Lecure Notes

CALCULUS 1

Professor: Zine El-Abidine Guennoun

Chapter 4 (part 4)

0.1 Inverse trigonometric functions

0.1.1 Inverse sine.
The fuction sine : R → [−1, 1] is continuous, odd and periodic of period 2π, the function sin is
not one to one since sin(x + 2kπ) = sin(x) and x + 2kπh̸= x if ki ̸= 0.
π π
We then consider the restriction of sine to the interval − , , since sin′ (x) = cos(x) > 0
h π πi h π2 π2i
on − , . the function sin is strictly increasing on − , ,
2 2 2 2

Graph of sine on − π2 , π2 .
 

According to the theorem of the course, the sine function admits h an inverse continuous func-
−1 π π i
tion sin , strictly increasing, which we also denote Arc sin from sin(− ), sin( ) = [−1, 1] to
h π πi 2 2
− , .
2 2
By the definition of the inverse function,we have

h π πi
1) ∀x ∈ [−1, 1] , ∀y ∈ − , , y = sin−1 (x) ⇔ sin(y) = x.
2 2
2) ∀x ∈ [−1, 1] , sin(sin−1 (x)) = x.
h π πi
3) ∀y ∈ − , , sin−1 (sin(y)) = y.
2 2

Examples.
√ √
−1 2 π π 2 π h π πi
1) sin ( ) = , because sin( ) = and ∈ − , .
2 4 4 2 4 2 2

1
0.1. INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
π π
2) sin−1 (sin( 3π
2 )) = , because sin−1 (sin( 3π
2 )) = sin−1 (−1) = − .
2 2

Proposition:
√
∀x ∈ [−1, 1] , cos(sin−1 ) = 1 − x2 .

π π
Proof: Since − ≤ sin−1 (x) ≤ , we have cos(Arc sin(x)) ≥ 0, therefore
2 2
p
cos(sin−1 (x)) = 1 − sin2 ( cos(sin−1 (x))) = 1 − x2 ).
p

Examples:
1) Compute cos(2 sin−1 (− 32 )).
We have cos(2x) = cos2 (x) − sin2 (x), therefore

cos(2 sin−1 (− 23 )) = cos2 (sin−1 (− 32 )) − sin2 (sin−1 (− 32 ))

1
cos(2 sin−1 (− 23 )) = (1 − (− 23 )2 ) − (− 32 )2 = .
9

2) ∀x ∈ [−1, 1] , cos(2 sin−1 (x)) = 1 − 2x2 .

0.1.2 Derivative of the inverse sine function

h π πi i π πh
The function sine is differentiable on − , , and since sin′ (x) = cos(y) ̸= 0, ∀y ∈ − , ,
2 2 2 2
−1
According to the theorem of the course, sin is differentiable on ]−1, 1[ , moreover :
1 1
(sin−1 (x))′ = −1 =√ .
cos(sin (x)) 1 − x2
Therefore,
1
∀x ∈ ]−1, 1[ , (sin−1 (x))′ = √ .
1 − x2

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0.1. INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

0.1.3 Inverse cosine

The fuction cosine : R → [−1, 1] is continuous, even and periodic of period 2π,
the function cosine is not one to one since cos(x + 2kπ) = cos(x) and x + 2kπ ̸= x if k ̸= 0.
We then consider the restriction of sine to the interval [0, π] , since cos′ (x) = − sin(x) < 0
on [0, π] . the function sin is strictly increasing on [0, π] ,

Graph of cos on [0, π] .

According to the theorem of the course, the cosine function admits an inverse continuous function
cos−1 , strictly decreasing, which we also denote Arccos from [cos(π), cos(0)] = [−1, 1] to [0, π] .
By the definition, we have

1) ∀x ∈ [−1, 1] , ∀y ∈ [0, π] , y = cos−1 (x) ⇔ cos(y) = x.

2) ∀x ∈ [−1, 1] , cos(cos−1 (x)) = x.
3) ∀y ∈ [0, π] , cos−1 (cos(y)) = y.

