IB texts Types

● Guideline/ Set of instructions

● Letter / email
● Blog
● Essay
● Pamphlet/ Brochure
● Proposal
● Speech
● Review
● Survey
● Report (official and news)
● Article (newspaper, magazine)
● Interview (embedded and direct)
● Diary entry (private)
● Opinion Colum
● Personal Statement

Guideline/ Set of instructions

KEY FEATURES

context, audience, purpose -

* the question will set up a context that requires telling people exactly what to do in
precisely which circumstances: such a context will probably be fairly commonplace, but will
require thoughtful and detailed analysis of what is required

* the audience will be specified in the task, but is likely to be the Average family - competent
in language and understanding, but not necessarily very sophisticated

* the purpose of both of these text types is the same: to analyse behaviour in a given
situation, in order to break it down into clear and detailed advice - with the difference that
the 'set of instructions' will follow a step-by-step sequence, whereas guidelines will attempt
to give a coherent overview of more generalised advice

register and tone -

* will adopt a semi-formal register

* will adopt a tone which is direct, clear and supportive

conventions -
 * will have a clear and focused heading / title

* will include a short introduction and conclusion

* will set out the guidelines clearly, using techniques such as bullets, sub-headings,
numbering, etc

* will directly address the intended audience

Appropriate?

A set of instructions or guidelines will be appropriate if the task requires you to give
information in a clear and methodical way. The task will involve telling people what they have to
do (instructions) or what they ought to do (guidelines), and in both cases it is important that the
audience can keep the text so that they can refer back and check that they have understood
correctly. Above all, this text type is intended to help, not to sell or to convince.

Not to be confused with...

... brochure / leaflet or 'proposal' ... a 'brochure / leaflet' is intended to present information
widely, in a clear and direct way. The audience will usually be the public in general, and the
purpose of the text type is to make as many people as possible aware of the ideas - it is best to
get across general ideas, rather than particular, practical information. A 'proposal' is usually a
formal document presenting facts and figures for serious discussion, aimed at a very specific
group of people - it is not really a form of publicity, selling something (persuading, yes, but that's
different).

Format and Approach discussed

The essence of these two related but distinct text types is that they both aim to give precise
guidance as to how to handle a practical situation. The key to good instructions is that they give
concrete explanation in a precise sequence, whereas the key to good guidelines is that they give
general explanation, which may or may not involve precise sequence.

Basic Format

- main heading / title

- secondary headings (guidelines)

- numbered sections (instructions)

- short paragraphs

Approach

> control of language - * plain & clear i.e. functional and efficient * explanation of technical
terms – where technical terms have to be used, are they explained / defined ?
 > clear sequence (for instructions) – a sense of logical steps

> attention to detail + control of essential, useful information

> anticipation of difficulties – understanding which parts of the process may cause problems
for the uninformed

> empathy with audience – most easily detected by the ability to anticipate difficulties, (e.g.
explanation of technical terms, above), but may also involve use of encouraging, helpful
comments

Relevant writing purposes

Above all, students should be taught the skills of effective, methodical, step-by-step Explanation -
which in turn needs to be based on the careful observation and analysis that is involved in sound
factual Description)

Letter / email

NOTE: The e-mail and the informal letter have been grouped together - since the basic
approach of both involves an informal, personal address to a known individual. The formal letter
is dealt with separately because, in contrast, that text type usually involves objective impersonal
communication about general issues, addressed to an organisation or an office rather than an
individual known personally.

See also the specialised formal letters included in the pages Opinion column / letter to the editor
and Personal statement / cover letter

(informal) E-mail & letter

KEY FEATURES

context, audience, purpose -

* the question will usually describe a background situation, which the writer wishes to
communicate to...

* ... a specified friend / acquaintance (note that e-mail tasks usually require individual
communication with one person only, as opposed to some kind of general message to a
collective audience)

* the purpose will usually be to express and explore personal attitudes and experience:
usually of the writer, but perhaps involving advice to the reader

register and tone -

* will adopt a consistently informal register

 * will adopt a lively, engaging tone and style, perhaps with some “youth-speak” eg “I’m
good”, “Can’t wait” etc

conventions -

* will maintain clear sense of address to a specific person

* will have an appropriate opening salutation

* will have an appropriate closing salutation.

Appropriate?

An (informal) email / letter will be appropriate if the task requires you to communicate some
personal experiences, thoughts and feelings to somebody you know. This sort of writing is public
only in the sense that you are having a conversation limited to a friend - it is a private form of
sharing.

Not to be confused with...

... 'blog' or 'social media posting / online forum' ... a 'blog' is essentially a very public sort of
online statement - you intend to present some of your personal ideas in a lively entertaining way
to a general, undefined audience. You want to entertain, and hook your (unknown) audience by
your interesting, even provocative, opinions and experiences. A 'social media posting in an online
forum' may well express your personal thoughts and feelings, but it is also a public statement,
and it will probably be mainly in response to other statements that have been made in the forum -
it can be seen as a conversation, but it is a conversation with people you don't know intimately.

Format and Approach discussed

The email is a relatively new form of text, and no generally-agreed codes of formal expectations
have yet evolved – quite apart from the fact that there are vast variations in how the type is used
in practice. That said, for marking purposes there are a few ground rules that can be advanced,
based on a common-sense approach to the communicative function of the type.

The basis of the following suggested 'rules' is that any email produced in an English B exam will
be produced in response to a question, and that question will always have a specific task –
candidates will never be asked simply to produce idle chat.

Basic Format

- standard heading of 'from / to / date ...etc'

- informal opening and closing salutations (many and various)

Approach

> 'address': To what extent is it clear that the email is addressed to a specific person?
This may be extended to include a sense of 'dialogue' – direct questions, comments
 which require an answer – since it is inherent in the email form that replies can be
received very rapidly.

> focus on task – Since the question will always propose a task, does most of the
message deal with the task? And if so, how effectively?

> control of digression - One key could be to assess whether the 'digressions' are
purposeful or accidental – for instance, chatty asides, jokes, personal references (see
concept of 'dialogue' under 'address', above) may actually indicate good control of
attention, if handled clearly and with discipline.

> register: To what extent is there evidence that the candidate has command of a
range of register - informal combined with formal … colloquial with sophisticated ?
('command' means 'moving deliberately from one register to another')

Relevant writing purposes

It is evident that e-mails may be written for many different purposes - and indeed that a single
e-mail may contain several different purposes, as the writer jumps from one idea to another in a
free, informal manner. So, really, all the communicative purposes may be relevant - with
Narration and Description perhaps slightly more common than Explanation and Argument
BLOG

KEY FEATURES

context, audience, purpose -

* the context will usually be set out in the question e.g. the issue which is to inspire the blog
entry

* the audience may be assumed to be people interested in the subject matter OR

(youngish?) internet-interested people

* the generic purpose of blogs is to interest / entertain / amuse / be provocative &

stimulating - in general, NOT solemn

register and tone -

* will use a semi-formal to informal register

* the usual tone will be personal - chatty, direct and unpretentious

conventions -

* will include first person statement and/or narration

* will seek to engage the reader, eg through direct address, a lively and interesting style etc

* will use 'typical blog techniques' e.g. a provocative closing statement, leading to an
invitation to comment / response

* will have an interesting, catchy title for the entry

Appropriate?

