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IMPORTANT FORMULAS TO REMEMBER

CHAPTER 1: METAL CASTING

CASTING
Casting is a process in which the liquid molten metal is poured into the mould cavity whose
shape is same as that of the casting to be produced, allow it to solidify and after solidification
the casting can be taken out by breaking the mould.
Steps involved in casting:
(i). Preparation of pattern.
(ii). Preparation of mould.
(iii). The Gating system (Design)
(iv). Design of Riser
(v). Melt the Metal
(vi). Pouring of molten metal
(vii). Solidification
(ix). Fettling, Finishing, Testing.

Pattern and mould:

A Pattern is the replica of the part to be cast (to be produced) and is used to prepare
the mould cavity. Patterns are made of either wood or metal.
A Mould is an assembly of two or more metal blocks, or bonded refractory particles
(sand) consisting of a primary cavity.
Pattern making: Pattern size = casting size ± allowances
Allowances:
Shrinkage Allowance
Shrinkage allowance is a positive allowance which is provided to take care of the contractions of
a casting. The total contraction of a casting takes place in three stages:

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Liquid Shrinkage: It is the shrinkage of molten metal when it cools from pouring temperature
to freezing temperature and phase of molten metal remains liquid.
Solidification Shrinkage: It is the shrinkage of molten metal when the phase of the molten
metal changes from liquid to solid.
Solid Shrinkage: It is the Shrinkage associated when the temperature of solid casting changes
from freezing temperature to room temperature.

Note:
(i). The first two will be taken care by providing riser during casting. But the third will be
provided as a shrinkage allowance in the pattern (taking place during the cooling of the
material from freezing temp to room temp as a solid).
Solid shrinkage allowance for different materials:

Machining Allowance: It is provided to take care of the machining to produce good surface
finish is called the machining allowance.
Draft Allowance: It is provided to withdraw the pattern from the cavity without the damage.
In general, 5° to 8° draft is given for internal surfaces and ½° and 2° is given for external
surfaces.

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Rapping allowance or Shake allowance: It is rapped all around the vertical faces to enlarge
the mould cavity slightly which facilitates its easy removal. It is a negative allowance and
is to be applied only to those dimensions which are parallel to the parting plane.
Note: If the pattern is made by using the materials like wax, mercury, polystyrene as pattern
material, no shake allowance is provided.
Distortion Allowance: “To avoid the distortion, the shape of pattern itself should be given a
distortion of equal amount in the opposite direction of the likely distortion direction so that final
product will come in true shape known as distortion allowance”
Types of patterns:
Solid or single piece pattern:
solid pattern placed in the drag position and it is used for making a flat surface like as gear
blanks, square blocks etc.

Split pattern: It is widely used type of pattern for intricate castings.

Match plate patterns: The match plate is accurately placed between the cope and the drag
flasks by means of locating pins. Production efficiency and dimensional accuracy is improved
by this method.
Gated pattern: The parting line should he chosen so as the smallest portion of the pattern in
the cope.
Sweep pattern: Sweep patten is used to generate surfaces of revolution in large castings
which are axi-symmetrical or prismatic in nature such as bell shaped or cylindrical.
Skeleton pattern: This type of pattern is useful generally for very large castings required in
small quantities.
Loose piece patterns: In it overhanging parts are fastened loosely to the main part of the
pattern by wires or wooden pins and pattern cannot be removed in any direction.
Follow board pattern: It is used for those castings where there are some portions which are
structurally weak and if not supported properly are likely to break under the force of ramming.

Mould making:
Types of sands:

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Green sand: a mixture of sand, clay, water, and some organic additives, e.g., wood flour,
dextrin, and sea coal.
Composition: 70-85% sand, 10-20% clay, 3 – 6% water, and 1-6% additives.
Dry sand: Silica sand + clay +sodium silicate.
Loam sand: Green or dry sand with at least 50% clay and dries hard. It also contains fire
clay. It has 18 to 20% moisture and produces good surface finish.
Baking sand: It consists of refractory material and it is made of used sand or burnt sand.
Facing sand: Carboneous material sprinkled on the inner surfaces of the moulding cavity for
obtaining better surface finish
CO2 sand: In this sand in place of clay if sodium silicate is used, called as CO2 sand.
Additives (up to 2% each):
(i). Cereal binder up to 2% increases the strength.
(ii). By-product in coke making up to 3% would improve the hot strength.
(iii). Saw dust: up to 2% improves the collapsibility by slowly burning and increase the
permeability.
(iv). Starch or dextrin: Used for increasing strength and resistance for deformation of
moulding sand.
(v). Coal Dust: It is basically used for providing better surface finish to the castings.
Properties of moulding sand:
Permeability and Permeability number: “Permeability is the ability of moulding sand to allow
the air to escape”. Permeability test is used for determining the Porosity property of moulding
sand is denoted by:

V .H
Pn =
P. AT
.
As per the American foundry society (AFS) standard or ASTM standard, the standard test
conditions are
D = H = 5.08 cm = 2inch
Pn = 50.127/T
Green strength: The optimum moisture content in the moulding sand is 7-8% and strength
are such a condition is called the green strength of the sand.
Refractoriness: The ability of withstanding higher temperature of the molten metal without
losing its strength and hardness is called refractoriness.
Collapsibility: It is the property of material due to which, it does not provide any resistance
during the contraction of the solidified casting.
Flowability: The ability of flowing of moulding sand into each and every corner of the mould
is called flowability.

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Effect of moisture content on different properties

Fluidity: It depends on the Viscosity, solidification pattern of the alloy, Degree of super heat.

Spiral fluidity test

Properties increases  Effect on Fluidity

Pouring temperature 
Surface finish of the mould 
Viscosity 
Density 
Surface tension 
Moisture content 

Machine moulding:
Jolting: Sand filled mould is raised to certain amount of height and it is allowed to fall freely
on to the ground so that the reaction load produced by the ground will be used for ramming.
The resulting impact forces the sand to get compacted uniformly into the mould. This type
of ramming is suitable for horizontal surfaces.
Squeezing: A plate slightly smaller than the inside dimensions of the moulding flask
is fitted into the flask already filled with the moulding sand and a uniform pressure is applied
on the plate by either moving it down or by moving the flask upwards. The resulting force
compacts the sand uniformly. The sand next to the plate rams hardest while the sand
below is progressively less hard. This type is suitable for small castings and is generally
suitable for shallow flasks.

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Sand slinging (combination of jolt squeezing machines) is done by throwing sand into the
flask rapidly and with great force. This process develops uniformly high mould hardness. The
process is very fast and gives high uniform sand ramming.

