2.

25 Turbine and Other Rotary Element FE

FI

Flowmeters
J. G. KOPP (1969) D. J. LOMAS (1982) B. G. LIPTÁK (1995) Flow Sheet Symbol

J. B. ARANT (2003)

Types A. Turbine flowmeters

A-1. Single-Rotor
A-2. Dual-Rotor
B. Propeller, impeller, and shunt-flow types
C. Insert, probe, or paddlewheel designs

Services Relatively clean liquids, gases, and vapors (some units for gas service are also covered
in Section 2.2)

Sizes A-1. 3/16 to 24 in. (5 to 610 mm) in flow-through designs

A-2. 0.25 to 12 in. (6.12 to 294 mm) in flow-through designs
B. Impeller designs available from 3 to 72 in. (75 mm to 1.8 m)
C. Paddlewheel units available for up to 12 in. (305 mm) pipes; insertion turbine
probes not limited by pipe size, can also be used in open channels

Outputs Generally, linear frequency outputs are provided, but 4- to 20-mA DC can also be
obtained through conversion

Operating Pressure A-1. 1500 PSIG (10.3 MPa) in standard and 5000 PSIG (34.5 MPa) in special designs
A-2. ANSI 150 PSIG (1.03 MPa) up to ANSI 1500 PSIG (10.3 MPa)
B. Impeller designs usually designed for 150 PSIG (1 MPa)
C. Plastic paddlewheel units operable up to 200 PSIG (1.4 MPa) at ambient temperatures

Pressure Drops A. Usually, one velocity head or about 3 to 5 PSIG (20 to 35 kPa)
B. Usually less than 1 PSID (7 kPa) for the impeller types
C. Negligible

Operating Temperature A-1. −58 to 300°F (−50 to 150°C) in standard and −328 to 840°F (−200 to 450°C) in
extended pickup designs
A-2. −440 to 840°F (−268 to 450°C)
B. Up to 160°F (71°C) for the impeller design
C. The plastic paddlewheel units operable at up to 220°F (105°C) if operating pressure
is <25 PSIG (<172 kPa)

Materials of Construction A. Normally, stainless-steel housing and rotor with tungsten carbide sleeve bearings

are used, but Hastelloy C or other housing materials and ceramic or PTFE
bearings are also available
B. The impeller-type unit is provided with a plastic impeller and with aluminum,
epoxy-coated carbon steel, or stainless-steel housing
™
C. The plastic paddlewheel units are made of polypropylene, PVDF, Ryton , and
metallic parts

Error or Inaccuracy A-1. Linearity is 0.25% of actual flow for turbine meters larger than 3/4 in. (19 mm)
and 0.5% for smaller units. The repeatability (after calibration) is 0.02% of

337
© 2003 by Béla Lipták
338 Flow Measurement

actual flow. This performance assumes constant viscosity (within 0.3 and 3 cP)
and density, proper installation including flow straighteners, a 10- to 15-diameter
straight pipe run, and the use of a DC power supply and a preamplifier located at
the meter.
A-2. 0.1 to 1% of actual flow with linearity and repeatability between 0.01 and 0.05%.
Viscosity, density, velocity effects, and upstream straight run requirements are
similar to A-1.
B. Shunt flowmeters are accurate within 2% of actual flow over a range of 10:1. The
impeller-type units are also claimed to have a 2% of actual flow accuracy if
operated at velocities exceeding 1 ft/sec (0.3 m/sec)
C. Linearity is 1% relative to actual velocity at point of insertion. Accuracy similar
to pitot tubes, or 2 to 5%.

Rangeability A-1. 10:1 unless limited by use of line-size units or by high process fluid viscosity
A-2. 10:1 to 500:1 for liquids and up to 1000:1 for gas flows
B. 10:1 for the shunt flow design
C. The optical designs provide flow rangeabilities in excess of 20:1

Cost A-1. A turbine flowmeter with a preamp (but without readout electronics) and with
150-lb carbon steel flanges can be estimated as follows (1 in. = 25.4 mm): 0.5 to
1.5 in., $2200; 2 to 3 in., $2800; 4 in., $3500; 6 in., $5000; 8 in., $8000; 10 in.,
$12,000; 12 in., $16,000; 16 in., $28,000; 18 in., $32,000; 20 in., $50,000; 24 in.,
$75,000. Electronic readout devices might include auxiliary, explosion-proof
power supply, $1200; remote register drive, $3500; frequency-to-analog converter
with digital display, $1200; locally mounted, explosion-proof totalizer/flow indi-
cator, $1200. Accessories include flow straighteners, strainers, batch control units,
and two-stage shutoff valves.
A-2. Generally, 10 to 50% over A-1
C. The flow element of the plastic paddlewheel units for sizes between 0.5 and 12 in.
(13 to 305 mm) costs between $250 and $500. Flow elements can be provided
with analog indicators ($350), digital readouts ($500), recorders ($850), or batch
totalizers ($600).

Partial List of Suppliers* ABB Instruments (www.abb.com/us/instrument) (A-1)

Badger Meter Inc. (www.badgermeter.com) (A-1)
Brooks Instrument (www.emersonprocess.com) (A-1)
Daniel Measurement and Control (www.danielind.com) (A-1)
Data Industrial Corp. (www.dataindustrial.com) (C)
Exact Flow (www.exactflow.com) (A-1, A-2)
Flow Research Corp. (www.flowresearch.com) (A-1)
Flow Technology Inc. (www.ftimeters.com) (A-1, C)
The Foxboro Co. (www.foxboro.com) (A-1)
Hays Cleveland (www.hayscleveland.com) (C)
Hoffer Flow Controls Inc. (www.hofferflow.com) (A-1)
Invensys Energy Metering (formerly Rockwell International, marketed by Equimeter)
(www.invensysenergymetering.com) (A-1, A-2)
McCrometer (www.mccrometer.com) (B)
McMillan Co. (www.mcmillancompany.com) (A-1)
Miniflow Systems Inc. (A-1)
Omega Engineering Inc. (www.omega.com) (A-1)
Quantum Dynamics Inc. (A-2)
Rockwell Automation (www.automation.rockwell.com) (A-1)
Schlumberger Measurement Div. (www.slb.com/rms/measurement) (A-1)
Smith Systems Inc. (www.smith-systems-inc.com) (A-1)
Spirax Sarco Inc. (www.spiraxsarco.com) (A-1)
Sponsler Co. (www.sponsler.com) (A-1)

* Note: Most popular are units from Brooks, Daniel, Smith, Hoffer, and Badger.