A blog will be appropriate if the task requires you to present a set of your personal ideas in a
lively entertaining way to a general, undefined audience. You don't know who might find your blog
on the internet, but you want them to be hooked by your interesting, even provocative, opinions
and experiences.

Not to be confused with...

'article' or 'opinion column' or 'essay' ... an 'article' is intended to present detailed and
interesting information about a defined subject to a general audience; and the information should
be explained in a clear, fair and reasonably objective way (the journalist has a 'duty to inform'). An
'opinion column' will usually be focused on one particular issue, which should be explained
convincingly and your final opinion argued reasonably, even if it is a very subjective point of view.
An 'essay' is supposed to be a methodical and objective review of arguments, based on solid
factual evidence, and reaching a logical conclusion (which is not the same as just a quick
opinion).

In addition, both 'opinion column' and 'essay' are likely to have more defined audiences - 'opinion
column' = the audience of the publication in which it appears; 'essay' = thoughtful, educated
people, rather than just anybody.

But what exactly is a 'blog'?

While the diary is a text type which has been around forever, the blog is an extremely recent type
of text. To be more precise, the Wikipedia 'diary' entry claims that Marcus Aurelius' 'Meditations'
(second century AD) is the first recognisable diary - while Wikipedia on 'online diaries' cites
Claudio Pinhanez's "Open Diary" as the first blog in 1994.

But is a blog the same thing as a diary ? A distinction: both text types typically present personal
experience and comment, but a blog is more of a public statement, whereas a diary is more of a
private reflection. Beyond that, there is a problem: are there conventions for the relatively new
blog - or for the anarchically personal diary ?

Format and Approach discussed

Basic Format

- Heading : a Blog will have a title (perhaps quirky, witty) - there will be a title for the blog as
a whole, but also (more significantly) a title for the individual entry

- Conclusion : a Blog will usually end with a request for comment / responses from the
readers ; Diary - nothing conventional (possibly something along the lines of "more
tomorrow"?)

- Lucid paragraphing : While one can think of real examples of blogs which ignore basic
paragraphing, students writing an exam script should be expected to show that they
understand that sensible paragraphing aids clarity.

Approach
 > address : blogs set out to have regular readers, so are likely to have touches of direct
address ("As you regular readers know ...")

> register : informality enriched with sophistication - if both text types are personal, some
informality can be expected in register and rhetoric, but higher marks will go to exam scripts
which combine colloquialism with dashes of complex phrasing and effects.

> organisation - What should govern the effective organisation of a blog?

- if a blog is a 'public statement', ideas can be expected to be organised to show some

evident + consistent purpose

> since blogs very often present an opinion or an argument, the ideas should be
(reasonably) methodically organised

> where the opinion is based on an anecdote or experience, this should be

narrated clearly

> style - the three aspects described above all add up to the notion that a good blog should
have a recognisable and expressive personal style. Put another way, this means a
recognisable and engaging 'voice' - see the page Developing 'voice' for further ideas about
this.

Relevant writing purposes

Given that blogs can deal with practically anything, all the writing purposes might apply, but if we
accept that ...

... a blog is usually about presenting a point of view for public response, then Argument and
Explanation will be most useful
ESSAY

KEY FEATURES

context, audience, purpose -

* in relation to an essay, the term 'context' will most likely involve an issue which is in need
of serious discussion. This may involve two elements: the general area to be discussed,
and/or a specific statement which provokes thought. If there is no such specific statement to
be debated, the student should make one up, thus defining clearly what the essay is about.

* the audience is assumed to be educated and informed, and capable of understanding

sophisticated language, and methodical argument

* the purpose will usually be to analyse / explore / discuss the topic, as required by the
question - so students should pay close attention to the 'action verbs' in the task

register and tone -

* will adopt a semi-formal to formal register

* will have an appropriately serious tone

conventions -

* will have a relevant title

* will use techniques that enable the reader to follow the arguments easily, e.g. methodical
structure using cohesive devices

* will have a distinct introduction and conclusion

Appropriate?

An essay will be appropriate if the task requires you to explain a set of ideas methodically and
objectively - in other words, that the facts and the logic should be presented clearly and fairly, to
an audience that will listen thoughtfully.

Not to be confused with...

... 'opinion column' or 'blog' ... you can give your personal conclusion or opinion in an essay,
but in an essay the objective supporting facts are supposed to be more important than the final,
possibly subjective, conclusion - whereas in an 'opinion column' or 'blog', the subjective view is of
more importance than the supporting facts.
The Essay is one of the commonest forms that teachers mark – but is there really agreement on
what is meant by 'a good essay' ? There are many different conventions for many different types
of essay, so which are expected, if any in particular, and how are the conventions to be
recognised ? Also, essays are not distinguished by any particularly strong features of physical
layout or format, but rather by a distinctive organisation of ideas.

Format and Approach discussed

Basic Format

- stated sense of purpose / aim : how effectively is the text directed at a clear issue or
question?

- introduction + conclusion : these should effectively embody the 'sense of purpose'. This is
likely to involve the issue or question being introduced at the beginning, and being returned
to (with or without an 'answer') at the end.

- clear organisation : both in terms of the individual steps of the argument, and in terms of
the overall pattern of the argument. It is worth stressing that such clear organisation can
only be achieved through careful planning before starting to write. See the approach NET
SIEVE SPINE .

- clear and appropriate paragraphing : emphasising the logical steps of the argument +
good use of cohesives & sequence markers – all expected in a good exam script.

Approach

> register - Tricky, this, because teachers seem to have differing expectations as to how
formal / impersonal an essay should be – for instance, some encourage and some
discourage the use of the pronoun 'I'. A good exam script will be rewarded for consistency,
rather than penalised for expectations that may not be valid.

> range of aspects considered - There should be a sense that different arguments are
explored – if only to refute some of them. Actual balance between, say Pro & Con, will
depend on the task specified.

> rhetoric - Touches of rhetoric expected, rather than the full-blown regular effects more
typical of a speech … ?

Relevant writing purposes

Above all, students should be taught the kind of skills involved in Argument
Pamphlet/ Brochure

KEY FEATURES

context, audience, purpose -

* the context will usually be set out in the question e.g. the problem to which
the pamphlet is going to propose a solution

* the audience will usually be pretty clearly defined by how context and
purpose are linked e.g. if the context is the need for healthy exercise among
young people and the purpose is to promote a new sports centre, the audience
will be... young people (who may or may not be interested in exercise!)

* the basic purpose of these text types is publicity - and this can be divided
broadly into 'inform' (e.g. health information) and 'promote' (e.g. selling
something)... although typically both elements are required in different
proportions

register and tone -

* will use a semi-formal to formal register

* the tone will tend to be simple and direct - i.e. to convey the sense of honest
address

conventions -

* will have an engaging title, which attracts attention

* will identify ideas with format techniques such as sub-headings, bullet points,
numbering etc

* will include practical aspects of the leaflet like “contact us”, or “a phone
number and/or an email address”.

* will have a short introduction and a conclusion

NOTE: Graphic design as such is not marked

Appropriate?

A brochure / leaflet will be appropriate if the task requires you to present

information widely, in a clear and direct way. The audience will usually be the public
in general, although the text may be targeted at specific sections of the general
public (e.g. young people, people who live in a particular place, etc). The point is
that a brochure/ leaflet can be 'broadcast' - it can be given out freely to anybody,
and you don't need contact addresses.