Core making: Core is used for making cavities and hollow projections and cores are normally
made by CO2 moulding.
Recess provided in the mould for locating, positioning, and supporting of cores is called
core print.
Buoyancy force: Fb = Vgρ
Net buoyancy force acting on the core = Weight of liquid displaced due to projected portion —
total weight of core

F = ρmVg − ρVg = Vg(ρm − ρ) (For Horizontal cores)

Where:
ρm = density of molten metal
ρ = density of core material
V = volume of core

 2
F= (D1 − D2 )Hm − V (For Vertical cores)
4
Where, V= total volume of the core in the mould.
The basic function of chaplet is to act as an additional support for supporting the
unsupported length of the core.
Chill: The use of chill is used to get the directional solidification. The paddings are used to
avoid the sand erosion taking place during sharp edged casting.
Gating system:
Elements: Pouring basin, Sprue, Runner, Ingate

Strainer: acting as filter for separating the impurities present in molten metal.
Skim Bob: a semi-circular cut in a horizontal gate to prevent heavier and lighter impurities
from entering the mould.
Splash core: reduces the eroding force of the liquid metal stream and also ensures settle
down of high-density impurities.

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Runner: Always horizontal with uniform trapezoidal cross-section and mainly used for
minimizing the sand erosion in casting process.

Gating ratio: The gating ratio refer to the proportion of the cross-sectional areas between the
sprue, runner, and in-gates, and is generally denoted as sprue area, runner area, and ingate
area.
Gating ratio = AS: AR: AG
Where: AS = sprue area, AR = runner area and AG = ingate area.
Types:
Non pressurized gating system: If pressure above molten metal in gating system is equal

to atmospheric pressure, it is called as non-pressurized gating system, i.e. P = Patm .

Choke area is at the sprue base i.e. sprue base area is minimum in un-pressurized gating
system i.e. 1:2:2, 1:4:4, 1:2:4, 0.5:1.5:1.
Due to low turbulence oxides formation will not takes place thus we can cast Non-Ferrous alloys
such as aluminium and magnesium alloys.
Pressurized gating system: If top of the pouring basin is closed and the pressure above
molten metal in pouring basin is maintained greater than atmospheric pressure is called as

pressurized gating system, i.e. P > Patm .

Choke area is at the ingate i.e. ingate area is minimum in pressurized gating system i.e. 4:2:1,
2:2:1, 2:1:0.5.
It is used for Ferrous castings.
Top Gating System:
Volume Volume
Pouring time = =
Flow rate A c × Vmax

Vmax = 2ght

Ac= Choke area = Min (A ,A ,A )

s r g

Volume = Volume of the casting or pattern

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Am  hm
Mould Filling time: t f =
Ag  2ght

To avoid air Aspiration:

A2 ht
 =
A3 hc
1
A
h
Thus, ideally, the sprue profile parabolic as shown by the solid lines in the Fig. but it is difficult
to design thus, a straight tapered sprue (shown by the dashed lines) is preferred.

Bottom Gating System:

Am 1 
Mould Filling time: t f = 2 h t − ht − hm 
Ag 2g  

If height of the mould(hm) is equal to total height (ht):

Vm
tf = 2
A g 2ght

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( tf )Bottom = 2  ( tf )Top
Cooling and solidification time:
Pure metals: A pure metal solidifies at a constant temperature equal to its freezing point,
which is the same as its melting point.

As the solidification starts on the mould wall and is rapidly cooled by the extraction of heat
through the mould wall resulting in the fine and randomly oriented grains while coarse,
columnar grains aligned toward the centre of the casting.

Alloys:

The start of freezing is like that of the pure metal. The solid portions are the dendrite structures

that have formed sufficiently to trap small islands of liquid metal in the matrix and a mushy

zone at the centre. As freezing continues and the dendrites grow, there develops an imbalance

in composition between the metal that has solidified and the remaining molten metal.

This composition imbalance is finally manifested in the completed casting in the form of

segregation of the elements.

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Solidification time: “Solidification time is the time required for the casting to solidify after

pouring”. This time is dependent on the size and shape of the casting by an empirical

relationship known as Chvorinov's rule, which states:

n
 V 
tS = k  
 SA 
Where,
ts = total solidification time
k = mould constant (or) solidification factor
V = volume of the casting,
SA = surface area of the casting,
n is an exponent usually taken to have a value = 2
2
 V 
tS = k  
 SA 

V Volume of casting
Modulus (M) = =
SA Surface area

tS = k ( M )
2

2
 V 
TS   
 SA 
Riser design:
Condition to Design the Riser

1. VR  3VSc … [Necessary condition] i.e. Volume of riser should be at least 3 times the shrinkage
volume of castings.
2. TSRiser  TS [Sufficient condition] The solidification time of molten metal in the riser must
cavity

be at least equal to the solidification time of molten metal in the casting cavity.
Types of Riser:

 2
Side Riser: SA = 2  d  + dh
4 

 2
Top Riser: SA =  d  + dh
4 
Optimum condition to get minimum surface area or maximum solidification time in
case of cylindrical riser:

A 6
Side Riser h=d  =
V d
A 6
Top Riser h =d/2  =
V d

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Location of risers:
One central riser is satisfactory if the maximum feeding distance is less than 4.5 times the
plate thickness. The feeding distance should be measured from the edge of the riser.

It should be noted that, of the total distance 4.5t the riser gradient prevails up to a distance
2t, whereas the end wall gradient prevails in the remaining distance 2.5t. Thus, the maximum
distance between the edges of two consecutive risers is 4t and not 9t.

Caine’s Method

V 
 A  M
 s riser
Freezing ratio : X = = riser
V  Mcasting
 A 
 s casting

a
Freezing ratio, X = −c
y −b

Vr
y = volumetric ratio =
Vc

Mr a
=
M c  Vr 
 −b
 Vc 

Modulus value for different type of risers:

Type of Riser Modulus value

Spherical Riser R D
M= =
3 6

Top Cylindrical riser Dh D

M= =
D + 4h 6

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side cylindrical riser Dh D

M= =
2D + 4h 6

Modulus Method:

Riser Solidification time: tr  tC

and M r = 1.2 M C

2
V 
Chvorinov’s Law: t s = k  
 As 

Shape factor (SF):

L +W
shape factor ( S .F ) =
t

L+w
For Plate (L × w × t): SF =
t

a+a
For Cube (a × a × a): SF = =2
a

D+D
For Sphere (of Diameter D): SF = =2
D

D+H
For Solid cylinder (Diameter D and Height H): SF =
D


L+ (D + Di )
2 o
For thin cylinder: SF =
(Do − Di )
2

Special casting processes:

Expendable mould casting processes:
1. Shell moulding: The mould is a thin shell (typically 9 mm) made of sand held together by
a thermosetting resin binder and the thickness of the shell can be determined accurately
by controlling the time that the pattern is in contact with the mould.
It can be mechanized for mass production and is very economical for large quantities.
Applications: high precision parts such as gear housings, cylinder heads, and connecting rods.
2. Vacuum Moulding: It is also called the V-process uses a sand mould held together by
vacuum pressure.