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

 2.25 Turbine and Other Rotary Element Flowmeters 339

Turbine meters are available for liquid, gas, and very low Pickup Coil Housing
flow rates in both full-bore and insertion designs. The most Upstream Rotor
widely used type is the full-bore meter for liquid service. Hanger Unit Unit
Assembly
Downstream
Hanger
LIQUID TURBINE METERS Unit

A turbine meter consists of a multibladed rotor suspended in

the fluid stream on a free-running bearing (see Figure 2.25a).
The axis of rotation of the rotor is perpendicular to the flow
direction, and the rotor blades sweep out nearly to the full
bore of the meter. The fluid impinging on the rotor blades
causes the rotor to revolve. Within the linear flow range of
the meter, the angular speed of rotation is directly propor- Spindle
tional to the volumetric flow rate. The speed of rotation is
monitored by an electromagnetic pickup coil, which is fitted
to the outside of the meter housing. Two types of pickup coil
are primarily used: reluctance and inductance. Both operate
on the principle of a magnetic field moving through a coil. FIG. 2.25a
In the reluctance pickup coil system, the permanent mag- Cutaway view of a typical turbine meter.
net is the coil. The field produced is concentrated to a small
point by the cone (see Figure 2.25b). The turbine rotor blades it passes the cone. Because each blade sweeps a discrete
are made of a paramagnetic material, i.e., a material that is volume of fluid, each electrical impulse represents the same
attracted by a magnet. As a blade approaches the cone point, discrete volume of fluid.
its magnetic properties deflect the magnetic field. This deflec- With the inductance pickup coil system (see Figure 2.25b),
tion causes a voltage to be generated in the coil. As the blade the permanent magnet is embedded in the rotor. As the magnet
passes under the cone point, the voltage decays, only to be rotates past the pickup coil position, it generates a voltage pulse
built back up in the opposite polarity as the departing blade for every complete revolution of the rotor.
deflects the magnetic field in the opposite direction. Thus, The typical operating temperature range for standard
each blade produces a separate and distinct voltage pulse as pickup coils is −58 to 300°F (−50 to 150°C). Specially modified

One Pulse One Unit Per

Permanent Per Blade Volume Revolution
Magnet
Coil
Cone

Coil

Meter Body Meter Body

Blade Rotor
N Permanent
Magnet

Reluctance Pickup Coil

S
Inductance Pickup Coil

FIG. 2.25b
Alternative signal generation systems.

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

340 Flow Measurement

pickup coils are available, however, to cover operation at tem- 100 ± 0.15% Linearity Flow Rate
peratures ranging from −328 to 840°F (−200 to 450°C). If the

Meter Coefficient K - Pulses/Gal.

Nominal K Factor
meter is located in a hazardous area, the pickup coil can be

Maximum Linear Flow Rate

99 98.50 + 0.25%
mounted in a flameproof or explosion-proof conduit box or,
alternatively, an intrinsically safe pickup coil can be used in − 0.25%
98
conjunction with zener barrier to provide an inherently safe
Calibration Curve
system.
97

Electronic Display Units

Minimum Flow Rate for ± 0.25% Linearity
96
The output signal from the turbine meter is a continuous sine- A B
wave voltage pulse train with each pulse representing a small,
discrete volume of fluid. Associated electronic units display 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Flow Rate - Gal./Min.
total volumetric flow or flow rate and perform preset batching,
control, automatic temperature correction, and other functions. FIG. 2.25c
Most turbine meter systems incorporate a totalizer unit Typical calibration curve for a turbine meter.
with a factorizing and scaling function. The pulse output from
the turbine meter is not in direct engineering units. For exam- correct pulse sequence (A, B, A, B, A, B, and so on) will be
ple, each pulse might represent 0.001231 gal. The factorizer interrupted. Any such false pulses are logged and the asso-
is set to this value, and the incoming pulses are multiplied ciated totalizer reading corrected accordingly.
by 0.001231. The display presented is then in gallons. Most turbine meter systems require flow rate indication
Alternatively, the totalizer can be a preset batch unit for or an analog control signal. These options can generally be
automatically dispensing predetermined quantities of liquid. provided from the basic totalizer unit.
The required value is preset, and the totalizer then counts
down to zero and provides an output (that is, contact closure) Linearity and Repeatability
to operate a valve and terminate the batch. To provide better
system repeatability and avoid hydraulic shock, the preset The nominal K factor (the number of pulses per unit volume)
batch unit can be fitted with an advance warning contact, or is primarily determined by the size and type of turbine meter.
it can incorporate a ramp function. In the former case, an In practice, the actual K factor varies slightly between appar-
output is provided, typically 2 to 5% before batch completion. ently identical meters due to manufacturing tolerances. Con-
This output partially closes the valve and the batch is “topped sequently, it is essential to calibrate each meter to establish
off” at a low flow rate up to the final preset quantity. The its own specific K factor. A typical turbine meter calibration
latter system includes a ramp function in the preset batch is shown in Figure 2.25c.
unit, providing an analog output signal at the start of the The graph is a plot of K factor against flow rate. It will
batch to open the valve at a predetermined rate. As the batch be noted that, over the flow range A to B GPM, the K factor
nears completion, the valve is progressively closed down to is a constant within the linearity tolerance band. The linearity
a low flow rate. The final valve closure signal is then given tolerance band is typically ±0.25% of point over a 10:1 flow
at the preset batch size. range for meters 0.75 in. (20 mm) and larger and ±0.5% of
Turbine meters volume flow at actual operating condi- point over a 5:1 or 8:1 flow range on meters smaller than
tions. Consequently, if high accuracy is required, and the fluid 0.75 in. (20 mm). It is important to note that the linearity is
temperature is subject to variation, automatic temperature specified as “of point” or “of actual reading” and is not “of
correction is necessary. This involves measuring the liquid full-scale deflection.”
temperature with a platinum resistance thermometer and pro- The calibration in Figure 2.25c has a typical turbine
viding an analog control signal proportional to temperature. meter hump in the low flow region (the lower 30% of the
The temperature/volume relationship for the metered liquid flow range). If this region is avoided, the turbine meter lin-
is built into the automatic temperature correction (ATC) unit. earity can be improved to ±0.15% on the larger meters and
Depending on the measured temperature, the ATC unit mod- ±0.25% on the smaller meters.
ifies the totalizer volume reading in accordance with the The repeatability of the turbine meter is typically ±0.02%
preset temperature coefficient of the liquid to give volume of point at any flow rate within the linear range of the meter.
readout at the required reference temperature.
To safeguard against interference or lost pulses during Viscosity and Density Effects
signal transmission, a pulse comparator is often used on high-
accuracy systems. This involves using two pickup coils (A The principal fluid parameter that affects a turbine meter is
and B) and taking two separate signal leads to the electronics. viscosity. High viscosities change the nominal K factor and
The pulse comparator unit monitors the two signals for integ- cause the calibration curve to fall away at a higher minimum
rity. If any pulses are lost or picked up on either line, the flow rate (see Figure 2.25d). This causes a deterioration in the

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

 2.25 Turbine and Other Rotary Element Flowmeters 341

+2%
Meter
TABLE 2.25e
Minimum
Linear Typical Flow Capacity for a Range of Turbine Meters
+1% 1 Centistoke Viscosity
Flow Nominal Diameter Minimum Linear Flow Maximum Linear Flow
3 3
0 Inches mm GPM m /h GPM m /h
K Factor Pulses/m3 Error