Not to be confused with...

... 'speech, presentation' or 'proposal' or 'set of instructions or guidelines' ... a

'speech' or a 'presentation' is oral, and requires people in a special place at a
special time - so how do you get all of your target audience there? In addition, you
can refer to a brochure/leaflet, but you can't keep an oral presentation. A
brochure/leaflet is often used to propose ideas (e.g. political leaflets), but a
'proposal' is usually a formal document presenting facts and figures for serious
discussion, and is not really a form of publicity, selling something (persuading, yes,
but that's different). A 'set of instructions or guidelines' is intended to be practical -
the text type(s) is intended to show people what they ought to do, in clearly
explained situations: it is intended to help, not to sell or to convince.
Not so much a text type, more a list...

Just to clarify, printers distinguish these different types of publication by their

physical form : a flyer is a single sheet ... a leaflet is a single sheet ... pamphlets is
usually a single sheet, but folded ... and brochures are multiple sheets, usually
stapled together into a 'booklet' format ... and advertisements are...well, anything at
all, really.

These distinctions are really all to do with the form and format of publishing
techniques, and the students will not be assessed on their handling of such
technicalities. Again, note that Graphic design as such is not marked

What all of these formats have in common is that they are concerned to
disseminate information quickly and concisely. The task may define an emphasis
on informing (e.g the health leaflet) or on promoting (e.g. the publicity brochure).

Format and Approach discussed

Basic Format

- Main heading (informing), or slogan (promoting)

- Use of multiple sections : identified by bullet points, lines, stars, etc

- Subheadings : used to show the steps/stages of the argument

 - Succinct explanation : individual concepts / ideas are presented clearly and
quickly

- Background information : e.g. 'Contact us' + phone number / email

Design & layout - All of these types of text depend heavily on visual impact.
However, please note that English B Paper 2 is a language exam, not a graphic
design exam. In short, there is nothing specific in the marking criteria which will
reward skilful drawing - at best, a laboriously-worked layout might earn the top mark
because the leaflet is "clearly recognisable". There is nothing wrong in students
with artistic talents doing attractive layouts, but the emphasis in teaching should be
on the "multiple sections" and "lucid overall structure of argument" mentioned in the
summary in the box at the top. Such sections and overall structure can be indicated
perfectly effectively in pure text. A way of putting it to the students might be to tell
them to imagine that they are writing the draft copy which will be given to a
professional designer.

The page Leaflets & pamphlets discusses this issue in detail.

Approach

> 'address' - all of these text types include the idea of a form of direct address
to a target audience … are there indications that the student understands this,
and expresses such address? Direct address most usually involves personal
pronouns: "If you are a student, you need to know that..."

> 'promotional language' – usually, these text types are all hortatory: they
encourage the target audience to agree with what is being presented, to 'buy
the idea' … so to what extent does the style + rhetoric achieve this effect?

> lucid step-by-step overall argument : individual points are linked together into
a convincing sequence of ideas
Relevant writing purposes

Above all, students should be taught the skills of effective Explanation - and this
may also involve producing competent Description and, depending on the task,
Argument in order to present a case forcefully.

PROPOSAL
KEY FEATURES

context, audience, purpose -

* the context will be explained in the question - at least, the basic background, since the
main content of the proposal itself will be what the student will have to invent, based on that
basic background

* the audience will, again, be specified in the question - i.e. the specific person or group of
people to whom the proposal is to be addressed. Close attention should be paid to the
target audience, since a key feature of a good proposal is that it is adjusted to appeal to the
intended recipients

* the purpose will be defined by the context, very largely - typically, a problem exists, and so
the purpose of the proposal is to solve the problem. In order to do this, a good proposal
needs to be (1) relevant; (2) practical; and (3) attractive - all those aspects need to be
included.

register and tone -

* will be expressed in a formal register, with perhaps semi-formal touches

* will have a tone which aims to be objectively authoritative, but also subjectively
enthusiastic

conventions -

* will use a style aimed to persuade a specified audience

* will have a title which summarises the overall subject

* will set out the text clearly using features such as headings, short clear paragraphs,
sections identified by letters/numbers/bullets, insetting etc.

* will have an introduction and a conclusion

NOTE: the proposal may be presented within the framework of a letter / email -
provided the features above are present.

Appropriate?

A proposal will be appropriate if the task requires you to present some kind of project formally,
based on facts and figures, for serious discussion. The audience will usually be quite specific i.e.
those who will take a decision about your idea - and so you need to present ideas in clear and
logically convincing ways (without obvious publicity or advertising bullshit !)

Not to be confused with...

... 'brochure, leaflet' or 'set of instructions or guidelines' or 'speech, presentation' ... a

'brochure/leaflet' is often used to propose ideas (e.g. political leaflets), but is best used to present
information to a wide and general audience, not a very specific audience of decision-makers. A
'set of instructions or guidelines' is intended to be practical - the text type(s) is intended to show
people what they ought to do, in clearly explained situations: it is intended to help, not to sell or to
convince. A 'speech' or a 'presentation' is oral, and so may be most appropriate if you are
required to sell your proposal through exciting rhetoric - but if the purpose is to convince people
seriously, they need to be able to be able to refer to your ideas, consider them slowly, and so a
formal written proposal would be better.

Format and Approach discussed

The essence of this text type is to 'sell' a concrete idea (rather than to 'win' an abstract argument,
as in a debate or an essay task). This will usually involve suggesting specific practical changes to
a given situation; and the notion of 'selling' will involve address to a specific target audience.

Basic Format

- overall subject title

- main headings

- sub-headings, bullet points, numbered sections

- explicit clear organisation : determined by the precise nature of the task, but these main
elements should probably be recognisable :

summary of aim / purpose ... present context ... future result ... advantages (+ possible
drawbacks?) ... conclusion + recommendation

Approach

- register : use of (basically) formal language

> 'address' : How well does the script direct the proposal to a specific audience? Note that,
given the (usually) formal nature of the text type, such address is not likely to involve
informal use of personal pronouns (as in speeches and talks), but rather a sense that the
proposal has been tailored to appeal to the interests of a given audience. For instance, a
proposal to reform the school timetable would stress 'more productivity' if the intended
audience were the school's administration ... as opposed to 'less homework' if addressed to
the students!

> rhetoric : How effectively does the script persuade?

Relevant writing purposes

The primary writing purpose must be Argument , but effective argument is likely to involve clear
Explanation and to a lesser degree effective Description
SPEECH

KEY FEATURES

context, audience, purpose -

* the context will describe a situation in which a particular type of message is to be

communicated orally - this situation will not only specify the type of audience, but also the
expected behaviour of the audience (e.g. whether the audience expects simply to be
informed, or to be challenged, or required to make a choice...etc). The subject matter, and
how it is best presented, will also be influenced by this general context

* the audience can generally be assumed to be reasonably educated and informed, and
capable of understanding sophisticated language (unless some particular audience is
specified in the task)

* the purpose of the text will be some mixture of 'inform' and 'persuade' (with perhaps a
good dash of 'amuse & entertain' for rhetorical purposes!)

register and tone -

* will use a semi-formal to informal register

* will have an appropriately serious tone

conventions -

* will address the audience and keep contact with them throughout (eg use of “we” and
“you” etc)

* will set out to catch the audience’s attention at the beginning, and leave a clear impression
at the end

* will include elements of speech rhetoric eg rhetorical questions, repetition etc.