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Applications: It is suitable particularly for thin walled (0.75 mm) complex shapes with uniform
properties. Typical parts made are superalloy gas-turbine components with walls as thin as 0.5
mm.
3. Expanded Polystyrene process: also known as Evaporative-pattern and investment
casting.
Applications: Typical applications are cylinder heads, engine blocks, crankshafts, brake
components, manifolds, and machine bases. It is applied to mass produce castings for
automobiles engines.
4. Investment casting: a pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory material to make
the mould. The parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast and close dimensional
control—tolerances of ±0.075 mm, are possible.
Applications: All types of metals including steels, stainless steels, and other high temperature
alloys, can be investment cast. Examples of parts include complex machinery parts, blades.
and other components for turbine engines, Jewellery, and dental fixtures.
5. Plaster mould casting:
Mould is made of plaster of Paris (gypsum: CaSO4.2H2O) instead of sand.
Additives such as talc and silica flour arc mixed with the plaster to control contraction and
setting time, reduce cracking, and increase strength. It is the casting of lower-melting-point
alloys such as aluminium, magnesium. and some copper-base alloys.
6. Ceramic-mould casting:
Mould is made of refractory ceramic materials that can withstand higher temperatures than
plaster.
It is used to cast steels, cast irons, and other high-temperature alloys. Its applications
(relatively intricate parts) are like those of plaster mould casting except for the metals cast.

Permanent-Mould Casting Processes:

It uses reusable metal moulds.
Metals commonly cast in permanent moulds include aluminium, magnesium, copper-base
alloys, and cast iron. The very high pouring temperatures of steel make permanent moulds
unsuitable for this metal unless the mould is made of refractory material.
Permanent-mould casting include good surface finish and close dimensional control, as
previously indicated.
More rapid solidification caused by the metal mould results in a finer grain structure, so stronger
castings are produced.
Typical parts include automotive pistons. pump bodies, and certain castings for aircraft and
missiles.
Variations of Permanent mould casting:

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1. Slush casting: The flow of metal into the mould cavity is caused by gravity. Slush casting
is used to make hollow parts such as statues, lamp pedestals, and toys out of low-melting-
point metals such as zinc and tin.
2. Low pressure casting:
The liquid metal is forced into the cavity under low pressure— approximately 0.1 MPa from
beneath so that the flow is upward.
3. Vacuum Permanent-Mould Casting:
Low-pressure casting operation where reduced air pressure from the vacuum in the mould is
used to draw the liquid metal into the cavity, rather than forcing it.
4. Die Casting:
Die casting is a permanent-mould casting process in which the molten metal is injected into
the mould cavity under high pressure ranging from 7 to 350 MPa.
There are two main types of die-casting machines:
(a). Hot chambers die casting:
Typical injection pressures: 7 to 35 MPa.
Limited in its applications to low-melting-point metals that do not chemically attack the
plunger and other mechanical components. The metals include zinc, tin, lead, and
sometimes magnesium.
(b). Cold chambers die casting:
Injection pressures: typically, 14 to 140 MPa.
Typically used for casting aluminium, brass, and magnesium alloys.
Centrifugal casting:
True Centrifugal Casting:
The parts made by this process include pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings.
G-factor GF is the ratio of centrifugal force divided by weight:

F mv2 v2
GF = = =
W Rmg Rg

0 gGF 30 2gGF
N= =
 R  D
GF = 60 to 80 are found to be appropriates for horizontal centrifugal casting.
For Vertical casting:

30 2gL
N=
 R t − Rb2
2

Where L = vertical length of the casting (in m), Rt = inside radius at the top of the casting (in
m) and Rb = inside radius at the bottom of the casting (in m).
Semi centrifugal castings:
It is used to produce solid castings rather than hollow castings.
G factors of around 15 are obtained.

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Wheels and pulleys are examples of castings that can be made by this process.
Centrifuge casting:
The mould is designed with part cavities located away from the axis of rotation.

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CHAPTER 2: ENGINEERING MATERIALS

CRYSTAL STRUCTURES
• A crystalline material is one in which atoms are arranged in a regular pattern over large
atomic distances.
• Space lattice: Infinite array of points in 3-D space in which each point located with respect
to other.
• Unit Cell are the smallest unit of a structure which when repeated in all 3-demensions
produces the crystal structure.

Space lattice + Basis = Unit cell

• Primitive cell:
This may be defined as a geometrical shape which, when repeated indefinitely in 3-
dimensions, will fill all space and is equivalent of one lattice point i.e. the unit cell that
contains one lattice point only at the corners.

Crystal families and crystal class:

If all the atoms at the lattice points are identical, the lattice is said to be Bravais lattice.
There are four systems and five possible Bravais lattices in two dimensions as shown in Fig.
The four crystal systems of two-dimensional space are oblique, rectangular, square and
hexagonal.

Bravais Lattices in two dimensions

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Seven crystal systems:

Crystal family Crystal system Axial relationships
Isometric Cubic a = b = c and α = β = γ = 90°
Tetragonal Tetragonal a = b ≠ c and α = β = γ = 90°
Orthorhombic Orthorhombic a ≠ b ≠ c and α = β = γ = 90°
Monoclinic Monoclinic a ≠ b ≠ c and α = γ = 90°; β = 90°
Anorthic Triclinic a ≠ b ≠ c and α ≠ 90°; β ≠ 90°; γ ≠ 90°
Hexagonal Hexagonal a = b ≠ c and α = β ≠ 90°; γ = 90°;
Trigonal A = b = c, α = β = γ; or
a’ = b’ ≠ c’ and α’ =β’ = 90°, γ’ = 120°
Rhombohedral
(Hexagonal axes)

Effective number of lattice points in the unit cell of the three cubic space lattices:

Space lattice Abbreviation Effective number of lattice points in unit cell

Simple cubic SC 1
Body centred
BCC 2
cubic
Face centred
FCC 4
cubic

The Bravais lattices in three dimensions (the seven basic crystal systems)
Crystal system Lattice type No. of lattices Examples
Cubic P, F, C 3 Au, NaCl, CaF2, CrCl, CaO (I)
Monoclinic P, B 2 2H2O, NaSO4, CaSO4, FeSO4
Triclinic P 1 K2Cr2O7, CuSO4, K2S2O8
Tetragonal P, C 2 NiSO4, Sn, TiO3, and SnO2
Orthogonal P, B, F, C 4 MgSO4, KNO3, and BaSO4
Rhombohedral
(Trigonal or P or R 1 SiO2, CaSO4, and CaCO3
orthorhombic)
Hexagonal P 1 AgCl2, Sio2, Zn and Graphite
Representation of symbols:
P → primitive, B → base centred
C → body centred and
F → face centred

Atomic Packing Factor (APF): This is defined as the ratio of total volume of atoms in a unit
cell to the total volume of the unit cell. This is also called relative density of packing (RDP).
Thus:
No. of atoms  Volume of one atom v
APF = =
Volume of unit cell V

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Simple Cubic Crystal System: (a = b = c, α = β = γ = 90):

1
No. of atoms in all corners: n = 8 =1
8
From the diagram: a = 2r
volume of cubic cell = a3 = (2r)3

4 3
1 r
3 
∴ APF = 3
= (= 0.52) = 52%
(2r) 6

Coordination number of BCC crystal structure is 6.

Body-centred Cubic Structure (BCC):
1
∴ Total no. of atoms for corners =  8 = 1 atom
8
BCC crystal has one atom at the centre = 1 atom
∴ Total atoms in BCC unit cell = 1 + 1 = 2 atoms

16r2 4r
a= =
3 3

4 3
2 r
3 3
APF = =  = 0.68
( )
3
4r / 3 8

Coordination number of BCC crystal structure is 8.

Examples: α-Fe (below 910°C), Mo, V, Mn, Nb, W, α -Cr, δ -iron (1400°C to 1539°C), etc.
Face-centred Cubic Structure (FCC):

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1
No. of atoms in all six faces = 6 = 3
2
1
No. of atoms in all corners = 8 =1
8
∴ Total atoms in FCC unit cell = 1 + 3 = 4 atoms

a= 8r = 2 2r

4 3
4 r
3 
 APF = = = 0.74
( )
3
2 2r 3 2

Coordination number of BCC crystal structure is 12.

Examples: Cu, Al, Ag, Au, α-Fe, Ca, β-Co, γ-Iron (910°C to 1400°C).
Hexagonal closed packing (HCP) Structure:
The coordination number of HCP crystal is 12.

 2
APF = = 0.74
6

Examples of HCP structure are Be, Mg, Zn, Cd, Ti, Co, Hf, Se, Te, etc.

CYRSTAL DENSITY:

nM
Density =
VNo
n = no. of atoms per unit cell.
M = At weight
V = Volume of unit cell
No = Avogadro’s number (6.023 × 1023 atoms/mol).

Linear Densities:

No. of atoms centered on unit length of direction vector

Linear desnity (LD ) =
Length of the direction vector

Planer Densities:

No. of atoms centered on a plane

PD =
Area of the plane

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Miller Indices: Miller indices are used to specify directions and planes.

Procedure:
(a). Identify the plane intercepts on the x, y and z-axes.
(b). Specify intercepts in fractional coordinates.
(c). Take the reciprocals of the fractional intercepts.
Notation summary:
(a). (h, k, l) represents a point – note the exclusive use of commas.
(b). Negative numbers/directions are denoted with a bar on top of the number.
(c). [h k l] represents a direction.
(d). <h k l> represents a family of directions.
(e). (h k l) represents a plane.
(f). {h k l} represents a family of planes.
Interplanar spacings:

1
dhkl =
2
h k 2 l2
+ +
a2 b2 c2
dhkl gives the distance between two successive (h k l) places.
For a cubic system: a = b = c

a
∴ dhkl =
h + k 2 + l2
2

Angle between two planes or directions:

h1h2 + k1k 2 + l1l2

cos  =
h + k12 + l12  h22 + k 22 + l22
2
1

The angle θ between the two directions or planes having Miller indices (h1, k1, l1) and (h2, k2,
l2) respectively.

Defects and imperfections: Crystalline defects can be classified on the basis of their
geometry as follows:

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(i). Point imperfections

(ii). Line imperfections
(iii). Surface and grain boundary imperfections
(iv). Volume imperfections

Point Defects:
Vacancies: The simplest point defect is a vacancy i.e. an empty site of a crystal lattice which
arise either from imperfect packing during original crystallization or from thermal vibrations of
the atoms at higher temperature.
Interstitial Imperfections: In a closed packed structure of atoms in a crystal if the atomic
packing factor is low, an extra atom may be lodged within the crystal structure.
Frenkel defect: Frenkel defect is a combination of vacancy and interstitial defects. It is more
common in ionic crystals, because the positive ions, being smaller in size, get lodged easily
in the interstitial positions.
Schottky defect: It is caused, whenever a pair of positive and negative ions is missing from
a crystal. It maintains a charge neutrality.

Linear Detects:

a. Edge Dislocation: An extra half plane of atoms is introduced into the crystal structure. The

dislocation line is perpendicular to burger vector.

The elastic strain energy E per unit length of a dislocation of Burgers vector b can be expressed
approximately by

b2
E=
2
b. Screw Dislocation: Dislocation is formed by shear stress; the upper front region of the

crystal is shifted one atomic distance to the right relative to the bottom portion.

The dislocation line is parallel to burger vector.

Surface and grain boundaries:

a. High angle and low angle grain boundaries: When the orientation difference between

neighbouring grains is more than 10°-15°, boundaries are called high angle grain boundaries.

While in case of low angle grain boundaries this orientation mismatch is not more than of 5°.

b. Twin boundaries: Here, the atomic arrangement on one side of a twin boundary is a mirror

reflection of the arrangement on the other side.

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Strengthening Mechanisms and phase diagrams:

Strengthening Mechanisms:

Any restriction to the movement of the dislocations are said to increase the strength of the

material.

Solid solution strengthening:

Hume-Rothary rule: It gives Conditions for unlimited solubility.