2π 1 2π 1 2π
Example. Since cos( ) = − and ∈ [0, π] , we get cos−1 (− ) = .
3 2 3 2 3
Proposition:
√
∀x ∈ [−1, 1] , sin(cos−1 (x)) = 1 − x2 .

Proof: Since 0 ≤ Arc cos(x) ≤ π, we have sin(Arc cos(x)) ≥ 0,therefore

sin(cos−1 (x)) = 1 − cos2 (cos−1 (x))) = 1 − x2 ).
p p

Examples.
1) Compute sin(cos−1 ( 53 ) + cos−1 ( 13
5
)).
Recall sin(a + b) = sin(a) cos(b) + sin(b) cos(a), therefore:

sin(cos−1 ( 35 ) + cos−1 ( 13
5
)) = sin(cos−1 ( 35 )) cos(cos−1 ( 13
5
)) + sin(cos−1 ( 13
5
)) cos(cos−1 ( 35 ))
q q 56
sin(cos−1 ( 35 ) + cos−1 ( 13
5
)) = 1 − ( 53 )2 ( 13
5
) + 1 − ( 13 5 2 3
) (5) = .
65
√
2) ∀x ∈ [−1, 1] , sin(2 cos−1 (x)) = 2x 1 − x2 .

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0.1. INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

0.1.4 Derivative of the inverse cosine function

The function sine is differentiable on [0, π] , and since cos′ (y) = − sin(y) ̸= 0, ∀y ∈ [0, π] ,
According to the theorem of the course, cos−1 is differentiable on ]−1, 1[ , moreover :
1 1
(cos−1 (x))′ = −1
= −√ .
− sin(cos (x)) 1 − x2
Therefore
1
∀x ∈ ]−1, 1[ , (cos−1 (x))′ = − √ .
1 − x2

0.1.5 Inverse tangent fuction

The function tan : Dtan → ]−∞, +∞[ is continuous, odd and periodic of period π,
the function sin is not one to one since tan(x + kπ) = tan(x) and x + kπ ̸= x if k ̸= 0.
i π πh 1
We then consider the restriction of tan to the interval − , , since tan′ (x) = (x) > 0 on
i π πh i π π2 h 2 cos2
− , , the function sin is strictly increasing on − , .
2 2 2 2

According to the theorem of the course, the sine function admits an inverse continuous
i π π h function
tan−1 , strictly increasing, which we also denote Arc tan from ]−∞, +∞[ to − , .
2 2
By the definition of the inverse function,we have

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0.1. INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
i π πh
1) ∀x ∈ ]−∞, ∞[ , ∀y ∈ − , , y = tan−1 (x) ⇔ tan(y) = x.
2 2
2) ∀x ∈ ]−∞, ∞[ , tan(tan−1 (x)) = x.
i π πh
3) ∀y ∈ − , , tan−1 (tan(y)) = y.
2 2

Proposition:

1
1) ∀x ∈ ]−∞, ∞[ , cos(tan−1 (x)) = √ .
1 + x2
x
2) ∀x ∈ ]−∞, ∞[ , sin(tan−1 (x)) = √ .
1 + x2

Proof:
−π π
1) Since ≤ Arc tan(x) ≤ , we have cos(Arc tan(x)) ≥ 0, moreover cos2 (x) =
2 2
1
.
1 + tan2 (x)
Therefore
r r
1 1 1
cos(Arc tan(x)) = 2 = 2
=√ .
1 + tan (Arc tan(x)) 1+x 1 + x2

0.1.6 Derivative of the inverse tangent function

i π πh 1 i π πh
The function sine is differentiable on − , , and since tan′ (x) = (x) > 0, ∀y ∈ − , ,
2 2 cos2 2 2
−1
According to the theorem of the course, tan is differentiable on ]−∞, ∞[ , moreover :
1 1
(tan−1 (x))′ = cos2 (tan−1 (x)) = = .
1+ tan2 (Arc tan(x)) 1 + x2
Therefore
1
∀x ∈ ]−∞, ∞[ , (Arc tan(x))′ = .
1 + x2