Appropriate?

A Speech / Presentation will be appropriate if the task requires you to present your ideas
personally, on a public occasion. The task will usually make clear the context and the audience
(for example, talking about a major change in your school, to an audience of fellow students). It
will be appropriate to make a speech if you are required to interest, or motivate, or inspire your
audience, by using vivid rhetoric and direct interaction with the audience.

Not to be confused with...

... 'opinion column' or 'proposal' or 'brochure / leaflet' ... an 'opinion column' is usually
focused on one particular issue, which is explained convincingly and the final opinion argued
reasonably - and because an opinion column is read, it is more appropriate for quiet reflection,
rather than the dramatic persuasion expected in a speech. A 'proposal' is intended to present
some kind of project formally, based on facts and figures, for serious discussion with a particular
audience. A 'brochure / leaflet' may be used to present your ideas, but rather if you want the
ideas to reach a wider group of people than could attend a speech

Format and Approach discussed

This text type involves the written form of a discourse to be presented orally. The task may
emphasise clear explanation (talk, presentation), or convincing argument (introduction to debate,
speech).

Once again, we have a 'text type' which actually reads more like a list. To clarify, I offer my
interpretation of what the different labels mean in practice :

Introduction to debate - no-one actually seems to know what precisely is meant by this
term, but I assume it means 'the opening statement in a formal debate': in other words, a
speech that takes one side of an issue.

Speech - distinguished from the 'debate' speech above in that it may be a speech
advocating any point of view at all, rather than one side of a debate: in other words, one
does not have to take a polarised stance, but may argue "on the one hand...on the other..."

Talk - speaking to a specific audience about a specific topic: usually containing both factual
information and advice

Presentation - the emphasis here I take to be that the focus is on presenting information -
advice or a moral stance may be involved, but is considered secondary

It is worth studying the actual wording of questions, as listed in the Tasks box below. Note that the
first three above all apear in one form or another, but 'presentation' has not appeared so far. The
best advice for students is to read the question carefully and follow instructions thoughtfully.

Basic Format

- 'address' established : direct address to audience at the beginning

- 'address' maintained : use of the pronouns 'you' and 'we' to maintain direct links with the
audience ? … and/or, how consistently?

- clear opening / introduction : statement of purpose

- appropriate closing / conclusion : summary of case / point

Approach

> 'MAP' Does the student aid the audience's understanding by giving an early summary, or
'map', of what is going to be said?

> lucid development: How clearly does the script present ideas in order to explain, and/or
impress? This will be based on sensible paragraphing, but the paragraphs should be
 emphasised and supported by 'oral paragraphing' i.e. cohesive phrases which will convey
structure in speech. See below...

> cohesive devices: How clear is the use of sequence markers to guide the audience?
Consult the page Sequence markers .

> opening & closing: How forcefully does the script catch the audience's attention at the
beginning, and leave a clear impression at the end?

> rhetoric: To what extent, and how effectively, are common rhetorical techniques used?
Such as – rhetorical question … references … metaphorical tropes … irony … exaggeration
(understatement?) ... etc etc

Relevant writing purposes

The most useful skills are those studied under Explanation and Argument

Key tips - for both writing and the Oral

> When a clear statement, or position, is required by the task (e.g. in a debate speech), advise
the students to make clear from the start as to whether they have chosen to be 'for' or 'against' -
make stance / position obvious. If they don't do this (as required in the questions) they could
lose a lot of marks under Criterion B

> Include some direct address to the audience at the beginning - but (i) avoid being too formal,
and (ii) move on from polite opening to direct contact with the subject - a stimulating form of
address might be to ask a direct question to the audience...?

> Note that 'address to the audience' is commonly recognisable in three main ways: (i) direct
greeting at the beginning and direct signing-off at the end, (ii) use of pronouns such as 'you' and
'we' throughout the text, and (iii) rhetorical effects such as direct / rhetorical questions. Ideally, the
students could use all of these, but (ii) is the most important and convincing.

> It is not essential, but certainly helpful in terms of marks, to give some sort of 'MAP' at the
beginning of any oral presentation - i.e. "first I'm going to deal with A, then B, and finally C" This
should aim to make clear why it is helpful to use the sequence A > B > C ... (This is particularly
significant in the Oral Interviewer, to help the examiner understand the structure of the
presentation)

However, in Paper 1 Writing, there is not time or space for a lengthy MAP, but one can do
these sorts of thing :

(i) simply use the three key words, thus : "... ignorance, intolerance and indifference. Let us
take each of these words in order." - leading to a paragraph on each.

(ii) OR slightly more complex : "... ignorance, intolerance and indifference. Television can
easily deal with ignorance through news programmes, but intolerance and indifference are
more difficult. Let us take the easy part first ..." - leading to a paragraph on 'ignorance', and
then more paragraphs discussing the difficulties of 'intolerance and indifference'.
> Clear and rational flow of ideas - students should think out their ideas logically and
methodically to start with, and then link each step of the argument clearly ... which all means
thoughtful planning before you start writing (and should also make the MAP more obvious)

REVIEW

KEY FEATURES

context, audience, purpose -

* the question is likely to propose a general context (e.g."a recently released film... which
you love / hate...") - but the review itself should contain informative context (invented) about
the specific subject of the review

* the audience will usually be decided by where the article will be published: e.g. 'your
school magazine'

* the prime purpose of a review is to stimulate interest ... then to inform ... and finally to offer
some kind of judgement (although this is likely to be a continuation of the purpose of
stimulating interest)

register and tone -

* will adopt a semi-formal register

* will use a tone and style intended to engage the reader

conventions -

* will include the name of the reviewer

* will have an attractive, catchy title

* will use a style which will attract and interest the reader

Appropriate?

A review will be appropriate if the task requires you to comment on a work of art of some sort (a
film, an album, a play, etc). The term 'comment' is assumed to include (i) describing the work, (ii)
analysing how it works, and (iii) providing some sort of judgement on how successful it is (which
elements are successful and which are not). The audience can be assumed to be the general
public, although the task may specify a section with particular interests.

Not to be confused with...

... 'article' or 'opinion column' or 'blog' ... an 'article' is principally intended to inform: there
should be detailed and interesting information about a defined subject; and the information should
be explained in a clear, fair and reasonably objective way. So, a 'review' can be seen as a type of
article - the important approach of a 'review' is that it is expected to give an opinion, an argued
assessment. An 'opinion column' will usually be focused on one particular issue, which should be
explained convincingly (although there is no 'duty to inform'), and above all should have a clear
overall opinion, argued reasonably, if subjectively. A 'blog' is intended to present a set of your
personal ideas in a lively entertaining way to a general, undefined audience - who you want to
hook by your interesting, even provocative, opinions and experiences, so again, you don't have to
be fair or objective

Format and Approach discussed

This text type is really a journalistic form, which aims to combine objective information with
subjective opinion. The (dominant) element of 'opinion' should involve analysis and evaluation –
while the journalism context usually demands that the overall impact should be interesting and
entertaining. A review is not the same thing as a commentary (which implies an academic
context).