1. Difference in atomic radius of both the materials should be less than 15 %.
2. Crystal Structure: The materials must have the same crystal structure.
3. Valency of both the materials should be same.
4. Electronegativity and electron affinity of both the materials should be comparative. Alloying
the element either produces interstitial or substitutional impurity.
Grain size strengthening: Yield strength is related to grain size (diameter, d) as Hall Petch
relation:

y = o + Kd−1/2

Strain hardening:
Dislocation density (ρ) and shear stress (τ) are related as follows:

 = o + A 

Percentage cold work is given by:

Ao − Ad
%CW =  100%
Ao

Where:
Ao = Original Area of specimen

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Ad = area after deformation

PHASE:

A phase is a physically distinct, chemically homogeneous, and mechanically separable region in

a system in equilibrium.

According to Gibb’s Phase Rule:

F + P = C + 2
where, F = No. of degrees of freedom.
P = No of phases present.
C = No. a component
2 is for temperature and pressure.
When pressure is held constant
F+ P = C+1, 1 is only for temperature.

Type of Phase Diagram

Unary phase diagram (single component): Example: Water, graphite, metallic carbon,
diamond.
Binary phase diagram (two components):

Type 1 (Binary Isomorphous Systems): The materials which are completely soluble in

liquid as well as solid state.

Type-II: Two Components are Completely Soluble in Liquid State and are Completely insoluble

in each Other in Solid State.

Example: Bismuth-cadmium system

Type III: Two Components are Completely Soluble in Liquid State and are Partially Soluble in

Solid State.

Examples: Pb-Sn, Cu-Ag, Pb-Sb, Cd-Zn, Sn-Bi, etc.

Type IV: When two metals are completely soluble in liquid state, show partial solubility in the

solid state, and it their melting points are vastly different from each other, then, a peritectic

phase diagram may result.

LEVER RULE:

Draw a horizontal line until it intersects the curve on both sides. This line is called tie line.

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mn
Liquid(%) =  100
mo

no
Solid(%) =  100
mo

Various types of phase Diagram Reaction

Reaction Symbolic equation Schematic presentation Example

Eutectic L + Fe-C, 4.27C%, 1147°C

Eutectoid  + Fe-C, 0.80C%, 723°C

Peritectic L+  Fe-C, 0.16C%, 1495°C

Peritectoid +  

Monotectic L1  L2 +  Fe-C, 0.51C%, 1495°C

Iron-carbon phase diagram:

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α-ferrite: It is a solid solution of BCC iron and carbon with maximum solubility of carbon is

0.022% at 727°C. It is softest phase and act as matrix of a composite material.

γ-iron or austenite: It is a solid solution of FCC iron and carbon with maximum solubility of

2.11% C at 1148°C.It is present between temperature limits from (910°C to 1395°C).

Cementite or Fe3C: It is 100% iron carbide having maximum solid solubility of 6.67% C. It is

very hard and brittle intermetallic compound and has significant influence on the properties

of steel.

Peritectic reaction at 1495°C and 0.16%C.

δ-ferrite + L ↔ γ-iron (austenite)

Monotectic reaction 1495°C and 0.51%C.

L ↔ L+ γ-iron (austenite)
Eutectic reaction: at 1147°C and 4.3%C.

L ↔ γ-iron + Fe3C (cementite) [ledeburite].

Eutectoid reaction: at 723°C and 0.8%C.

γ-iron L ↔ α-ferrite + Fe3C (cementite) [pearlite]

Types of steels:

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Low Carbon steels: C < 0.25 wt%. These are unresponsive to heat treatments intended to

form martensite; strengthening is accomplished by cold work.

Medium carbon steels: 0.25 wt% < C < 0.60 wt%. These alloys may be heat treated by

austenitizing, quenching, and then tempering to improve their mechanical properties.

High-carbon steels: 0.60 wt% < C < 1.4 wt%, are the hardest, strongest, and yet least ductile

of the carbon steels.

Cast Irons: Generically, cast irons are a class of ferrous alloys with carbon contents above 2.14

wt%; in practice, however, most cast irons contain between 3.0 and 4.5 wt% C and with other

alloying elements.

Gray Cast Iron: C varies from 2.5 to 4.0 wt% and Si varies from 1.0 to 3.0 wt%, respectively.

The graphite exists in the form of flakes (similar to corn flakes).

Ductile (or Nodular Iron): It is obtained by adding a small amount of magnesium and/or

cerium to the gray iron. Graphite still forms, but as nodules or sphere-like particles.

White Cast Iron: Most of the carbon exists as cementite instead of graphite. Due to large

amounts of the cementite phase, white iron is extremely hard and brittle (unmachinable).

Malleable cast iron: Heating white iron at temperatures between 800°C and 900°C for a

prolonged time period and in a neutral atmosphere (to prevent oxidation) causes a

decomposition of the cementite, forming graphite, which exists in the form of clusters or rosettes

surrounded by a ferrite or pearlite matrix.

TTT DIAGRAMS: While quenching austenite below 725° C, it was observed that for some time

there was no change in the microstructure this period is called incubation time.

• Incubation time decreases as the temperature of quenching decreases.

Quenching medias and their severity:

“Severity of quench” is a term often used to indicate the rate of cooling, the more rapid the

quench, the more severe the quench. Quenching media with severity:

Brine > water > oil > air

Brine produces the most severe quench, followed by water and then oil, which is more

effective than air.

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Martensite:

Martensite is a body-centered tetragonal (BCT) form of iron in which some carbon is

dissolved. The transformation to martensite does not involve atom diffusion, but rather

occurs by a sudden diffusion-less shear process.

Bainite:

Bainite is formed at cooling rates slower than that for martensite formation and faster than

that for ferrite and pearlite formation. Upper bainite generally forms at temperatures between

550 and 400°C and Lower bainite generally forms at temperatures between 400 and 250°C.

HEAT TREATMENT:

a. Annealing:

Process Annealing: used to negate the effects of cold work—that is, to soften and increase

the ductility of a previously strain-hardened metal.

Stress Relief annealing: It is used to relieve internal residual stresses developed due to

nonuniform distortion and warpage.

Full Annealing:

For hypoeutectoid steels: at about 50°C above the A3 line (to form austenite).

For hypereutectoid steels: 50° C above the A1 line.

The microstructural product of this anneal is coarse pearlite that is relatively soft and ductile.

Spheroidizing: A coalescence of the Fe3C to form the spheroid particles.

b. NORMALIZING:

For hypoeutectoid steels: at about 55°C above the A3 line (Upper critical temperature).

For hypereutectoid steels: 55° C above the Acm line.

The sample is cooled in air. It is used to refine the grains (i.e., to decrease the average grain

size) and produce a more uniform and desirable size distribution.

c. TEMPERING: used to relive residual stress, improve ductility and Toughness.