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0.1. INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

0.1.7 Inverse secant function

h π h iπ i
The inverse secant function. sec−1 (x) : ]−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞[ → 0, ∪ , π is defined by :
2 2
1
sec−1 (x) = cos−1 ( ).
x
We have
1 1 1
sec(cos−1 ( )) = = x. =
x 1 1
cos(cos−1 ( )) ( )
x x
−1 1 −1 1 −1
cos ( ) = cos ( ) = cos (cos(x)) = x.
sec(x) 1
cos(x)

0.1.8 Derivative of Inverse secant function

r
1 1 1 x2 1
(sec−1 (x))′ = (cos−1 ( ))′ = −q (− 2 ) = 2
( 2)
x 1− 1 x x −1 x
x2
1
(sec−1 (x))′ = √
|x| x2 − 1

In the same way, define :

1
csc−1 (x) = sin−1 ( ), ∀x ∈ ]−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞[ .
x
1
cot (x) = tan−1 ( ), x ̸= 0
−1
x

0.1.9 Derivative of Inverse cosecant and cotangent functions.

1
(csc−1 (x))′ = − √
|x| x2 − 1
1
(cot−1 (x))′ = − 2
x +1

1) Verify the following identities:

x
1) tan(sin−1 (x)) = √
1 − x2
2) cos(2sin−1 (x)) = 1 − 2x2
2x
3) tan(2 tan−1 (x)) =
1 − x2

2) Find each value:

1) cos(2 sin−1 ( 23 ))
2) sin(cos−1 ( 35 ) + cos−1 ( 13
5
))

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0.2. HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
√
3) cos(2 tan−1 ( 3))
4) sin(tan−1 (−2))

3) Find an algebraic expression for:

1) y = sin(2 sin−1 (x))

2) y = sin(cos−1 (x))
3) tan(sec−1 (x))

0.2 Hyperbolic Functions

0.2.1 Hyperbolic cosine and sine functions
Definition. We define the hyperbolic cosine function by :
ex + e−x
cosh(x) = ,
2
the hyperbolic sine function by :
Since the domaine of the function ex is ]−∞, ∞[ , we obtain that :

Dcosh = ]−∞, ∞[ and Dsinh(x) = ]−∞, ∞[ .

For any x ∈ R, we have the following identity:

cosh2 (x) − sinh2 (x) = (cosh(x) + sinh(x))(cosh(x) − sinh(x)) = ex e−x = e0 = 1.

cosh2 (x) − sinh2 (x) = 1 (1)

Geometrically, equation (1) means that the points (cosh(x), sinh(x) belongs to the hyperbola
x2 − y 2 = 1. Like the points which are (cos(x), sin(x)) located on the trigonometric circle :
x2 + y 2 = 1

(cosh(x), sinh(x)) belongs the red graph of the hyperbola x2 − y 2 = 1

We have
e−x + ex
cos h(−x) = = cos h(−x)
2
−x
e −e x e − e−x
x
sin h(−x) = =− = − sin h(x).
2 2
Therefore the hyperbolic cosine is an even function and the hyperbolic sine is an odd function.

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0.2. HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

0.2.2 Derrivative of Hyperbolic cosine and sine functions

d d ex − e−x ex + e−x
sinh(x) = ( )= = cosh(x)
dx dx 2 2

d d ex + e−x ex − e−x
cosh(x) = ( )= = sinh(x)
dx dx 2 2
Therefore,
d
sinh(x) = cosh(x).
dx

d
cosh(x) = sinh(x).
dx
Since the limx→∞ ex = ∞ and limx→−∞ ex = 0, we have :
limx→∞ cosh(x) = limx→∞ sinh(x) = ∞ ,
limx→−∞ cosh(x) = ∞ , limx→−∞ sinh(x) = 0.
y = sinh(x)

0.2.3 The inverse of hyperbolic cosine function

ex + e−x
Since cosh(x) = > 0, from equation (1), we have :
2
q
cosh(x) = 1 + sinh2 (x) ≥ 1 = cosh(0).