Basic Format

- Headline / title

- Sub-headline, summarising

- Byline (author, date, location)

- Short paragraphs (possibly)

- Sub-headings (possibly)

Approach

> 'address' - lively, direct communication that will interest the audience. [This is likely to
involve a semi-formal register (for clarity and concise explanation) with dashes of informality
to convey the personal tone + vivid comment / rhetoric.]

> 'Angle' – the script has a clear overall point of view / attitude, and this informs the
structure of the argument

REPORT (OFFICIAL)

KEY FEATURES

context, audience, purpose -

* the basic context will be explained in the question - and the student will then have to
 invent the details of the report, expanding on the basic background provided.

* the audience will, again, be specified in the question i.e. the specific person or group of
people who have asked for the report. Ideally, information should be given in the question
about why the report is needed, and what kind of information is expected.

* the fundamental purpose is to provide an objective, reliable account of some situation or

event - methodically, clearly and efficiently. Personal and subjective reactions would not be
considered appropriate.

register and tone -

* will adopt a generally formal register

* will have a tone which aims to be impersonally authoritative

conventions -

* will have a title

* will use a neutral/objective style (eg presents ideas and facts plainly)

* will have a clearly structured layout (eg a clear introduction, sub-headings, short brief
paragraphs/sections, etc)

* will have a conclusion; or a recommendation if this has been required.

NOTE: an official report may be presented within the framework of a letter / email -
provided the features above are present.

Appropriate?

A report (official) will be appropriate if the task requires you to describe a particular situation,
and explain how and why that situation exists - its causes, its logic, and its positive and negative
consequences. The audience is likely to be those who are involved in the situation, particularly if
they have responsibility for making decisions about it.

Not to be confused with...

... 'article' or 'news report ' or 'blog' ... An 'article' is intended to present detailed and interesting
information about a defined general subject; and the information should be explained in a clear,
fair and reasonably objective way (the journalist has a 'duty to inform'). A 'news report' to inform in
a clear and objective way on the facts of a specific event, or set of events - it is not concerned
with the overall picture, or the broader context or background, as a good article might be. A 'blog'
is intended to present a set of your personal experiences or ideas in a lively entertaining way to a
general, undefined audience - who you want to hook by your interesting, even provocative,
opinions and experiences, so you don't have to be fair and objective.

Format and Approach discussed

The essence of this text type is the ability to present a clear explanation of a given subject –
which involves (i) analysis, (ii) summary and (iii) organisation. What is meant by 'official' would
presumably be defined in the question / task, but the fundamental skill in handling this text type
must be to organise explanation in a cool, objective, lucidly logical way.

The key to handling an Official Report (as with a Proposal, actually) is to emphasise the clear and
methodical structure of the ideas presented through careful and helpful use of conventions such
as headings, numbered paragraphs, etc. It should be easy to direct attention to any precise point
in the text by referring to e.g. "Have a look at section 2.1.3..."

Basic Format

- overall subject title

- main headings

- sub-headings, bullet points, numbered sections

- explicit clear organisation : determined by the precise nature of the task, but these main
elements should probably be recognisable :

background … overall description … description of important details … concluding

summary.

Approach

> register : use of (basically) formal language

> 'address': How well does the script direct the information to a specific audience?

> 'audience' : What does the audience not know - and therefore need to know - and why ?

Relevant writing purposes

The two fundamental purpose-skills needed here are Description (especially methodical factual
description), and Explanation (especially the use of lucid and coherent sequences as in sets of
instructions). Argument is likely to be secondary, in that one is mainly interested in presenting
facts rather than interpretations ... in contrast with the Proposal text type, in which Argument is
primary.

REPORT (NEWS)

context, audience, purpose -

* in a way, the 'context' of a news report is actually the point of a news report, its main
content - a news report describes and explains the very context that makes it necessary. In
exams, the task will describe some kind of general context or situation, and the student will
 have to invent the specific story and concrete details

* as with most Media text types, where the report is going to be published will define the
expected audience - the more 'serious' the publication venue, the more sophisticated the
audience should be assumed to be

* evidently, the prime purpose of a news report is to inform, factually and objectively -
although almost always there will be some subjective valuation, indicating why the facts of
the story are of importance

register and tone -

* will have a semi-formal to formal register

* will have a generally impersonal tone, and use a neutral/objective style (eg presenting
ideas without personal opinion of the writer)

conventions -

* will have a title/headline

* will have an introduction and conclusion

* will have a clearly structured layout (eg sub-headings, short brief paragraphs/sections,
etc)

Appropriate?

A news report will be appropriate if the task requires you to inform in a clear and objective way
on the facts of a specific event, or set of events - it is not concerned with the overall picture, or
the broader context or background, as a good article might be. The audience will be the general
public that pays attention to news.

Not to be confused with...

... 'article' or 'report (official)' or 'blog' ... An 'article' is intended to present detailed and
interesting information about a defined general subject; and the information should be explained
in a clear, fair and reasonably objective way (the journalist has a 'duty to inform'). A 'report
(official)' is intended to describe a particular situation, and explain how and why that situation
exists - its causes, its logic, and its positive and negative consequences. The audience is likely to
be those who are involved in the situation, particularly if they have responsibility for making
decisions about it. A 'blog' is intended to present a set of your personal experiences or ideas in a
lively entertaining way to a general, undefined audience - who you want to hook by your
interesting, even provocative, opinions and experiences, so you don't have to be fair and
objective.

Format and Approach discussed

The essence of a good news report is that it efficiently conveys a lot of clear facts about a defined
situation. News media always have restricted space, so the information needs to be selected
carefully and then presented concisely.

The News Report has rarely been set as text type in a task for Paper 2 (there's only one in the
'recent exam tasks' box below) - but this is not to say that it won't be in future, so the text type has
to be taught and practised. This rarity may be because the essence of the text type is that it
reflects accurately an external reality ... and external reality is not easily available in an exam
context. In effect, students would have to invent a news event in order to then demonstrate that
they could report it correctly. On the other hand, most other tasks require a degree of 'let's
pretend...', don't they?

And anyway, getting students to learn how to write a news report is an excellent way to help them
to read news reports intelligently, with an inside understanding of how news is constructed -
synergy between Paper 2 and Paper 1!

Basic Format

- Headline / title

- Sub-headline, summarising

- Byline (author, date, location)

- Short paragraphs (possibly)

- Sub-headings (possibly)

Approach

> register : ... usually, semi-formal / simply-clear / direct

> main facts to subordinate details : ... standard good practice in news reporting is to start
with the important facts, and move gradually downwards to the least important facts (also
known as the 'cut-from-the-bottom system' - subeditors could safely trim the text to size
without having to re-write)

> fact / opinion distinction : ... good journalism always strives to make clear what are
objective facts, and what subjective opinions (e.g. opinions likely to be expressed as quotes
from identified individuals)

Relevant writing purposes

News reports are usually concerned with events (as opposed to articles, which are usually
concerned with ideas, which may be based on events and facts), so the prime writing purpose is
likely to be Narration . This in turn is likely to require a degree of Description ... and drawing
events and facts together will depend on effective Explanation
ARTICLE

KEY FEATURES

context, audience, purpose -

* the context of the article will usually be set out briefly in the question: e.g the background
to the subject matter of the article

* the audience will usually be indicated by where the article will be published: e.g. 'your
school magazine'

* the fundamental purpose of any article is to inform or to report - but we may also include
'interest', 'explore', 'study'. Note that strong opinions or attitudes would probably not be
expected - such purposes would probably come under 'opinion column' (qv)

register and tone -

* will have a semi-formal to formal register

* will have a tone appropriate to task e.g. suitably serious

conventions -

* will have a relevant headline/title

* will have an introduction intended to catch the readers’ attention

* will use techniques that engage and interest readers e.g. direct address

Appropriate?