0.75 20 2.5 0.68 25 6.8

−1% 1 25 3.3 0.90 50 13.6

1.5 40 7.2 1.96 108 29.5
−2% 2 50 20 5.45 160 43.6
60 Centistokes Liquid 3 75 60 16.3 400 109
−3% 4 100 180 27.2 1000 272
6 150 250 68.1 2000 545
−4% 8 200 415 113 4150 1130
Meter Maximum:147 m3/hr.
10 250 715 195 6400 1750
12 300 1025 280 9160 2500
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
14 350 1210 330 10,800 2950
Flow Rate m3/hr.
16 400 1830 500 14,650 4000
FIG. 2.25d 18 450 2310 630 18,500 5050
Calibration curves illustrating the effect of high viscosity on meter
20 500 2930 800 24,000 6540
performance.

these values. Typical flow capacities for a range of turbine

linearity tolerance over the full flow range or, alternatively, a meters from 0.75 in. (19 mm) to 20 in. (508 mm) are shown
shorter usable flow range at the standard linearity tolerance. in Table 2.25e.
When sizing the meter, it is recommended that the max-
The effect of viscosity cannot be easily quantified, because
imum flow rate of the application should fall at approximately
it depends on the size and type of turbine meter. In general,
70 to 80% of the maximum flow rate of the meter. This results
larger meters are less affected by viscosity than are smaller
in a good flow rangeability (about 8:1), and yet there is still
sizes. This does not imply that an oversize meter should be
approximately 25% spare capacity to allow for future expan-
used on a viscous application. In fact, quite the reverse is true.
sion in production or increased metering requirements. Excep-
On a high-viscosity application, it is advisable to size the meter
tions to this rule of thumb are applications that demand max-
so that its maximum permitted flow rate is as close as possible
imum rangeability, high-viscosity applications that demand
to the application flow rate. Thus, by tending to undersize the
maximum rangeability, and high-viscosity applications.
meter, the nonlinear portion of the calibration is avoided, and
To achieve optimal performance and flow range, most
the best possible flow range is achieved.
turbine meters are designed for a maximum velocity of 30 ft/s
The above comments about viscosity are applicable to
(9.14 m/s). This velocity is higher than the velocities that exist
the linearity of the meter. Turbine meter repeatability will
in typical process pipelines, which are typically 7 to 10 ft/s
not be affected in this way, and the standard repeatability
(2.13 to 3.05 m/s). Consequently, if the turbine meter is the
tolerance will still be maintained at high viscosities. Conse-
same size as the pipeline, the meter flow range will be limited
quently, a turbine meter can be used for such duties as on–off
to approximately 2:1 or 3:1. Hence, it is important to size
control on very viscous products. The control points can be
the turbine flowmeter on the basis of volumetric flow rate
determined impartially, and the meter will then repeat these
and not on the basis of pipe diameter. If the turbine meter is
readings even though its calibration may be completely non-
sized on volumetric flow rate, it will end up to be smaller
linear. To achieve reliable repeatability, the operating condi-
than the pipe size. This is a perfectly acceptable and normal
tions must be constant.
practice if the meter is installed with the appropriate upstream
Density has a small effect on the turbine meter’s perfor-
and downstream straight pipe lengths and cone-type reducers
mance. On low-density liquids, the meter’s minimum flow rate
(see Figure 2.25f).
is increased as a result of the lower driving torque, but the
Another aspect that must be considered when sizing the
change in density has a minimal effect on the meter’s calibration.
meter is available line pressure. Turbine meters have a typical
pressure loss of 3 to 5 PSIG (20.7 to 34.5 kPa) at maximum
Meter Sizing
meter flow rate. The pressure loss reduces with the square of
Turbine meters are sized by volumetric flow rate. Each meter flow rate. Consequently, if the meter is operating at 50% of
size has a specified minimum and maximum linear flow maximum capacity, the pressure loss is 25% of that at max-
figure, and the meter normally should not be used outside imum flow rate.

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

342 Flow Measurement

Concentric Flow Nominal Size Coil Concentric

Cone Straightener D Inches Protection Box Cone
10 × D
2.5 D 5×D 5×D

Flow

D Bore Flow
Dia.
Alternative Flow Meter and Straightener
Straightening Vanes Connections

Bundle of Tubes Radial Vane

Element Element

FIG. 2.25f
Recommended turbine meter installation pipework.

A typical pressure distribution through a turbine meter is

shown in Figure 2.25g. As will be noted, the minimum pressure
point occurs in the region of the rotor, with a substantial pres-
sure recovery occurring immediately thereafter. It is essential Deflector
Housing Bearing
to provide sufficient line pressure to prevent liquid cavitation (Upstream)
Rotor Assembly
or gassing in the rotor region. To ensure that cavitation does
not occur, the downstream line pressure must be at least twice
the net meter pressure loss plus 1.25 times the vapor pressure
of the flowing fluid at its maximum operating temperature.
When the backpressure on the meter is insufficient to meet this
requirement, either the backpressure should be increased, or a
larger meter operating in a lower region of its flow range (with
a resultant lower pressure loss) should be considered. The
meter flow range will be reduced by this approach.
If cavitation occurs, it will cause an error in the meter
output, and the meter will read high. If severe cavitation is Clearance for
Hanger Rotor Deflector Rotor to Float
present, it will destroy some of the metallic parts and will Clear of Any
Impingment Hub (Downstream)
cause serious overspeeding of the rotor, resulting in possible Anulus End Stops
mechanical damage to the rotor and bearing.
Pressure (PSI)

Pelton Wheel Meters

Net Pressure
It is not practical to make turbine meters for very low flow Lowest
−5 3 Loss Between
rates below 0.25 GPM (1.58 × 10 m /s). Pelton wheel meters Pressure
Inlet and Outlet
Point At
have been developed for these very low flow rates. The meter Rotor Position
has a small orifice that projects the liquid onto a small Pelton Pressure Distribution Through Meter
wheel. The velocity of rotation is then measured electromag-
netically, and a frequency output signal produced. By varying FIG. 2.25g
the diameter of the orifice, a range of flow rates can be covered Typical pressure distribution through a turbine meter.

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

 2.25 Turbine and Other Rotary Element Flowmeters 343

−8
from 0.001 GPM through to 2 GPM (6.3 × 10 to 1.26 × feasible. On clean liquids, some meter designs use ball race
4 3
10 m /s). Flow range varies with meter type but is generally bearings to achieve greater rangeability.
between 10 and 20:1. The meters offer good repeatability Turbine flowmeters have also been manufactured without
(±0.1%) but are generally nonlinear and have a high pressure bearings (Figure 2.25i). In this design, the hydraulic forces
loss, typically 15 to 20 PSIG (103 to 138 kPa). Typical appli- of the flowing fluid kept the dual turbine in a suspended,
cations for this type of device are metering internal combus- “hovering” state. This meter is no longer being manufactured
tion engine fuel flows in test rigs and additive dosing. but is mentioned here because of the interesting concept
behind its operation.
Meter Characteristics and Features In very small sizes (under 1 in. or 25 mm), a single
turbine can also be rotated without having any physical con-
The wetted materials of a turbine meter are generally stainless tact to the meter body. In the design shown in Figure 2.25j,
steel throughout except for the bearing. The most widely used the process fluid enters as a tangential jet and spins and
bearings at present are tungsten carbide or ceramic sleeve stabilizes the turbine as it exits through the center of the rotor.
bearings, which offer exceptional reliability and immunity to The speed of rotation is detected optically by a photodetector.
3
wear. These materials provide good corrosion resistance In the 8 cm /m to the 8 GPM (330 l/min) flow range, up to
capability on a wide range of process liquids (Figure 2.25h). 30:1 rangeability is claimed.
Where these materials are not suitable, other, more expensive Turbine meters are suitable for extremes of temperature.
®
possibilities, such as Hastelloy C with PTFE bearings, are When appropriate pickup coils and bearings are selected, tur-
bine meters can operate at temperatures varying from −328°F
(−200°C) to 840°F (450°C). The turbine meter housing is a
Rotor Tip
very good pressure vessel, because there are no tappings or
Backup Pad protrusions into the meter bore. Consequently, most small
Endstone (Ceramic)
Bearing Sleeve (Ceramic)
Jet Operating Chamber
Endstone Holder