The function cosh(x) is continuous then cosh(R) = [1, ∞[ .

Since the function is even, we have cosh([0, ∞[) = [1, ∞[ . Moreover, cosh′ (x) = sinh(x) > 0 on
[0, ∞[ , therefore, the function cosh(x) is strictly increasing [0, ∞[ = [1, ∞[ . According to the
theorem, the function cosh : [0, ∞[ → [1, ∞[ admits an inverse cosh−1 : [1, ∞[ → [0, ∞[ .
We have :
cosh(cosh−1 (x)) = x
By differentiating both sides, we get
cosh′ (cosh−1 (x)(cosh−1 (x))′ = 1
1 1
(cosh−1 (x))′ = ′ −1 = .
cosh (cosh (x)) sinh(cosh−1 (x))

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0.2. HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

From (1), we have

q √
sinh(cos h−1 (x)) = cos h2 (cosh−1 (x)) − 1 = x2 − 1
Therefore,
1
(cosh−1 (x))′ = √ .
x2 − 1
Let x ∈ [1, ∞[ , y ∈ ]0, ∞[ , we have ;
ey + e−y
cosh−1 (x) = y ⇔ cosh(y) = =x
2
cosh−1 (x) = y ⇔ ey + e−y − 2x = 0
If we sides by ey , we get (ey )2 + 1 − 2xey √
= 0, the descriment 4x2 − 4 ≥ 0 since x ∈ [1, ∞[ .
Therefore, we have two√roots: ey = x√ ± x2 − p1. p
y 2
Since e ≥ 1 and (x − x − 1) − 1 = x − 1( x − 1) − x + 1) < 0,
we obtain the unique solution :
√
ey = x + x2 − 1;
So,
√
y = cosh−1 ((x) = ln(x + x2 − 1), x ≥ 1.

In the same way (to be checked), the function sinh admits an inverse :
sinh−1 : [−∞, ∞[ → [−∞, ∞[ .
1
(sinh−1 (x))′ = √ .
x2 +1
√
sinh−1 ((x) = ln(x + x2 + 1), x ∈ R.
The graph of the function sinh−1 ((x) :

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0.2. HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

We define tangent hyprbolic function from R to ]−1, 1[ by :

sinh(x) ex − e−x
tanh(x) = = x .
cosh(x) e + e−x

′ sinh′ (x) cosh(x) − cosh′ (x) sinh(x) cosh2 (x) − sinh2 (x) 1
tanh (x) = 2 = 2 =
cosh (x) cosh (x) cosh2 (x)
′ 1
tanh (x) = 2 = 1 − tanh2 (x)
cosh (x)

Threfore, the function tanh(x) is strictly increasing on R to ]−1, 1[ . According to the theorem,
the function tanh(x) : R → ]−1, 1[ admits an inverse tanh−1 : ]−1, 1[ → R.
We have :
tanh(tanh−1 (x)) = x
By differentiating both sides, we get
1 1 1
(tanh−1 (x))′ = ′ −1 = 2 −1 =
tanh (tanh (x) 1 − tanh (tanh (x)) 1 − x2

0.2.4 Usual Indefinite integrals

1) For every real number r ∈ R, we have:

xr+1
 Z

 xr dx = + C if r ̸= −1
Z rZ+ 1
1
x−1 dx = dx = ln(|x|) + C


x

2) If u is a differentiable function then:

u′ (x)
Z Z
du
dx = = ln(|u|) + C
u(x) u

3)

Z
sin(x)dx = − cos(x) + C
Z
cos(x)dx = sin x) + C
Z
tan(x)dx = − ln(|cos(x)|) + C = ln(|sec(x)| + C
Z
cot(x)dx = ln(|sin(x)|) + C
Z
sec(x)dx = ln(|sec(x) + tan(x)|) + C
Z
csc(x)dx = − ln(|csc(x) + cot(x)|) + C

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0.2. HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

4)

Z
ex dx = ex + C

ax
Z
ax dx = +C
ln(a)

5)