Surface Hardening Mechanisms:

CASE HARDENING:

(i). In Pack Carburizing Piece is surrounded by a carburizing mixture and packed in a steel

box.

Carburizing mixture: 50% charcoal + 20% BaCO3 + 5% CaCO3 + 5-12% Na2CO3

(ii). In Gas Carburizing work-part is treated in an atmosphere of gases containing carbon and

hydrocarbon gases such as CH4, butane etc.

(iii). In Liquid Carburizing Workpiece is heated to 950°C and dipped in a molten salt bath

containing 20% NaCN, which provides Carbon & Nitrogen.

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Nitriding is done by heating steel in the atmosphere of NH3 gas. It produces the hardest

surface of steel.

Cyaniding: work part is immersed in molten salt bath containing sodium cyanide (NaCN) which

is heated to 820-860°C.Mixture is 20-30% NaCN + 25-50% NaCl + 25-50% Na2CO3

Flame Hardening Process consists of heating the surface of high carbon steels by a high

temperature gas flame at 2400-3500°C, followed by immediate cooling is air or water.

Induction hardening: Workpieces is heated in an induction furnace surrounded by copper

coils which are water cooled. High frequency AC current is passed through Cu coils and thus

alternate magnetic field set up which induce eddy currents on the surfaces.

Effects of alloying elements:

Element Effect(s)
Increase hardenability
Increase resistance
Mn
Reduces ductility and weldability
Increase hardenability significantly
Increase strength, toughness, red hardness, and hot When used with Cr,
Mo Mn, and V
Enhances corrosion and abrasion resistance
Ni Increases toughness and impact resistance
Increases strength in low carbon steel
P
Improves corrosion resistance
Strengthens low alloy steels
Increases hardenability
Si
Acts as deoxidizer
Improves magnetic properties when present in large percentage.
S Improves machinability of very low carbon steels
Increases austenitic hardenability
Ti
Reduces martensitic hardness in Cr steels
Increases strength while retaining ductility
V Produces fine grain size
Increases hardenability
Imparts hardness and wear resistance
W Significantly improves red hardness
Imparts strength temperature

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CHAPTER 3: FORMING
Introduction: Metal Forming is the manufacturing process in which the parts are produced by
plastic deformation.
Types of metal forming:
Cold working: plastic deformation of metals and alloys at a temperature below their
recrystallization temperature. Parts produced from it have better dimensional accuracy, better
surface finish, residual stresses, large power requirement.
T < 0.3 Tm
Warm Forming: Metal deformation carried out at temperatures intermediate to hot and cold
forming.
0.3 Tm < T < 0.5 Tm
Hot working: Plastic deformation of metals and alloys at such a temperature above
recrystallization temperature at which recovery and recrystallization take place simultaneously
with the strain hardening.
T > 0.6 Tm
Parts produced from hot working have poor surface finish, poor dimensional accuracy, less power
requirement.
Typical values for different type metalworking:
Category Temperature Strain rate sensitivity Coefficient of
range exponent friction
Cold working ≤ 0.3Tm 0 ≤ m ≤ 0.05 0.1
Warm working 0.3Tm – 0.5 Tm 0.05 ≤ m ≤ 0.1 0.2
Hot working 0.5Tm – 0.75 Tm 0.05 ≤ m ≤ 0.4 0.4 – 0.5

Classification of metalworking processes:

1. Direct compression type: Forging and Rolling
2. Indirect compression type: Wire drawing, Extrusion, Deep drawing
3. Tension type: Stretch Forming
4. Bending type: Bending of sheets
5. Shearing processes: Blanking, Coining, Joggling, Twisting.

Forging: Forging is a basic process in which the work piece is shaped by compressive forces
applied through various dies and tooling.
Open die forging: In this, the work piece is compressed between two platens. There is no
constraint to material flow in lateral direction.

• In edging the cross-section area is increased.

• In fullering cross section area is decreased and length is increased.

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• In Upsetting forging major length of part is in die and some part is out of die. Force is applied
parallel to axis to increase area of part outside the die. It is used to produce bolt heads.

Open die forging operations: (a) fullering, (b) edging, and (c) cogging
Impression die forging: In impression die forging, the work piece is pressed between the
dies. As the metal spreads to fill up the cavities sunk in the dies, the requisite shape is
formed between the closing dies.
Some material which is forced out of the dies is called “flash”.
Closed die forging: It is very similar to impression die forging, but in true closed die forging,
the amount of material initially taken is very carefully controlled, so that no flash is formed.
Drop forging: It utilizes a closed impression die to obtain the desired shape of the component.
The shaping is done by the repeated hammering given to the material in the die cavity. The
equipment used for delivering the blows are called drop hammers.
Press forging: In press forging the metal is shaped not by means of a series of blows as in
drop forging, but by means of a single continuous squeezing action.
Swaging: Swaging is a special variation of impact forging where the repeated blows are
obtained by a radial movement of shaped dies.
Analysis of forging:
Volume before forging = Volume after forging
 2 
d  h0 =  d12  h1
4 0 4

h0
d1 = d0
h1

Forging force calculation is done based on final dimensions.

 2rf 
Fact = y  A f 1 + 
 3hf 

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Where Af = final cross section area, rf = final radius, hf = final height.

True stress:

load
( ) (1 )
Instantaneous area

Where σ = engineering stress

ϵ = engineering strain
True strain is given by:
L
dx L Ao do
( ) ln ln(1 ) ln 2ln
x Lo A d
Lo

Flow stress is given by the power law:

n
T K( T)

Thus, mean flow stress is given by:

KnT
0 =
n+1
Forging defects:
(i). Barrelling is the defect when material near plates does not flow and material in middle
flow.
(ii). Die shift
(iii). Cold shut

Rolling: In this process, metals and alloys are plastically deformed into semi-finished or
finished products by being pressed between two rolls which are rotating.
Vtop roller = Vbottom roller

 DN   DN 
 60  = 
 top  60 bottom

DtNt = DbNb
H0B0V0 = H1B1V1

H0 V
= 1
H1 V0
( H0  H1 )

⇒ V1 > V0

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ΔH = reduction in thickness = (H0 – H1)

α = Deformation angle (or) Bite angle (or) Angle of bite.