An article will be appropriate if the task requires you to present detailed and interesting
information about a defined subject; and that the information should be explained in a clear, fair
and reasonably objective way (the journalist has a 'duty to inform'). The audience will be the
general public, defined more clearly by the type of subject and/or where the article is going to be
published (for example, if the subject is about computer games, you can assume that the
audience will be people who are interested in computer games).

Not to be confused with...

... 'news report' or 'opinion column' or 'blog' ... a 'news report' is also intended to inform in a
clear and objective way, but it has to be focused on a specific event, or set of events - it is not
concerned with the overall picture, or the broader context or background, as a good article will be.
An 'opinion column' will usually be focused on one particular issue, which should be explained
convincingly (although there is no 'duty to inform'), and your final opinion argued reasonably -
although your opinion doesn't always have to be fair or objective! A 'blog' is intended to present a
set of your personal ideas in a lively entertaining way to a general, undefined audience - who you
want to hook by your interesting, even provocative, opinions and experiences, so again, you don't
have to be fair and objective

But what is an 'article'?

The 'Article' text type evidently covers a vast range of approaches and styles. Selecting the most
appropriate approach will depend on how the task is defined.

Format and Approach discussed

The term 'article' clearly carries the notion of a journalistic discourse, but the context – which
includes where it is to be published, and to whom it is to be addressed – will have a powerful
influence on how it is written (see NB, below).

The key element of 'journalistic discourse' which should be taught to the students is that
journalism sets out to inform ... but that all journalists recognise that if you want to inform
effectively, you have to interest and engage your audience. This means that the various aspects
listed under 'approach', below, should be explored and emphasised in teaching.

Basic Format

- Headline / title

- Sub-headline, summarising

- Byline (author, date, location)

- Short paragraphs (possibly)

- Sub-headings (possibly)

Here is a possible template for an 'article' - of course, this is generalised and would necessarily
have to be adapted to precise subject matter / context / audience. (Try projecting this, using
Presentation mode.)
.

Approach

> 'Duty to inform' ? A defining element of any 'article' is that it sets out to inform – does the
script actually tell people something? It is worth stressing that 'inform' does not necessarily
mean 'factual information' - or rather, factual information should be seen as 'supporting
evidence' which helps to illustrate and clarify the general ideas and arguments presented.
(Useful to contrast with the News Report, where factual information is the primary focus,
and general ideas and arguments should be seen as secondary and subordinate.)

> Precise nature of task ? Is the main purpose to :

Inform ? In which case, is the flow of information methodical and clear?

Discuss ? In which case, is there a reasonably balanced coverage of different points

of view?

Give opinion ? In which case, is a clear point of view presented? And is it coherent /
consistent?

> Opening & closing? Is the opening, in particular, attractive / attention-catching ?

 > Address? Is there a sense of effective address to the public ? The type of 'effective
address' will be defined by the intended audience.

NB A basic problem of the 'article' as a task is that articles appear in many contexts, and these
contexts may define style and approach. Unless the question specifies publishing context very
carefully, one should beware of jumping to conclusions – for instance, a 'school magazine' may
be written in many different ways, from jokey / colloquial to formal / serious. Usually, accept any
approach which is credible and consistent.

Relevant writing purposes

Consult above all ... Explanation ... + ... Argument ... but Description and Narration may also be
useful.

INTERVIEW (EMBEDDED AND DIRECT)

NOTE

There are two common varieties of 'interview': the 'transcribed' and the 'embedded'. The
Transcribed Interview reads like a script, being an accurate transcription of the words used,
without commentary or description. The Embedded Interview is essentially an article, based on
description and commentary, with liberal quotation (which may be either direct quotation or
reported speech).

What is expected as an 'interview' depends on journalistic conventions in the culture of each

different language. For instance, the Transcribed is the commonest in Hispanic journalism, while
the Embedded is usual in Anglophone journalism.

For English B, in practice ... under the 'old' Subject Guide, up to Nov19, it appeared that the
Embedded type was the 'default' for the paper setters. This was usually indicated by a wording
like this: "Write an article based on this interview to be published in the newsletter of your local
sports club. Do not simply write the exact words (transcript) of the interview." (HL2 paper, Nov14).

Update

How tasks involving the 'interview' will be worded in the 'new' assessment system from May20
onwards is not clear, since no such task has yet been set.

However, the required conventions of both types, transcribed and embedded, are on the official
list as recognised types - so in theory either could be set.

In practice, it seems unlikely that paper-setters would specify 'Embedded interview' or

'Transcribed interview' in the three options - the most likely approach is that the option provided in
the question will simply be 'Interview', and examiners will be instructed to accept either type.

I would emphasise that this is merely an assumption. So, in order to be absolutely safe, it would
be wise to teach both types. Apart from anything else, teaching the Transcribed Interview is a
very good way to get the students to study how the language is really used in speech.

*******************************

KEY FEATURES: Embedded Interview

context, audience, purpose -

* the context of any interview task will usually involve who is to be interviewed, and why...
and the combination of these will usually indicate the angle that the interview should take.
To illustrate: "a famous musician visiting your town... interview because former student of
your school... so, how did school influence his/her career?"

* the task will normally indicate where the interview is to be published, and this will define
(to some extent) the audience e.g. "in your school magazine" will suggest a different
audience to "a well-known online music magazine".

* as with 'Article' (qv), the prime purpose of an interview is to inform or report - but good
interviews manage also to explore or even probe: we want to discover something intriguing
and personal about the person interviewed, don't we?

register and tone -

* will adopt a semi-formal to formal register

* the tone should express interest in the person interviewed, and probably respect, even
fascination - after all, why interview someone who is not worth the effort?

conventions -

* will have a relevant headline/title

* will use a style aimed at involving and interesting the reader

* will refer to the interview, including direct quotations

* will have an introduction and a conclusion

NOTE: For English B, interview tasks will usually not be a 'transcribed interview' or
verbatim transcript - but this has not been ruled out by IB. Transcribed interviews are
much more normal in many other languages.

Appropriate?

An interview will be appropriate if the task requires you to present a detailed and interesting
report of talking with a particular person, including his/ her opinions, personality and career -
which information should be explained in a clear, fair and reasonably objective way (although the
text may convey a personal impression of the person, which may be good or bad, pro or con).
The audience will be the general public.

Not to be confused with...

... 'article' or 'news report' or 'blog' ...

An 'article' is intended to present detailed and interesting information about a defined subject; and
the information should be explained in a clear, fair and reasonably objective way (the journalist
has a 'duty to inform'). A 'news report' is also intended to inform in a clear and objective way, but
it has to be focused on a specific event, or set of events - it is not usually concerned with giving a
detailed picture of any person who might be involved in the event. A 'blog' is intended to present
a set of your personal ideas and experiences in a lively entertaining way - these experiences may
include meeting a particular person, but a blog will concentrate on your own reactions, rather than
trying to give a fair report of what the person says.

