CM 4: Handout on Gas Exchange

Gas Exchange
Gas exchange is the uptake of molecular oxygen (O2) from the environment and the discharge of
carbon dioxide (CO2) to the environment. This exchange occurs between an organism’s cells and the
environment.

Although it is also known as respiration or respiratory exchange, should not be confused with cellular
respiration which deals with energy transformations.

• Oxygen – Needed in the tissues for aerobic cellular respiration to occur and extract ATP from food.
• Carbon Dioxide – Released to prevent physiological pH in tissues from being very acidic. In plants,
CO2 is the by-product of cellular respiration.

Basic Principles Influencing Gas Exchange

Respiratory Surfaces

Respiratory surfaces are structures where gas exchange occurs. All cells that carry out respiration
have a plasma membrane that must be in contact with an aqueous solution. Hence, all respiratory surfaces
are always moist.

This movement of molecular oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) across respiratory surfaces
takes place by diffusion. The rate of diffusion is proportional to the surface area across which it occurs
and inversely proportional to its volume (surface-to-volume ratio). This means that gas exchange is faster
when the area for diffusion is larger and if the volume and path for diffusion is shorter.

Surface-to-Volume Ratio

As an animal grows, the surface area increases at a lesser rate than

its volume, making diffusion of gases into the interior more difficult. Picture
a cell in the form of a cube with 6 sides and refer to the table and figure.
The longer the side of each cube gets, the bigger the surface area and the
volume gets. However, the volume of the cube increases at a faster rate. As
the surface increases, the S/V ratio decreases.

Table 1. S/V Ratio of a Cube (Cell)

Figure 1. Picture a cell as a
Side Length of Surface-to- cube and refer to Table 1
Surface Area Volume
a Cube (a) Volume Ratio for values.
1 6 1 6
2 24 8 3
3 54 27 2
Ventilation

Ventilation is also referred to as breathing. It includes inspiration/inhalation and

expiration/exhalation. This generally refers to the movement of gas of the respiratory medium, whether
air or water, over a respiratory surface

Respiratory Pigments or Proteins

Respiratory pigments are adaptations of animals for gas exchange. These pigments bind and transport
gases. Examples of these are:

• Hemocyanin – Primary respiratory pigment for invertebrates

Hemoglobin – Primary respiratory pigment for vertebrates

Figure 2. Hemoglobin has 2 alpha and 2 beta subunits that surround an iron-containing heme
group where oxygen binds

Structures for Gas Exchange in Plants

Stomata in Leaves

The stomata are a specialized opening along the

lower surface of the leaf where the exchange of oxygen
and carbon dioxide in the leaf occurs.

Figure 3. An open stoma (left) and a closed stoma

(right) viewed in a Scanning Electron Microscope
(SEM).

Lenticels in Stems

Lenticels permit the exchange of gases between the environment and the internal tissue spaces
of the organs.
Root Hairs

Root hairs carry out exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from air pockets present in
the soil particles.

Pneumatophores or the Lateral Roots of Mangroves

For mangroves which are submerged in water, pneumatophores, a type of aerial root, facilitate
the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide through the presence of lenticels.

Respiratory Surfaces or Organs in Invertebrates

Cell Surface or Cell Membrane

Like all living cells, the cells that carry out gas exchange have a plasma membrane. These are
especially used in unicellular organisms.

Integumentary Exchange

This refers to the general body surface or skin used

by animals used for gas exchange.

In simple animals like flatworms and sponges, every

cell in the body is close enough to the external environment,
hence, gas can diffuse in quickly between the cell and the
environment. However, for most animals, the general body
surface used for gas exchange would not suffice. Can you
imagine humans breathing through the skin? No, right? This
is why respiratory organs such as the following have evolved
as evolutionary solutions:

External Gills

These are highly folded, thin walled, outfoldings of Figure 4. The gills of a sea star are in the form of tubular
the body surface used by invertebrates that live in aquatic projections of the skin. The inner tubing/core of the gills
are continuous with the coelom or the body cavity, thus
habitats (e.g., crayfish, lobsters, and sea stars) fluid in the coelom circulates to aid in gas exchange.

Tracheal Systems in Arthropods

Use of fine air-conducting tubules called tracheae to provide

gaseous exchange at the cellular level without entering the blood.
The tracheal system takes in oxygen and releases carbon dioxide
through the spiracles.
Figure 5. Insects have tracheal system that delivers oxygen into
the cells.
Respiratory Surfaces in Vertebrates
External Gills

These are vascularized epidermis that project from the body surface of a few animals, typically of
amphibians.

Figure 6. An axolotl and its external gills

Internal Gills

Rows or slits of pockets in adult fishes that positioned at the back of the mouth such that when
water enters the mouth of the fish, it can flow over them to exit behind the head.

Countercurrent Exchange. When two fluids such as blood and water flow in the opposite
directions to allow oxygen transfer from water to the less saturated blood.

Figure 7. Incoming water generally has higher oxygen content than blood. As blood gains oxygen, it
encounters water that always has a higher oxygen content, thus favoring the diffusion of oxygen from
water to blood
Lungs

Lungs are localized respiratory organs that are shaped as a cavity or a sac that serve as a
membrane for gas exchange. Since lung are conventionally not in direct contact with other parts of the
body, like the tracheal systems in arthropods, they require a circulatory system to transport gases
between the lungs and the rest of the body. Conventionally found in birds, reptiles and mammals.

Breathing Mechanisms in Vertebrates

Amphibians

Amphibians ventilate their lungs by positive pressure breathing which forces air into the respiratory tract.
Air is taken in through the nostrils. Following this, with the nostrils and mouth closed, the floor of the
mouth rises, pushing the air into the lungs.

Figure 8. Positive pressure ventilation in frogs

Birds

When a bird breathes, it passes air through a system of air sacs, thus moving in only one direction.
Incoming air is carried past the lungs to a set of posterior air sacs and transported through the lungs to a
set of anterior air sacs. From here, air is expelled without mixing with used air in the lungs, hence,
improving gas exchange.

Figure 9. Avian respiratory system showing one-way ventilation

Mammals

In contrast to amphibians which use positive pressure breathing, mammals ventilate their lungs
using negative pressure breathing – pulling, rather than pushing air into the lungs. During inhalation, the
volume of the lungs expands as the rib muscles and diaphragm contract. And because gas flows from a
region of high pressure to a region of low pressure, the low pressure in the lungs causes air to rush through
the nostrils down the breathing tubes to the alveoli.

Figure 10. Negative pressure breathing in mammals