Magnet
Rotor
Spindle Inlet
with Ceramic
Bearing
Rotor Outlet

Stainless Steel Spindle

Window O-Ring
FIG. 2.25h Fiber Optical
Ceramic bearings. (Courtesy of Badger Meter Inc.) Readout
Optical Readout

Magnetic Pickup
Inlet

XP Adaptor Jet Ring

Shaft and
Upper Rotor Upper Cover
Assembly
Body
Rotor
Flow

Lower Rotor

Lower Cover
Inlet
Lower Hover Disc Lower Outlet
Retaining Plate
FIG. 2.25j
FIG. 2.25i Unsupported single rotor with optical readout. (Courtesy of Mini-
Bearingless turbine flowmeter. (Discontinued.) flow Systems Inc.)

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

344 Flow Measurement

turbine meters are suitable for operating pressures up to 5000

PSIG (34.5 MPa), subject to the pressure limitation on the TABLE 2.25k
Typical Strainer Recommendations for Turbine Meter
flanges or other end connections.
Installations
Another significant feature of the turbine meter is that it
Recommended Strainer
has a high throughput for a given size and is small in size
and weight relative to the pipeline. Consequently, turbine Meshes/
meters can handle large-volume flow rates with a minimal Turbine Meter U.S. Sieve Wire Size Linear Opening
Size (Inches) No. (Inches) Inch (Inches)
requirement for space without needing special mounting
stands or pads. Other features of the turbine meter include 1
2 and smaller 120 0.0034 120.48 0.0049
fast response time, suitability for hygienic applications, linear 3
4 to 1 1
2 45 0.0087 44.44 0.0138
digital output, ease of maintenance, and simple installation. 2 and larger 18 0.0189 17.16 0.0394
The main limitations of the turbine flowmeter include
high cost; limitation to clean and nonviscous services; the
error caused by viscosity and density changes; the require- longitudinally in the upstream section of the straight pipe.
ment for filtration and for 15 to 20 diameters of straight The location of the vane is important; the recommended
upstream pipe; the need for periodic recalibration (at operat- position is shown in Figure 2.25f. When a flow-straightening
ing conditions) and maintenance because the moving com- element is used, the upstream straight pipe requirement is
ponents are subject to wear; the potential problems of gas- reduced to 10 times the nominal meter diameter. The required
sing, cavitation, and overspeeding; the need for relatively downstream length is 5 times nominal meter diameter. Nev-
high backpressure; and the need for secondary components ertheless, it is good practice to avoid installing the meter
in providing a readout. downstream of any severe source of disturbance, such as
Due to its excellent performance characteristics, the tur- regulating control valves, whenever possible.
bine meter is widely used for high-accuracy royalty and cus- If the meter is smaller in diameter than the process piping,
tody transfer of crude oil, refined hydrocarbons, and other 15° inclined angle concentric cones should be fitted at either
valuable liquids. Turbine meters are used throughout the pet- end of the metering piping as shown in Figure 2.25f. Care
rochemical industry for many other applications, such as should be taken with the internal alignment of all flange joints
process control metering, blending, and pipeline leak detec- in the metering section; no gaskets should protrude into the
tion. Turbine meters are also used in other industries for a fluid path.
broad range of applications, flow rates, and duties. More To avoid mechanical damage to the turbine meter and to
specialized applications include measurement of cryogenic ensure optimal life, a suitable mesh strainer should be fitted
liquids (liquid oxygen and nitrogen), high-pressure water upstream of the meter. The recommended mesh size depends
injection to oil wells, aircraft fuel metering, test rig duty, and on the size and type of turbine meter, but typical guidelines
road tanker filling. Some of these applications require mod- are given in Table 2.25k. Close attention should be paid to
ified or special meters (for example, aircraft meters are made any application in which there are fibrous particles in the
from aluminum alloy to save weight), but fundamentally the fluid. Contaminants of this type are frequently not removed
same meter is used in all cases. by the strainer; the fibrous strands tend to wrap around the
rotor and bearing, causing the rotor to slow down and the
calibration to change.
Mechanical Installation
Electrical Installation
The turbine meter’s high accuracy can be easily negated by
a substandard installation. Upstream disturbances such as The output frequency from a typical turbine meter pickup
bends, valves, or filters may cause swirl and/or a nonuniform coil varies in frequency and amplitude with flow range. At
velocity profile, which, in turn, affects both the linearity of low flows, the signal may be as small as 20 mV peak to peak.
the meter and the nominal K factor. The errors may be Consequently, if the turbine meter and electronic readout
positive or negative, depending on the direction of the swirl. equipment are not from the same manufacturer, care must be
If there is sufficient straight pipe between the disturbance taken to ensure that the two units are compatible with regard
source and the meter, the fluid shear or internal friction to pulse shape (sinewave or squarewave), signal frequency,
between the liquid and the pipe wall will condition the flow and pulse amplitude and width.
to an acceptable degree. The length of straight pipe required Careful attention should also be given to the cable routing
depends on the upstream disturbance and, in some instances, between the turbine meter and the electronics. Areas of electri-
may have to be as long as 50 times the nominal meter diameter. cal noise should be avoided, cable lengths should be kept as
To avoid excessively long straight lengths of pipe, an short as possible, impedance matching should be verified, and
internal flow-straightening element is generally used if good the appropriate shielded cable should be used. When long trans-
accuracy is required. The flow-straightening element may be mission distances are involved or the area is electrically noisy,
a bundle of thin-wall tubes or a series of radial vanes inserted a preamplifier should be fitted to the meter (see Figure 2.251).

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

 2.25 Turbine and Other Rotary Element Flowmeters 345

Conduit Box Interchangeable Metering Reduced

Element Flow Area
Signal
Preamplifier Output
Cable

Flow
Signal
Input Large
Pickup Coil Cables Diameter
Connector Diffuser
Rotor
Pickup
Coil
FIG. 2.25m
Typical gas turbine meter showing low ratio rotor annular-to-pipe
area.

Turbine Index
Flowmeter Multi-Bladed
Rotor

FIG. 2.25l Diffuser

Complete turbine flowmeter assembly showing pickup coil and
FIG. 2.25n
preamplifier.
The axial flow gas turbine meter.

