliver
lessons that will appeal to today’s learners who tend to have a liking for technology. In
this regard, the use of technology in interactive teaching was explained.

Unit test

1 Explain how expository method is less interactive than discovery method.

2 Imagine that all your learners have cell phone cameras and they are also
connected to internet. How can you help the learners use such technology as
learning tools?
3 Which teaching and learning theory do you think has influenced interactive
teaching strategy? Give specific examples to support your answer.

Further reading

1 Anglin, G.L. (ed.) (1995) Instructional Technology. Englewood: Libraries

unlimited

46
2 Leask, M. (ed.) (2001) Issues in Teaching Using ICT. London: Palmer
3 Roblyer, M.D. (2006) Integrating Educational Technology into Teaching.
Columbus: Pearson
4 Romiszowsk, A.J. (1992) The Selection and Use of Instructional Media for
Improved Classroom Teaching and for Interactive, Individual Instruction.
London: Longman.

47
Sample Answers to Activities and Unit Tests
UNIT 1

a. Physical geography deals with features and phenomena in the physical

environment, whilst human geography deals with human activities in the
physical environment. The characteristics of features and phenomena in
physical geography are more stable and more predictable than state of
affairs in the human geography. For example, landforms will remain the
same for a number of years but economic activities can change very fast.
b. People use geography: in the selection of clothing on a hot day or cold
day, what they drink on a cold or hot day, where they build their house,
where they go for recreation, where to collect sand for plastering a house
etc.

Unit test

1. Town planner, soil scientist, climatologist, geologist, hydrologist,

geomorphologist, meteorologist, land surveyor, cartographer, etc
2. Pollution of rivers, pollution of residential areas with plastic papers,
overcrowding in some areas, cultivation of sloppy areas, etc
3. Selective teaching is to select and teach what is useful for the learner in the
immediate and long term. It is important because the learner can use it to solve
his/her problems. Furthermore it becomes easy to learn such content because the
learner can immediately see the relevance.
4. Geography is a source of useful life skills such as:
 understanding how human activities affect our physical environment. Such
knowledge can inform us on how we can protect our environment.
 Appreciating the force of nature, such as how much harm wind and water can
cause.
 Etc

UNIT 2

Activity 2.1

1. Differences between behaviourist and cognitivist theories:

 Behaviourist believe the new behaviours themselves are learned.
Cognitivists believe knowledge is learned and changes in knowledge make
changes in behaviour possible.

48
  Behaviourist emphasise on stimulus-response. Cognitivist emphasise on
insight, thinking, meaningfulness and organisation of information as being
essential for learning to occur.
 Behaviourist say reinforcement strengthens responses. Cognitivist see
reinforcement as a source of feedback about what is likely to happen if
behaviours are repeated or changed.
2. The correctness of your answer will depend on the reasons you give. You need
argue in a convincing way.

Activity 2.2

1. Teachers are discouraged from using folk psychology and folk pedagogy because:
 Their folk psychology and pedagogy are not based on empirical evidence
and research
 Their folk psychology and pedagogy may be so different from other
teachers. This could mean students being exposed to conflicting teaching
methods.
 When teachers have very different beliefs and teaching methods, it will be
difficult to monitor and improve quality.
 Etc
2. The correctness of your answer will depend on how convincing you present your
argument. You need to give convincing reasons.

Unit test

We believe that your folk psychology and pedagogy have been changed by what you
have studied so far in this module. If the assumption is correct, you are expected to have
formed your more informed position of how good teaching should be done. So discuss
your new position and support it with reasons.

UNIT 3

Unit test

A teacher who teaches a topic ‘weather and climate’ without planning would likely face
the following problems:

49
  He/she would not know what students already know and so would know how to
build the lesson from the known to the unknown.
 He/she would not have appropriate learning/teaching materials.
 He/she would not be able to ask useful questions.
 He/she would present ineffective lesson in which there would be little learning
taking place.
 Etc

UNIT 4

Unit test

1. The answer is that instructional objectives are a major factor that determines
teaching aids. However you need give convincing reasons to support your
answer.
2. The range of objects found in your classroom to improvise partly depends on
your creativity. Apply your creativity.

UNIT 5

Activity 5.1

1. There is so much material on internet. What and how much you access will partly
depend on your internet skills. Sharpen your internet skills so that you can
benefit from this vast resource.
2. The quality of your answer will in some way depend on how creative you can be.
Among many ways, you can take pictures of geographical features to use as
teaching aid. You can phone someone to give the latest news about some event.
Again, use your creativity.