H = D (1 – cos  )

Length of Contact : L = RH

2
Maximum reduction possible per pass: Hmax =  R

The neutral point defined in the deformation zone is dividing the deformation zone into two
zones:
(i). The zone between the entry and neutral points is called "lagging zone".
(ii). The zone between neutral point and exit is called "leading zone".
At the entry, the velocity of the strip is much less than the velocity of the roller, the relative
velocity between rollers and the strip is maximum.
(a). When we are moving along the deformation zone because of increase of velocity of strip
their relative velocity is reducing.
(b). At the neutral point the relative velocity becomes equal to zero.
(c). Beyond the neutral point the relative velocity again increasing in the opposite direction and
becomes maximum at the exit. But the maximum relative velocities at the entry and at exit
are not equal.
From the above in the deformation zone the relative velocity is reducing first and then
increasing, whereas in lagging zone relative velocity is reducing and in leading zone relative
velocity is increasing.
As slip ∝ Relative velocity

V − V0 V
Backward slip = =1− 0
V V

The maximum % slip taking place in the leading zone is called as “forward slip”.

V1 − V V1
Forward slip = = −1
V V

• In the deformation zone the pressure is increasing first and then decreasing:

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2 L
n=
H

μ = coefficient of friction

   H n
n
 y H 
(Px )lag =
 n  (n − 1)  0  + 1 −  0  1
    Hx    Hx 


   H n
n
 y H 
(Px )lead =
 n  (n + 1)  0  − 1 −  0  1
    Hx    Hx 


Hx = Thickness of stirp in leading zone at a distance of ‘x’.

Px, lag, Px, lead is pressure in lag and lead zones at a distance x respectively.

σ2 = front tension (not compulsory)

At the neutral point the pressure is equal:

(Pn)lagging = (Pn)leading

Rolls Power: P = 2Tω (As two power rollers considered)

T = Torque required per single roller

2N
Angular velocity:  =
60

N = rpm of rollers

T = Favg × a

Moment arm: a = λL

T = Favg × λL

λ (arm factor) = 0.3 to 0.5

2  L 
Pavg = y   1 + 
3  4H 

0 + H1
Where H =
2

Defects in Rolling:

• Alligatoring

• Wavy edges

Extrusion: Extrusion is a process in which the metal is subjected to plastic flow by enclosing

the metal in a closed chamber in which the only opening provided is through a die.

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Types of Extrusion Processes:

These are mainly Forward extrusion or backward extrusion. These two can be in both the hot
and cold conditions:
Forward or Direct extrusion: A metal billet is loaded into a container, and a ram compresses
the material, forcing it to flow through one or more openings in a die at the opposite end of the
container.

Backward or Indirect extrusion: The die is mounted to the ram rather than at the opposite
end of the container. As the ram penetrates the work, the metal is forced to flow through the
clearance in a direction opposite to the motion of the ram. Since the billet is not forced to move
relative to the container, there is no friction at the container walls, and the ram force is
therefore lower than in direct extrusion.

Hot extrusion vs cold extrusion: Metals that are typically extruded hot include aluminium,
copper, magnesium, zinc, tin, and their alloys. These same metals are sometimes extruded
cold. Steel alloys are usually extruded hot, although the softer, more ductile grades are
sometimes cold extruded (e.g., low carbon steels and stainless steel).
Cold Extrusion Processes:
(a). Hydrostatic extrusion: This is a direct extrusion process. But the pressure is applied to
the metal blank on all sides through a fluid medium.
(b). Impact extrusion: Collapsible bottles are made by impact extrusion.

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Calculations in Extrusion:
A0
Extrusion or reduction ratio: R =
Af

Where Ao and Af are the original and final areas, respectively.

Johnson’s equation:

 = o [a + b lnR]

Where a and b are Johnson’s constants, σo is the nominal stress and R is the extrusion
ratio.

KnT
0 =
n+1

 B
 1 + B    Af  
Slab Method: E = y   1 −  
 B    A0  
 

Where B = μ.cot α
μ = coefficient of friction
α = semi die angle

2o
For Plane strain: y =
3

For Plane stress: y = o

For Hot Extrusion:

d = k1 lnR

K1 = Extrusion constant which depends upon the temperature

Extrusion defects:
Surface Cracking: Sometimes the surface of extruded metal/products develops surface
cracks. If extrusion temperature, friction, or speed is too high, surface temperatures can
rise significantly, which may cause surface cracking and tearing.
Piping: The type of metal-flow pattern in extrusion tends to draw surface oxides and
impurities toward the centre of the billet-much like a funnel. This defect is known as pipe
defect, tailpipe, or fishtailing.
Wire drawing: Wire drawing process is a cold working process used to produce wires from
solid rods by pulling through a stationary die.

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Analysis of wire drawing operation

 2
Original area: A0 = D
4 0

 2
Final Area: A f = D
4 f

The draft is simply the difference between original and final stock diameters:

d=Do − Df

In a drawing operation, the change in size of the work is usually given by the area
reduction, defi ned as follows:

A0 − A f
% Reduction in area:r=
A0

D0 − Df
Contact length (Lc) of the work with the draw die: L c=
2 sin 

Ao 1
Mechanics of drawing:  = ln = ln
Af 1−r

Drawing stress (σd) is given by:

  Af 
B
 
B
1 + B  
d = y   1 −    +   Af 
b 
 B   A0    A0 
 

Where σb = Back pull stress

B = μcot α
μ = coefficient of friction
α = semi die angle
Drawing Force: F = σd × Af
When σb =0, Back pull stress

  Af  
B
1 + B  
d = y   1 −   
 B   A0  
 

For maximum reduction case: σd = σy

d
 =1
y

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d  1 + B    A f 
B
But, =  1−  
y  B    A0  
 

 B
 1 + B    A1  
  1 −   =1
 B    A0  
 

Under ideal conditions of wire drawing operation, the coefficient of friction is assumed
to be zero.
Therefore, μ = 0 ⇒ B = 0

A0
d (ideal) = y ln
Af

Sheet metal working operations: The basic cutting operations which come under
Sheet Metal Operations are:
(a). Punching Operation
(b). Blanking Operation
(a). Punching Operation: When the force is applied by using the punch on to the sheet,
the cutting or shearing action will be taking place in the sheet producing piece/blank
leaving a hole in the sheet.
In punch and die working, if the sheet with the hole is useful, it is called Punching or
Piercing operation.

Punch Size  Die Size (Basic Requirement )

Punch Size = Hole Size (Needed)

Clearance → Die.
Shear → Punch.
(b). Blanking Operation: In punch and die working, if the Piece/blank produced in the
sheet is useful, it is called as Blanking operation.
In blanking Operation, the die size is made equal to blank size and clearance is provided
only on the Punch.

Blank Size = Die Size (Basic Requirement )

Punch Size = Die size − 2C (Needed)

• Clearance → Punch.
• Shear → Die.