The preamplifier output signal amplitude is independent volume flow indication and employ reduction gears in the rotor
of flow rate and is typically a 12-V squarewave signal. This driving external gears via a magnetic coupling.
high-level signal can be transmitted for great distances, typ- Gas turbine meters find application in fuel and other gas
ically 15,000 ft (4572 m) and is far more immune to electrical measurement applications because of their simplicity and
interference than an unamplified pickup signal. The limita- wide rangeability. Figure 2.25n shows the principle of the
tions of a preamplifier include increased cost and the neces-
axial flow gas turbine meter. A flow diffuser increases the
sity for a DC power supply at the meter. In some designs, an
flowing gas velocity and directs it to a multibladed rotor
additional cable is required (a three-wire system as opposed
mounted in precision bearings. The calibrated index is driven
to a two-wire system), and the ambient temperature is typi-
by the rotor through suitable gearing. Gas turbine meters are
cally limited to 212°F (100°C).
available in sizes from 2 to 12 in. pipe diameter (50 to 305 mm)
3 3
and flow ratings up to 150,000 ft /h (4500 m /h). A desirable
characteristic of gas turbine meters is their increase in range-
GAS TURBINE METERS ability at elevated operating gas pressures. Rangeabilities in
excess of 100:1 are attainable in large meters operating at
The operating principle of the gas turbine meter is the same 1400 PSIG (9.7 MPa).
as already described for the liquid turbine meter. The major As a result of the lower driving torque of the gas, it is
difference is that, as a result of the much lower density of the essential to keep bearing frictional resistance to a minimum.
gas, the available fluid driving torque is greatly reduced. Con- The liquid turbine meter journal bearing is usually replaced
sequently, gas turbine meters feature various design changes by a ball race bearing. Any change in the bearing frictional
to enable the meter to operate at higher fluid velocities and to resistance will result in a change in the meter calibration.
compensate for the lower driving torque. The principal changes Meters are frequently used in dust-laden gases, and the ball
are the use of larger hub diameters to give a smaller ratio of races are frequently of the sealed, self-lubricated type. Some
rotor annular area to pipe area (see Figure 2.25m), lightweight designs, however, use gas bearings.
rotors, increased number of blades, modified blade angle, and It is essential to calibrate the gas turbine meter initially,
alternative bearings. Some designs feature local mechanical preferably under simulator operating conditions, to establish

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

346 Flow Measurement

+2 not widely used in the process industries, because they were

× 100%

limited to clean services and considered somewhat fragile and

+1 therefore not always reliable. Even today, the twin- or dual-
Q Indicated − Q Actual

rotor turbine meter design is not well known outside the

Flow Rate
Net aerospace industry. The twin-turbine design uses two identi-
Q Actual

cal turbines. The dual-turbine design uses two turbines of

−1 different designs. The three suppliers listed in the feature
summary at the beginning of this section offer three different
−2 design variations and also differing capabilities and operation.
5% 100%
Flow Rate
History
FIG. 2.25o
Typical gas turbine flowmeter calibration. By the late 1950s and early 1960s, the single-rotor turbine
meters, which were used for their high accuracy and repeat-
its own specific K factor. A typical calibration curve is shown ability in aerospace fueling applications, were often overspun
in Figure 2.25o. Linearity is normally ±1% of actual flow by flashing cryogenic fuels, resulting in bearing failure, and
over a flow range of 20:1. Gas turbine meters have specific sometimes even in the loss of the turbine rotor. Such rotor
minimum and maximum volumetric flow rate values, and it losses could lead to engine failures if the turbine rotor enters
is essential to select the meter on the basis of these volumetric the engines. This was clearly unacceptable.
flow rates and not on the basis of the pipe size. The meter Therefore, a design was needed, which in addition to
must be sized on the basis of actual volume flow and on the extremely high accuracy over very wide flow ranges would
basis of standard reference units. also offer ruggedness, decrease bearing wear and improve
The turbine meter output frequency is proportional to the reliability and calibration longevity. The solution was the
volumetric flow rate at the actual operating pressure and twin rotor design, which is provided with a housing designed
temperature. Pressure and temperature correction are for 3000 PSIG (208 bar) working pressure. The actual oper-
required to convert the meter output into volume flow at ating pressure can be less, because it is limited by the pressure
reference conditions. If readout in mass units is required, ratings of the end fittings. Special versions have been used
either pressure and temperature correction can be used in applications up to 40,000 PSIG (2777 bar). The meter can
(although it does not compensate for variations in the com- be used from cryogenic liquid hydrogen temperatures up to
position of the gas) or the meter reading can be multiplied temperatures greater than 750°F (400°C). The flow sensor
by a density gauge reading to give true mass flow. body and all major components are manufactured from stain-
In any compensation system, the volume and pressure or less steel.
density should be measured at the same flow rate. The gas Thus, the two-rotor turbine meter was developed prima-
turbine meter has a typical pressure loss of one velocity head rily to help overcome bearing wear and overspeeding and to
2
[0.5(ρV /g)] and a similar pressure distribution as that of the provide wider flow turndown or rangeability. These same
liquid turbine meter shown in Figure 2.25g. Consequently, if attributes are also useful in process industry applications. The
the pressure or density measurement is not taken at the rotor, twin-rotor turbine meters are capable of limiting the error to
a slight correction factor may be necessary to relate the 0.1% of actual flow and providing a precision of 0.01% of
measured value back to that pertaining at the rotor position. reading. Their turndown can be 200:1 up to 500:1 on volu-
Gas turbine meters are less sensitive to damage by grit metric liquid flow applications and up to 1000:1 on gas or
and dust particles than are other positive-displacement meters. vapor mass flow applications.
Gas turbine meters can also operate at higher pressures and
have a high flow-rate capacity for a given meter size. In Twin-Rotor Design
addition, if the meter fails, the gas flow is not obstructed,
ensuring continuity of flow. Typical upstream pipe require- The twin-rotor design dates back to 1959, when it was used
ments are 20 times the nominal meter diameter. only for aerospace and military applications. In the 1970s,
Because of possible variations in the meter-bearing char- some major chemical companies had also started to use them
acteristics, calibration checks should be made at regular inter- for leak detection and pipeline accounting. This design with-
vals if optimal performance is to be achieved. stands the flashing of fuel propellants, launch vibration, and
shock while providing high-precision signal conditioning
electronics. Applications included physiological measure-
TWIN-ROTOR TURBINE METERS ments by NASA, where it was used to monitor astronaut
breathing and urine flow during space missions. Military
The single-rotor design of the turbine meters dates back to applications included their installation on jet engine test
the early 1950s, when the United States aerospace industries stands and on interservice flow transfer applications under
began to use such meters extensively. At that time, they were U.S. Navy/NBS auspices. The QDI meter (as it is referred

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

 2.25 Turbine and Other Rotary Element Flowmeters 347

SI SS
Flow

C/L
Shaft

Upstream Indicator Slave Downstream

Support Turbine Turbine Support

FIG. 2.25p
Twin turbine flowmeter initially designed for aerospace applications to provide long life, high rangeability, and accuracy. (Courtesy of
Quantum Dynamics Inc.)