Format and Approach discussed

Each of the two recognised formats, Embedded and Transcribed, is discussed separately.

Embedded

Basic Format

As with the Article text type …

- Headline / title

- Sub-headline, summarising

- Byline (author, date, location)

- Short paragraphs (possibly)

- Sub-headings (possibly)

- Interview details + context of interview + background of interviewee

Approach

> opening & closing? Is the opening, in particular, attractive / attention-catching ?

> address? Is there a sense of effective address to the public ?

> point of the interview: Does the script lead to some sort of overall conclusion (which
is likely to have been specified in the question) ?
 > register: Are the changes between written prose and colloquial language handled
effectively?

DIARY ENTRY

KEY FEATURES

context, audience, purpose -

* the overall context may be assumed to be the writer's own life - but the question will
probably set some particular situation around which the entry should be invented e.g. 'you
have had an argument with a good friend'. (In exams, whether or not the "writer's own life"
is the student's real one, or is completely invented, does not matter at all - it merely has to
be credible.)

* the question of 'audience' is the key distinction perceived by IB between 'diary' and
'journal' - a diary is assumed to be essentially private i.e. written for the author's eyes only;
whereas a journal may be written for possibly public reading (e.g. a scientist's journal of
experiments and data-collection).

* the purpose will generally be to 'record' some experiences of personal significance - but
what sorts of experiences are required will be indicated in the question. One way of stating
the distinction between the two text types is that a diary is anecdotal (dealing with intimate
personal feelings) while a journal is intellectual (dealing with personal reactions to more
public concepts and arguments).

register and tone -

* will use a generally informal register

* the tone will be personal, frank and open - e.g. emotions may be described clearly and
with feeling

conventions -

* will use first person narration

* will have a closing statement to round off the entry

* will avoid self-evident explanatory phrases or sentences, e.g. will use “I saw Alicia”, not “I
saw Alicia, my best friend”

* will include the date and/or day

Appropriate?

A Diary (private) / Journal will be appropriate if the task requires you to express your personal
thoughts and feelings: to reflect on some situation of your life. This sort of writing is essentially
private - normally, you don't expect to publish what you write and make your thoughts public. So,
the audience is yourself, and the purpose is to clarify your own thoughts.

Not to be confused with...

... 'email' or 'blog' ... An 'email' is not private, but is usually restricted to the person to whom you
are writing. You want to share your personal thoughts and feelings, perhaps about something that
has just happened to you, but only through a private conversation limited to a friend. A 'blog' is
essentially a very public sort of journal - you intend to present some of your personal ideas in a
lively entertaining way to a general, undefined audience. You want to entertain, and hook your
(unknown) audience by your interesting, even provocative, opinions and experiences.

But what exactly is a 'diary'?

While the diary is a text type which has been around forever, the blog is an extremely recent type
of text. To be more precise, the Wikipedia 'diary' entry claims that Marcus Aurelius' 'Meditations'
(second century AD) is the first recognisable diary - while Wikipedia on 'online diaries' cites
Claudio Pinhanez's "Open Diary" as the first blog in 1994.

But is a diary the same thing as a blog ? A distinction: both text types typically present personal
experience and comment, but a blog is more of a public statement, whereas a diary is more of a
private reflection. Beyond that, there is a problem: are there conventions for the relatively new
blog - or for the anarchically personal diary ?

And what about the 'journal'...?

The arrival of the new Subject Guide 2018 has introduced the 'journal entry' as a newly significant
text type. My understanding (in October 2018) is that the 'journal entry' is likely to appear in future
Written Production Paper 1s ... but what exactly is a 'journal entry'?

I found the following online (I find that I carelessly didn't copy the site address)...

noun

1A ... newspaper or magazine that deals with a particular subject or professional activity.

‘medical journals’ ; in names ‘the Wall Street Journal’

2A ... daily record of news and events of a personal nature; a diary.

‘while abroad he had kept a journal’

2.1 ... Nautical A logbook.

2.2 ... the Journals - A record of the daily proceedings in the Houses of Parliament.

2.3 ... (in bookkeeping) a daily record of business transactions with a statement of the accounts
to which each is to be debited and credited.
Examples (notice how these selected samples emphasise the recording of practical information)

‘Put your goals on paper and keep a running journal.’

‘Vicki sighed and traced his phone number in her journal with her mechanical pencil.’

‘I was probably now just a little page in her journal of boyfriends.’

‘During World War Two, military personnel were strictly forbidden to keep journals or diaries.’

‘The journal is a little treasure chest of data about your data.’

I am not aware of an official IB definition (no more than there are official definitions of any of the
other text types), and so I propose to define the 'journal entry' more fully in this page when
discussion among examiners has provided something solid on which to base such a definition.
So watch this space...

However, in the meantime, I think it is possible to make basic distinctions between the following
related and overlapping text types:-

Journal entry = private writing about the development of one's own ideas - as opposed to...

Diary entry = private writing reflecting on the events of one's own life and times

Blog = public writing discussing ideas in a lively and provocative way in order to promote
debate ... and to attract audience of course (opinion is primary)

Article (online or not) = public writing explaining ideas in order to inform the public (opinion
is secondary)

These are just my own personal distinctions, but I would argue that they are substantially true.

In addition, have a look at the discussion with Santiago Ordejón at the bottom of this page.
Essentially, I point out that (i) the use of the slash (/) seems to indicate that diary/journal are just
two different names for the same type of text; and (ii) the conventions required are the same for
both variants.

Format and Approach discussed

Basic Format

- Heading : a diary entry will use include a date; or dates, if multiple entries ('Dear Diary' is
unbelievable!)

- Conclusion : there is nothing conventional to end a diary entry (possibly something along
the lines of "more tomorrow"?)

- Lucid paragraphing : While one can think of real examples of diaries which ignore basic
paragraphing, students writing an exam script should be expected to show that they
understand that sensible paragraphing aids clarity.
Approach

> address : being essentially private, diaries have no convention of address, but the best
examples give a sense of the writer conversing with himself / herself ("As usual, I'm thinking
of..."; "Why do I always...")

> register : informality enriched with sophistication - since diaries are personal, some
informality can be expected in register and rhetoric, but higher marks will go to exam scripts
which combine colloquialism with dashes of complex phrasing and effects.

> organisation - What should govern the effective organisation of a diary?

- even if a diary is a (more) private reflection, an exam script can still be expected to
show a clear and organised flow of ideas. This may include :-

> control of narration – the diary is usually set to address a narrative of some
sort, so effective explanation and control of the events is expected

> narration plus comment – what distinguishes the diary from other forms of
narrative is that the diarist reflects on the events and draws personal
conclusions.

> style - the three aspects described above all add up to the notion that a good diary should
have a recognisable and expressive personal style. Put another way, this means a
recognisable and engaging 'voice' - see the page Developing 'voice' for further ideas about
this.

Relevant writing purposes

Given that blogs and diaries can deal with practically anything, all the writing purposes might
apply, but if we accept that ...

... a diary is most often about reflection on personal experience, then Narration and Description
will be primarily useful, with Argument following closely

OPINION COLUMN/ LETTER TO THE EDITOR

NOTE: These two text types are significantly different in that an Opinion column is presumed to
be written by a professional journalist, while a Letter to the Editor is presumed to be written by a
non-professional member of the public - but what they both have in common is that they should
concentrate on expressing a clear point of view, as forcefully and interestingly as possible.