Unit test

1. Expository method is teacher based whilst in discovery method the teacher

provides guidance. As a result there is more interaction between the learner and
the teacher in discovery method than in the expository method.
2. Students can do much with a camera and they can do much more if they are
connected to internet. They can search and download a wide range of texts and
graphics of a wide range of topics.

50
3. It is the Social Constructivist theory. This theory encourages that students should
work in groups to discuss, then the teacher checks if they are progressing. If they
are progressing, the teacher gives them more work. If they are not progressing,
the teacher helps them to find the correct answer, and gives them more work.
Please refer to Figure 2.1.

51
 Module test

1 How can you, as a teacher, make the teaching of geography more meaningful to
the students?
2 Write a short essay that will convince a critic that it is important for every learner
in secondary schools to study geography.
3 What does Discovery Learning theory state?
4 With the help of specific examples, discuss how Social Constructivist theory
reflects on other learning theories.
5 “Achieving skill and accumulating knowledge are not enough”. Do you agree or
disagree with the statement. Why?
6 Remember the modern educational technology your previous school had. How
could you use that technology for an interactive teaching activity?

52
Glossary
Accommodation: process of developing new concept of schemata to understand a
situation that is new and can be made to fit existing schemata.

Assimilation: process of understanding something new by adapting it to what is already

known.

Behaviour: any response made by an organism to some form of stimulus.

Behaviourism: a school of psychology that emphasise the importance of behaviour and

the external environment as a determinant factor of human behaviour and learning.

Cognitivism: a school of psychology that believes that the processes of teaching and
learning are purely brain-based.

Conditioned response (CR): learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.

Conditioned stimulus (CS): stimulus that evokes an emotional or physiological

response after conditioning.

Compendium: a concise but comprehensive summary of a larger work.

Constructivist approach/constructivism: View that emphasises the active role of the

learner in building understanding and making sense of information.

Diagnostic test: Formative tests to determine students’ areas of weakness or special

learning problems.

Discovery learning: Bruner’s approach in which students work on their own to discover
basic principles.

Environment: The totality of, or any aspect of, the physical and social phenomena which
surround or affect an individual organism or a part of an organism .

Interactive teaching: is a teaching style which encourages active learning through the
employment of computers and other types of equipment.

Learning: change in behaviour or performance due to practice or experience.

Model: is an abstract representation of an item or a concept. A model is not the real

world, but merely a human construct to help us better understand real world systems.

Operant conditioning: learning in which voluntary behaviour is strengthened or

weakened by consequences or antecedents.
53
Pedagogy: science of teaching.

Reception learning: presentation of learning in its final form so that the pupil is
provided with all the essential information on a given topic.

Response: observable reaction to a stimulus.

Social learning theory: theory that emphasises learning through observation of others.

Stimulus: something either internal or external to the person, which has an effect on
his/her behaviour.

Theory: an organised set of principles explaining events that take place in the
environment. Theories evolve from observations.

54
 Module References
Anglin, G.L. (ed.) (1995) Instructional Technology. Englewood: Libraries unlimited.

Bailey, P. and Fox, P. (eds.) (1996) Geography Teacher’s Handbook. Sheffield: The
Geographical Association.

Bartlett, S. and Burton, D. (2007) Introduction to Education Studies. Los Angeles: Sage.

Briggs, L.J. and Wagner, W.W. (1981) Handbook of Procedures for the Design of Instruction.
Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.

Cohen, L., Manion, L. and Morrison, K. (1996) A Guide to Teaching Practice. London:
RoutledgeFalmer.

Farrant, J.S. 1985. Principles and Practice of Education. Singapore: Longman.

Farrant, J.S. (2004) Principles and Practice of Education. Essex: Longman.

Gagne, R.M. and Briggs, L.J. (1979) Principles of Instructional Design. New York: Holt,
Rinechart and Winston.

Kent, W.A., Rawling, E. and Robinson, A. (eds.) (2004) Geographical Education. Glasgow:
Scottish Association of Geography Teachers.

Lambert, D. and Balderstone, D. (2000) Learning to Teach Geography in the Secondary

School. London: RoutledgeFalmer.

Leask, M. (ed.) (2001) Issues in Teaching Using ICT. London: Palmer.

Moore, A. (2000) Teaching and Learning. London: RoutledgeFalmer.

Petty, G. (1998) Teaching Today. Cheltenham: Stanley Thornes Ltd.

Pollard, A. (1997) Reflective Teaching in the Primary School. London: Continuum.

Roblyer, M.D. (2006) Integrating Educational Technology into Teaching. Columbus: Pearson.

Romiszowsk, A.J. (1992) The Selection and Use of Instructional Media for Improved Classroom
Teaching and for Interactive, Individual Instruction. London: Longman.

Sourcebook for Geography Teaching (1969) London: Longman/UNESCO.

55