to, using the abbreviation of the manufacturer’s name) is also large central body to accelerate the flow past the short turbine
used in flowmeter “prover” applications to check the calibra- blades having high blade angles. Thus, the aerospace twin-
tion and accuracy of other flowmeters. turbine design also has a lower pressure drop. This is important
The QDI twin-turbine meter (Figure 2.25p) utilizes two in aerospace and cryogenic applications where high pressure
identical turbines mounted on a single shaft, as follows: drops could cause flashing.
The patented zero-drag RF pickups on both the indicator
• The downstream slave turbine is rigidly affixed to the and slave turbines provide a powerful, high-reliability diag-
sensor shaft, which rotates within the flow sensor on nostic tool, because redundant flow measurement is provided.
precision ball bearings. The bearings may use either In addition, bearing wear or contamination can be detected
stainless-steel alloy balls or specialty ceramic balls. as changes in the relative velocity between the indicator and
Thus, the flow drives the “slave” turbine along with slave turbines. Since the slave turbine/shaft bearings experi-
the flow sensor shaft. ence the greatest prolonged rotation, they will begin to show
• The upstream indicator turbine corotates on the driven wear long before the indicator turbine does. An advantage
shaft in the same direction as the shaft motion, thus over single-turbine designs is that, in this design, even after
minimizing the relative velocity between the indicator bearing wear is thus detected, the indicator turbine will con-
turbine and the driven shaft. This provides high range- tinue to provide accurate flow for some extended time period,
ability while low angular velocities with respect to the thus allowing scheduled maintenance of the twin turbine flow
shaft protect the indicator turbine bearings and provide sensor.
improved dynamic response. Since the total angular The slim central shaft of the twin-turbine design allows
velocity of the indicator turbine is distributed over the larger flow volumes to pass through the flow sensor without
indicator turbine bearings and the corotating shaft causing high pressure drops. The QDI flow sensor is used to
bearings, the high rangeabilities can be achieved with- measure flows at high velocities, such as in natural gas fired
out deleterious bearing wear. Actual liquid volumetric power plant, where the gas velocity reaches mach 0.3. In
flow rates are extremely repeatable over 200:1 turn- applications where measurement rangeability was previously
downs or more where the linear correlation coeffi- obtained by using several orifice plates installed in parallel
cients exceed 0.999999, whereby 1.0 indicates runs (Figure 2.15u), the QDI sensor can provide considerable
absolute perfect linearity. In compressible gaseous cost savings by eliminating multiple meters and associated
flow measurement applications, the mass flow rate pipes and valves.
turndown exceeds 1000:1. This flow sensor can also be used to measure bidirec-
tional flows, with flow direction determined by quadrature.
The downstream turbine is referred to as the slave tur- This capability, along with high dynamic response, was used
bine, which performs the primary work of driving the shaft to monitor astronauts’ respiratory patterns. More recently,
upon which the upstream indicator turbine bearings ride. this capability has been used for detecting in–out flow in
Hence, this minimizes the latter’s bearing RPM and friction commercial gas storage applications such as in large holders
and significantly improves rangeability, dynamic response, or in underground storage caverns such as salt domes.
and bearing longevity. In the case of cryogenic liquid fuel loading systems, the
same meter can handle liquid, gas, and two-phase flows. More
Applications and Features The QDI twin-turbine meter recently, it has been successfully applied to high-accuracy
uses an integral upstream flow profile control device to create petroleum and petrochemical custody transfer systems,
a relatively flat flow profile, even in the low laminar flow power plant combustion control, pipeline leak detection
regime. The use of integral upstream flow profiler allows for based on mass balance principles, batch charging, and
the use of a slim central shaft and long turbine blades. This metrology applications involving high-value liquid or gas
contrasts with single-blade turbine meters, which utilize a products such as ethylene, propylene, and so on.

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

348 Flow Measurement

The mechanical/electronic reliability of the standard unit, turbine will spin slower, changing the fluid exit angle and
as calculated per military specifications, yields an MTBF of causing the downstream indicator turbine to adjust its speed
5
2.5 × 10 t (28 yr). Using space-grade components yields an by an equal amount. This is claimed to adjust away bearing
5
MTBF of 6.14 × 10 h (70 yr). wear and also provide bearing diagnostics, but the validity of
this claim depends on the assumption that the wear and con-
tamination is the same on both sets of bearings.
This flow sensor has a very large central hub, which also
DUAL-TURBINE DESIGNS
contains the sensor’s mechanical index gearing. The large
hub accelerates the flow through a narrow annulus, which
Dual-turbine meters differ from twin-turbine designs in that
results in a somewhat high pressure drop. Since both the
they use two turbines of different blade angles and configu-
upstream and the downstream turbines rotate on a single set
rations, each rotating on its own bearing systems on its own
shafts. These designs are more susceptible to bearing damage of bearings, the meter should not be subjected to excessive
due to overspeeding than are the twin-turbine units, and care flow rates, given that this might damage the bearings. Also,
must be taken not to subject such flow sensors to excessive this meter should not be used where slugs of condensate flow
flow velocities. may occur, since this also will cause damage.
The inaccuracy of the meter is claimed to be ±1.0% of
Dual Turbines Rotating in the Same Direction actual flow over the entire operating range, and the normal
linearity of ±1.0% can be improved to ±0.5% if high-pressure
In the 1960s, Rockwell International was studying the prob- calibration is used. The repeatability is better than 0.05%, and
lems of wear and the associated loss of accuracy in turbine reproducibility is better than ±0.1%. While the above-described
meters, and the company also came up with idea of using a performance is not much superior to single-rotor conventional
dual-rotor turbine system to reduce the effects of bearing turbine meters on natural gas applications, this meter is more
friction and wear. As a result, Rockwell designed its dual- immune to positive or negative swirl, pulsation, jetting, and
turbine sensor (Figure 2.25q) primarily for clean gas services contamination. This meter is also autocorrecting.
such as natural gas, and it provides adequate service life for
its intended end use in the gas pipeline and distribution indus- Dual Turbine with Counter-Opposed Rotation
tries. (Rockwell subsequently sold off this dual-rotor design
to Invensys Energy Metering, located in DuBois, PA.) The dual-rotor turbine meter from Exact Flow is relatively
The size of this meter ranges from 4 in. (100 mm) to new (Figure 2.25r); the company’s meters date back to about
12 in. (300 mm). Its materials of construction are normally 1995. It is similar to the QDI meter (Figure 2.25p) in some
aluminum or carbon steel. The aluminum model is rated for ways, but there are marked differences as well. These con-
a maximum working pressure of 175 PSIG (12.15 bar), tribute to performance improvements (such as high turn-
whereas the steel model is rated from ANSI 150 (275 PSIG downs) but also to limitations (such as being limited to liquid
or 19 bar) to ANSI 600 (1440 PSIG or 100 bar). Temperature service only), because its bearings are susceptible to damage
ratings for the meters are −20 to +165°F (−29 to +74°C), but by overspeeding.
a special low-temperature steel model is also available that In this design, the two turbines have counter-opposed
can be used down to −40°F (−40°C). blade angles and rotate on a single shaft. The swirl from the
The rotor bearings in this meter design require lubrica- upstream turbine thus impinges on the downstream one at
tion. This can be done manually or at specified time or vol- near right angles, causing the downstream turbine to rotate
ume intervals by an automatic, meter-mounted system. faster and in the opposite direction (unlike the corotation of
Mechanically, this meter is rather complex, but the needed the QDI twin turbine). This approach improves metering
maintenance can be done in line if the process flow is shut rangeability by forcing the downstream indicator turbine to
down or bypassed. Precalibrated measuring assemblies can spin at higher RPM at low flow rates, but it can also make
be provided for quick change-out needs. The meter is fitted the bearings more vulnerable.
with a flow conditioning inlet nose cone that reduces the This dual turbine also utilizes a large central hub that
straight upstream pipe length required, but damage to this constricts the flow into a narrow annulus, thus accelerating
nose cone can result in significant calibration errors. the flow past the downstream indicator turbine and promot-
ing the onset of the turbulent flow regime in the narrow
Operation This dual-turbine meter uses two turbines that are annulus. The disadvantage of this increased velocity is the
located close together and rotating on two independent shafts. corresponding increases in the pressure drop across the flow
The upstream turbine has a high blade angle, and the down- sensor.
stream turbine has a very low blade angle. Since the upstream Because each turbine is mounted on its own set of bear-
turbine blade angle is much higher than that of the downstream ings, as is the case with single-rotor meters, care must be
one, the latter will rotate at a slower angular velocity. The flow taken not to subject this meter to excessive velocities or to
rate is measured as the difference in the speed of the two rotors. flashing liquid flows, because such conditions will likely
In theory, when the bearings begin to wear, the upstream result in excessive bearing wear or failure. This design is not