In practice, the Letter to the Editor has been set in exams far more often than the Opinion
Column (possibly precisely because the Letter is an 'amateur' type and so more accessible, while
the Column is 'professional' and so more demanding?)

Anyway, the two types are analysed separately below - but note the frequent similarities.
Opinion column

KEY FEATURES

context, audience, purpose -

* the question will usually provide the context - a general situation, which results some kind
of issue, on which the writer chooses to take a particular stance or judgement

* the audience will be defined by the publication context - but can also be assumed to be
reasonably informed about the issue in question, and to have the developed intelligence
and the language skills to be able to handle quite complex argument

* the purpose of such columns is to discuss in a provocative and stimulating way - and
explore the issue in some depth

register and tone -

* will have a semi-formal to formal register

* will have a tone appropriate to task e.g. suitably serious... or possibly, provocative and
amusing, depending on the approach to the task required, or taken

conventions -

* will have a relevant headline/title

* will have an introduction intended to catch the readers’ attention

* will use techniques that engage and interest readers e.g. direct address

* will probably use first-person statement, but not necessarily

Appropriate?

An opinion column will be appropriate if the task requires you to focus on one particular issue,
which should be explained convincingly and your final opinion argued reasonably. Since an
opinion column will have been commissioned by a particular media organisation, it should be
written to suit the audience of the publication in which it appears.

Not to be confused with...

... 'blog' or 'essay' ... a 'blog' is intended to present a set of your personal ideas in a lively
entertaining way to a general, undefined audience - who you want to hook with your interesting,
even provocative, opinions and experiences. An 'essay' is supposed to be a methodical and
objective review of arguments, based on solid factual evidence, and reaching a logical conclusion
suitable for thoughtful, educated people (not just a personal opinion).

Materials & models

> TASKS Democracy, renewed ... the Writing task requires writing an opinion column based on
the arguments about democracy presented in the stimulus text.

*************

Letter to the Editor

KEY FEATURES

context, audience, purpose -

* the question will usually provide the context: typically, that the the Editor has published
something with which the writer of the letter strongly agrees/disagrees

* the principal audience is the Editor, to whom the letter should be clearly addressed.
However, there is an assumption that the letter may be published, and so the letter may
also be written so as to be persuasive to the general reader

* the prime purpose of such a Letter is to present the writer's particular, personal point of
view - as persuasively and convincingly as possible, and probably in contrast to other
controversial points of view

register and tone -

* will adopt a semi-formal to formal register

* will adopt an appropriately serious tone

conventions -

* will refer to the original article/issue raised

* will set out to give interesting opinions in an engaging style

* will include appropriate opening and closing salutations

Appropriate?

A letter to the editor will be appropriate if the task requires you to respond to a particular idea,
most normally something which has been presented in the editor's publication. In other words,
you are not going to talk about the subject in general, but rather with certain aspects of the
original idea, with which you agree or disagree or want to develop - and want to convince a
specific person rather than just a general audience.

Not to be confused with...

... 'blog' or 'opinion column' ... a 'blog' is intended to present a set of your personal ideas in a
lively entertaining way to a general, undefined audience - who you want to hook with your
interesting, even provocative, opinions and experiences. an 'opinion column' will usually be
focused on one particular issue, which should be explained convincingly and your final opinion
argued reasonably.

Format and Approach discussed

Note that the format of the 'Letter to the Editor' is essentially the same as the format of the Formal
letter, as set out in the page E-mail / letter .

Note also that the fundamental distinction between 'formal and 'informal' letters is that in the
formal type the purpose of the letter is more important than the relationship with the reader,
whereas in the informal type, the relationship between writer and reader is at least as important
as the purpose.

Basic Format

- sender's address

- date

- opening/closing salutations ('Dear Mr/Ms ...' / 'Yours sincerely...' etc)

> register : nature of 'formal' tone - what address + attitude to the recipient is
expressed ?

- recipient's address (very optional)

Approach

> relevance: The text should be focused throughout on the set task / purpose,
with no irrelevance or digression

> development of explanation: The ideas should be carefully selected to be

directly related to the purpose ... clearly explained in detail ... and methodically
organised to make a convincing argument

> efficiency of expression: How succinct + clear/forceful is the presentation of

the ideas?

Relevant writing purposes

Students should be taught the skills of effective Explanation (which may also involve sound basic
factual Description) ... combined with Argument in order to present a case forcefully.

PERSONAL STATEMENT

This category of text type in fact combines two rather different types: the essay and the formal
letter. What seems to unite them is the context of applying for something - a job or a course of
study. The underlying purpose, presumably, is for the applicant to appear interesting and
attractive: there is something of a sales pitch required.

Since these are new text types, there are no exam tasks available, and detailed Format and
Approach are not yet clear ... but watch this space!

See also the following pages relevant to each type: 'Personal statement' - Essay and 'Cover
letter' - E-mail / letter

Personal statement

KEY FEATURES

context, audience, purpose -

* A 'personal statement' is understood to be a specific type of essay generally requested of

an applicant (e.g. a student applying to university / scholarship / programme; or a
professional for a job). The subject matter, and approach to be taken, will be given in the
task - typically, to discuss personal responses to a particular moral situation, or to write
something generally autobiographical

* as with any essay, the audience is assumed to be educated and informed, and capable of
understanding sophisticated language

* the purpose is actually to display clear thinking and effective argument, in order to impress
and be successful in the application. In order to impress, one should simply write a
convincing Essay (qv) or a stimulating Opinion Column (qv), depending on the requirements
of the actual task

register and tone -

* will adopt a semi-formal to formal register

* will have an appropriately serious tone

conventions -

* will have a relevant title

* will use a style that arouses interest in the reader

* will have a clear and interesting introduction and conclusion

Appropriate?

A personal statement will be appropriate if the task requires you to present a text which not only
shows what you think, but also how you express yourself. The task will most likely make clear the
context of an application for something (e.g. a course of study, a job), and also what sort of ideas
you should deal with. The main purpose of a 'personal statement' is to show how smart you are!

Not to be confused with...

'opinion column' or 'essay' ... An 'opinion column' will usually be focused on one particular
issue, which should be explained convincingly to a general audience, and your final opinion
argued reasonably, even if it is a very subjective point of view. An 'essay' is supposed to be a
methodical and objective review of arguments, based on solid factual evidence, and reaching a
logical conclusion (which is not the same as just a quick opinion). In the case of both of these text
types, the central purpose is to discuss the ideas, not to demonstrate your personal abilities.

Cover letter

KEY FEATURES

context, audience, purpose -

* the question / task will explain the context - i.e. what needs to be 'covered' and why.

* as with the Formal Letter, the audience will be identified, but may well not be known
personally - the letter is most likely to be addressed to a post or administrative position,
rather than a known individual (as exemplified by the use of 'Dear Sir/Madam')

* presumably, the purpose is to introduce other enclosed or attached materials, and to relate
them to whatever is the overall purpose of the correspondence (... but all this seems to
require an improbable amount of invention, in my view! How likely is this text type?)

register and tone -

* will adopt a consistently formal register

* will adopt a suitably serious and respectful tone

conventions -

* will have a clear sense of address to a specific person

* will have an appropriate opening salutation

* will have an appropriate closing salutation