Z
1
dx = tan−1 (x) + C
1 + x2
Z
1
√ dx = sin−1 (x) + C
1−x 2

Z
1
√ dx = sinh−1 x + C
x2 +1
Z
1
√ dx = cosh−1 x + C
x2 − 1
Z
1
dx = tanh−1 (x) + C
1 − x2

0.2.5 Additional exercises

1) Show:

1 1+x
tanh−1 (x) = ln( ), −1 < x < 1
2 1−x

2) We consider the function f (x) = x − 2 + ln(x).

a) Show that the equation: f (x) = 0 admits a unique real solution.
f (f −1 (x))
b) Show that the function f is bijective and calculate lim .
x→∞ f −1 (x)
Indications.
a) The function f is continuous, differentiable on ]0, ∞[ ,

f (1) = 1 − 2 = −1 < 0, f (2) = 2 − 2 + ln(2) = ln(2) > 0,

according to the mean value theorem, there exists c ∈ ]1, 2[ , f (c) = 0. Suppose there exists
c1 , c2 such that f (c1 ) = f (c2 ) = 0, according to Rolle’s theorem, there exists x0 such that
1
f ′ (x0 ) = 0, we get a contradiction since f ′ (x) = 1 + > 0 for all x ∈ ]1, 2[ .
x
1
b) we have f ′(x) = 1 + > 0 on ]0, ∞[ , the function f is strictly increasing on ]0, ∞[ and
x
therefore bijective:  
Since f : ]0, ∞[ → f (]0, ∞[) = lim f (x), lim f (x) = ]−∞, ∞[ , we get
x→0+ x→+∞

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0.2. HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

f −1 : ]−∞, ∞[ → ]0, ∞[ , continuous, strictly increasing, lim f −1 (x) = ∞. To calculate

x→∞
f (f −1 (x))
lim , we take: y = f −1 (x) → ∞ when x → ∞, and we have
x→∞ f −1 (x)

f (f −1 (x)) f (y) y − 2 + ln(y).

lim −1
= lim = lim = 1.
x→∞ f (x) y→∞ y y→∞ y

3) We consider the function f (x) = cos2 (x).

h πi h πi
a) Show that f : 0, → f ( 0, ) is bijective.
2 2
b) Determine the domain of definition Df −1 of f −1 .
c) Study the differentiability of f −1 on Df −1 . Calculate ( f −1 )′ ( 12 ).

Indications. h πi
a) The function f (x) = cos2 (x) is a continuous function and differentiable on 0, .
i πh 2
Moreover f ′ (x) = −2 cos(x) sin(x) < 0 on 0, , so the function f is strictly decreasing on
h πi 2 h πi h π i
0, . According to a theorem from the course: f ( 0, ) = cos2 ( ), cos2 (0) = [0, 1] .
2 h πi 2 2
2
The function f (x) = cos (x) : 0, → [0, 1] is bijective.
2 h πi
b) the function f admits a reciprocal function f −1 and Df −1 = f ( 0, ) = [0, 1] .
2
c) Study the differentiability f −1 on Df −1 .iCalculate (f −1 )′ ( 1 ).
2
πh
We have f ′ (x) = −2 cos(x) sin(x) ̸= 0 on 0, , therefore f −1 is differentiable on ]0, 1[
2
−1 ′ 1
and we have: (f ) (x) = ′ −1 .
f (f (x))
1
If x = , we have:
2
1 1 1 h πi
f −1 ( ) = y ⇔ f (y) = ⇔ cos2 (y) = and y ∈ 0,
2 2 2 2
√
2 π
Then cos(y) = ⇒ y = . Therefore:
2 4
1 1
(f −1 )′ ( 21 ) = π = π π = −1
f ′( ) −2 cos( ) sin( )
4 4 4

4) Evaluate the indefinite integrals:

Z 3
√ x + 2x2 + 5 3x2 + 2x + 6
Z Z Z
2
3x 5
1) (e +x x)dx 2) dx 3) dx 4) ln(e−x )dx
x3 x2
√
Z Z
5) (e5x + x x)dx 6) (e3x + x5 )dx.

Z. GUENNOUN 12