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

 2.25 Turbine and Other Rotary Element Flowmeters 349

Readout Devices Quick Connect

Direct-Mounted to Index Plate Hanger Bracket Mechanical Output Intermediate
Gear Assembly
Magnetic Coupling
Main and Sensing Rotor
Pulse Output Fitting
Pulse Factor Badge
(Plug-in/Conduit)
Top Plate
Rotor Shaft
Pressure Tap (AAT-II)
Bearings
Lubrication
System
Electrical/Pressure
Feed Thru Top Plate
Vent Cap
INLET

Body
Pressure
Tap

Module
Positioners Module
Nose Cone
Seal Ring
with Integral Main Rotor Slot Main Sensing
Straightening Sensor and Rotor Rotor
Vanes Chopper Disk
Center Plate Sensing Rotor Body
Integral Slot Sensor and
Straightening Vanes Chopper Disk

FIG. 2.25q
Auto-correcting dual-rotor turbine flowmeter used in natural gas pipeline applications. (Courtesy of Invensys Energy Metering.)

immune to overspeeding damage, and the bearing wear is Essentially all ANSI pressure ratings are available, and the
also worse than with the QDI design. Both turbines in this available operating temperatures range from −40°F (−40°C)
dual-turbine flow sensor can be instrumented in the same to 450°F (232°C). Claimed calibration inaccuracy is ±0.1%
manner as in the QDI twin-turbine sensor to provide bearing of actual flow, and linearity is ±0.15 to 0.20% of rate with a
diagnostics. typical repeatability of ±0.02%. Turndown ratio can range
Standard sizes range from 0.5 in. (12 mm) to 4 in. (100 from 300:1 to 700:1 and, if reduced accuracy is acceptable,
mm), but special units up to 12 in. (295 mm) can be obtained. can reach up to 1000:1.

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

350 Flow Measurement

Principle of operation reliability and rangeability resulting from having two rotors
(over single-rotor designs), the numbers of both QDI and Exact
5
Flow installations are likely to rise in the coming years.

6
Comparing the Three Two-Turbine Designs

QDI is the only supplier that markets only complete flow

measurement systems, which include all electronics and
algorithms, rather than just turbine meters. This is because
their system employs proprietary designs and algorithms.
They do not sell just the turbine meters—only complete and
totally integrated systems. Thus, the total responsibility for
the system, including documentation and warranties, comes
from them. This can be a big plus. QDI is also the only
turbine meter design that is qualified as a continuous U.S.
4
Defense Logistics Agency “certified quality vendor” and by
the U.S. Navy as a “quality/lowest cost of ownership” equip-
ment contractor.
3
1
2 IMPELLER AND SHUNT FLOWMETERS

Another flowmeter widely used in steam and gas flowmetering

and totalizing applications is the shunt flowmeter illustrated in
1 Unconditioned flow enters flowmeter. Figure 2.25s. It consists of an orifice plate in the main flow
line and a self-operating rotor assembly in the bypass.
2 Straightening vanes smooth the flow as it enters the As gas flows through the meter body, a portion of flow
first rotor.
is diverted to drive the fan shaft assembly, which is rotating
on a jewel bearing. A second set of blades on the fan shaft,
3 Flow transfers momentum to the first rotor making it rotating in damping fluid, acts as a damper or governor.
spin counterclockwise. Flow then exits rotor with a
clockwise spin.
Rotational speed of the shaft is proportional to the rate of
flow at all rates within the normal range of the meter.
4 Flow enters second rotor with a nearly perpendicular
These flowmeters are available in sizes of 2 in. (50 mm)
angle of attack thereby transferring additional and larger. Their inaccuracy is around ±2% of the actual flow,
momentum to the second rotor. This additional and their rangeability is about 10:1.
momentum results in greatly extended turndown. Impeller- and propeller-type flowmeters are widely used
in wastewater and irrigation application where large flows
5 Flow exits flowmeter. and line sizes (up to 48 in. or 11.2 m) are required and cost
is more important than accuracy. Accuracy is claimed to be
6 A pick-up transmits the rotor frequency signal to 2% of reading. As illustrated in Figure 2.25t, in this meter, a
remote instrumentation. Optional dual pick-ups corrosion-resistant plastic impeller is connected to a flexible
transmit signals from both rotors - the sum of which is
and self-lubricating cable, which through a magnetic cou-
a constant for any given flowrate. This provides
powerful diagnostics and swirl insensitivity. In pling drives an external mechanical register without requiring
addition, the dual rotor effect increases the turndown gears for its operation. The register is sealed from the process
ratio by 10 times that of a standard single rotor and requires no external power for operating a six-digit
turbine meter. totalizer and a flow rate indicator. Easy access and removal
FIG. 2.25r of the complete flowmeter is provided through a cover plate.
Dual-turbine flowmeter, provided with dual pick-ups and with Straightening vanes are provided to improve the flow profile.
counter-opposed turbine rotation. (Courtesy of Exact Flow Corp.) The materials of construction can be aluminum, epoxy-
coated carbon steel, plastic, or stainless steel.
This dual-turbine flow sensor is primarily for nonflashing
liquid flow applications and is not recommended for use on INSERTION-TYPE FLOWMETERS
two-phase flow streams. The track record of this flowmeter, as
compared to the QDI, is relatively limited, given that only a Both the liquid and gas turbine meters described above are full-
moderate number of existing field applications are now in bore metering devices; all flow passes through the meter. Their
operation. Yet, because of the inherent advantages of increased cost increases proportionately with pipe diameter. The insertion

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

 2.25 Turbine and Other Rotary Element Flowmeters 351

Electrical
Connector
Orifice Plate
Self-Operating (Easily Replaced
(Rotor Assembly) to Change
Capacity)

Pressure
Chamber

Isolation Valve
Available as Option

Stub Pipe
Insertion Tube
with Built in
Insertion Electronic Pickup
Open Flow Depth
Pipeline
Path
(Eliminates Gauge Glass
Rotor Cage
Clogging) (Air or Gas
Assembly
Only)
FIG. 2.25u
Driving
Magnet Insertion turbine flowmeter installed in large-diameter pipe.

can either be established by “profiling” the line (that is, taking

Damping Fan a series of measurements across the pipeline and establishing
(Reduces Bearing the fluid velocity profile) or by establishing the optimal com-
Friction and Wear
No Stuffing Box By Counteracting Driving
promise insertion depth for a range of pipe diameters.
to Leak Rotor Thrust) The insertion meter cannot be as accurate as a full-bore
Following
Direct-Reading meter, since it is measuring velocity only at one point on the
Magnet cross-sectional area. It does, however, provide a very low-cost
Totalizer
metering system for large-diameter gas or liquid pipelines
where accuracy is not important.
FIG. 2.15s Insertion meters can be hot-tapped into existing pipelines
Shunt flowmeter. through a valving system without shutting down the pipeline.
A flanged riser, complete with valve, is welded to the pipe-
line. A hot-tap device is coupled to the valve, the valve is
opened, and the pipe is penetrated. The hot-tap unit is with-
drawn, and the valve is closed. The insertion meter is then
installed, the valve is opened, and the meter is screwed in to
the appropriate depth.
Insertion meters can be used on pipelines above 4 in.
(102 mm) and, due to the small cross-sectional area relative
to the pipe area, their pressure loss is very low. Typical
FIG. 2.25t linearity and repeatability figures are ±1% and ±0.25%,
Impeller flowmeters are available in the paddle or the flow-through respectively. These are point velocity readings; in overall
design. (Courtesy of McCrometer.) volumetric accuracy terms, the effects of changes in velocity
profile must also be considered.

turbine meter is a set of small turbine meter internals mounted Optical Flow Sensors
on a probe in a large diameter pipe (see Figure 2.25u). The
meter operating principles are the same as described previously A specialized version of the insertion-type turbine flowmeter
except that the meter measures the fluid velocity only at a is the optical photoflow sensor. The flow transducer consists
single point on the cross-sectional area of the pipe and does of a probe supporting a low-mass rotating element that inter-
not “see” all the fluid. Total volumetric flow rate for the pipe- rupts a light ray traveling from a light source to a photo
line can then be inferred if certain assumptions are made about transistor. The result is a pulse train that is converted into a
the velocity at measurement point. The velocity distribution volumetric flow representation.

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

352 Flow Measurement

velocity. The fixed-insertion-length designs tend to be less

accurate than the adjustable ones, as they cannot be moved
as velocity profiles change. Some manufacturers claim these
units to be usable on slurry service, but this is likely to require
frequent cleaning.

Bibliography

American Petroleum Institute, Measurement of Liquid Hydrocarbons by

Pickup Coil
Turbine Meter Systems, A.P.I. Standard 2534.
Baker, R. C., Turbine and related flowmeters, J. Flow Meas. Instrum., 2,
147–161, 1991.
Furness, R. A., Twin Rotor Turbine Meter Experience, Short Course on
Turbine and Vortex Flowmeters, Fluid Engineering Unit, Cranfield
Institute of Technology, Cranfield, UK, 1983.
Rotation Furness, R. A., Modern Pipeline Monitoring Techniques, Part I, Real Time
Computer Models, Department of Fluid Engineering & Instrumen-
tation, Cranfield Institute of Technology, Cranfield, UK, January
1985.
FIG. 2.25v Furness, R. A., Modern Pipeline Monitoring Techniques, Part II, Real Time
Paddlewheel flowmeter. (Courtesy of Data Industrial Corp.) Computer Models, Department of Fluid Engineering & Instrumenta-
tion, Cranfield Institute of Technology, Cranfield, UK, May l985.
Furness, R. A., Developments in pipeline instrumentation, in Pipe Line Rules
This flow transducer provides flow ranges as high as of Thumb Handbook, 4th ed., E. W. McAllister, Ed., Gulf Publishing,
100:1, bidirectional measurement without additional calibra- Houston, TX, 1998.
tion, and extremely low pressure drop. The transmitter has Hall, J., Flow monitoring applications guide, Instrum. Control Syst., 41,
February 1983.
only one moving part, the flow-sensing element. The bearing
Instrument Society of America, Specification, Installation and Calibration
for the element is not located directly in the flow stream, of Turbine Flowmeters, Instrument Society of America Recommended
enabling the transducer to handle severe flow conditions such Practice, RP31.1, ANSI/ISA-1977.
as heavy surging and pulsating flows. Liu, F. F. and Liu, A. E., Trans-regime viscosity effects on wide range turbine
The installation requirements include the need for ten or flowmeter: comparative numerical and conceptual analysis, in Proc.
Second Int. Conf. on Flow Measurement, London, 1988.
more diameters of upstream straight run and the need to
Liu, A. E., The Twin Turbine Flow Sensor: Design Characteristics and
eliminate rotary valves (such as butterflies) at the ends of the Application to High Precision Natural Gas and Petrochemical Flow
measuring run. Metrology, CGA Gas Measurement School, Banff, Canada, 1994.
May, D. L., Accurate flow measurements with turbine meters, Chem. Eng.,
Paddlewheel Flowmeters March 8, 1971.
Murphy, H. N., Flow measurement by insertion turbine meters, Measure-
ment Technology for the ’80s, ISA Symposium, Delaware, 1979.
One of the least expensive ways of measuring liquid flow in
Nichol, A. J., An Investigation into the Factors Affecting the Performance
larger pipes (up to 12 in. or 305 mm) is to use one of the of Turbine Meters, Conference on Fluid Flow Measurement in the
paddlewheel-type probes illustrated in Figure 2.25v. The Mid-1970s, East Kilbride, UK.
rotation of the paddlewheel can be directed magnetically or Royek, S., Flowmeters help Tucson conserve water, Water and Wastewater,
optically, and the different manufacturers offer these probe 2(5), 1988.
units in both plastic and metallic materials. Accuracies, pres- Turbine flowmeters, Meas. Control, February 1994.
Welch, J. V., Trends in low gas flow metering, InTech, February 1991.
sure ratings, and temperature ratings are low, but rangeability Withers, V. R., Inkley, F. A., and Chesters, D. A., Flow characteristics of
is reasonable, as these units are responsive to velocities as turbine flowmeters, Conference on Modern Developments in Flow
low as 1 ft/s (0.3 m/s) and can handle just about any maximum Measurement, Harwell, UK.

© 2003 by Béla Lipták