Analysis of punching and blanking

• Optimum Radial clearance: C = 0.0032t u

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• Fmax = A s  u

As = shearing area = p × t
Where p is the perimeter of the hole.
τu = ultimate shear stress
• For rectangular blanks with length L and width b

Fmax = 2 (L + b ) t.u

• Work done = Force × distance

Work Done = Fmax  Kt

K = % penetration required for completing the shearing action.

4tu
dmin(Smallest Diameter) =
c,allowable

Methods of reducing punch force: It is done by providing shear on punch. Energy

required if shear is provided

Energy required = F  (Kt + I) (always F < Fmax).

The energy required for punching or blanking is remains same with and without provided
shear:

Fmax. K.t = F (K.t + I)

 F Kt 
F =  max 
 (Kt + 1) 

Slotting is the term sometimes used for a punching operation that cuts out an elongated
or rectangular hole.
Perforating involves the simultaneous punching of a pattern of holes in sheet metal.
Notching involves cutting out a portion of metal from the side of the sheet or strip.
Seminotching removes a portion of metal from the interior of the sheet.
Lancing: It is creating a tab on the edge without removal of material.
Nibbling: The process of creating a profile in the sheet is called nibbling.
Parting: Shearing the plates into two parts.

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Figure: a) Slotting, (b) perforating, (c) notching and semi notching.

Deep drawing: It is a Sheet Metal forming process in which a sheet metal blank is
radially drawn into a forming die by the mechanical action of a punch.
h
If ≥ 0.5 it is called deep drawing.
d

h
If < 0.5 is called shallow drawing.
d

Blank diameter is given by:

d
D= d2 + 4dh if  20
r

r d
D= d2 + 4dh – If = 15 to 20
2 r

d
D= d2 + 4dh – r If = 10 to 15
r

Blank Diameter
Draw ratio : DR =
Punch Diameter

An approximate upper limit on the drawing ratio is a value of 2.0.

D
DR1 =
d1

d1
DR2 =
d2

d2
DR3 =
d3

Db  
Deep Drawing force is given by: F = Dp t(TS)  − 0.7 
 
 Dp 

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Where t original blank thickness, mm; TS = tensile strength, MPa and Db and Dp are the

starting blank diameter and punch diameter, respectively.

Drawing Without a Blank holder: One of the primary functions of the blank holder is to

prevent wrinkling of the flange while the cup is being drawn. The tendency for wrinkling is

reduced as the thickness-to-diameter ratio of the blank increases. If the t/Db ratio is large

enough, drawing can be accomplished without a blank holder. The limiting condition for

drawing without a blank holder can be estimated from the following:

Db − Dp  5t

Defects in Drawing:

(a). Wrinkling in the flange: Wrinkling in a drawn part consists of a series of ridges that

form radially in the undrawn flange of the work part due to compressive buckling.

(b). Wrinkling in the wall: If and when the wrinkled flange is drawn into the cup, these

ridges appear in the vertical wall.

(c). Tearing: Tearing is an open crack in the vertical wall, usually near the base of the

drawn cup, due to high tensile stresses that cause thinning and failure of the metal at this

location. This type of failure can also occur as the metal is pulled over a sharp die corner.

(d). Earing: This is the formation of irregularities (called ears) in the upper edge of a deep

drawn cup, caused by anisotropy in the sheet metal. If the material is perfectly isotropic,

ears do not form.

(e). Surface scratches: Surface scratches can occur on the drawn part if the punch and

die are not smooth or if lubrication is insufficient.

Bending operation:

Bend allowance: Lb = rn × ϕ

r = inside radius

Neutral plane radius: rn = r + Kt

Where K = Stretch factor or bend factor

Thus: Lb = [r + Kt]

Where ϕ is in radians.

1
K= if r  2t and K = 1 if r  2t
3 2

Spring back: It is the elastic recovery partially toward its original shape. In overbending,

the punch angle and radius are fabricated slightly smaller than the specified angle on the

final part so that the sheet metal springs back to the desired value.

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K ( TS ) wt2
Bending force: F =
D

where F = bending force, N; TS = tensile strength of the sheet metal, MPa; w = width of

part in the direction of the bend axis, mm; t = stock thickness, mm; and D = die opening

dimension.

Spinning: In the spinning process, an object with surface of revolution is produced from

a sheet metal.

The thickness of the sheet after the spinning operation is given by:

t c = tb sin 
where α is the semi die angle.
tc=Thickness of sheet after spinning.
tb=Thickness of sheet before spinning.
Stretch forming: a metal forming process in which a piece of sheet metal is stretched
and bent simultaneously over a die in order to form large, contoured parts.

For biaxial stretching of sheets:

1 = ln  L i1  , 2 = ln  L i2 
   
   
 L o1   L o2 
Where ϵ1 is the true strain for the one part of sheet and ϵ2 is the true strain for the
other part of the sheet.

Initial thickness(ti )
Final thickness(t f ) =
1   2
e e
Ironing Force: The objective is only to reduce the wall thickness of the cup and hence,
no blank holding is required because the punch is fitted closely inside the cup.

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t0
Ironing force: P = d1 t1sav loge
t1

Where
F = Ironing force, N
d1 = Mean diameter of the shell after ironing,
t1 = Thickness of shell after ironing,
t0 = Thickness of the shell before ironing, and
Sav = Average of tensile strength before and after ironing.

Powder metallurgy:

Blending: Blending or mixing operations can be done either dry or wet. Lubricants such

as graphite or stearic acid improve the flow characteristics and compressibility at the

expense of reduced strength.

Compacting: Powder is pressed into a “green compact” and still very porous, ~70%

density.

Sintering: Controlled atmosphere: no oxygen, Heat to 0.75Tm, Particles bind together and

density increase, up to 95%.

Infiltration: The liquid would flow into the voids simply by capillary action, thereby

decreasing the porosity and improving the strength of the component.

Impregnation: It is used for self-lubrication under action conditions. The liquid would flow

into the voids simply by capillary action.

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CHAPTER 4: JOINING
Introduction: Welding is the process of joining together two pieces of metal with the application

of heat or pressure or both is applied and with or without added metal for formation of metallic

bond.

Types of welding:

Arc Welding: Electric arc welding is one of the fusion welding processes in which coalescence

of the metal is achieved by the heat from an electric arc between an electrode and workpiece.

• Electric arc is generated when electrode is brought into contact with the work and is then

quickly separated by a short distance approximately 2 mm.

• In order to produce the arc, potential difference between the two electrodes should be

sufficient to allow them to move across the air gap.

• The non-consumable electrodes made of tungsten or carbon. These do not melt in the

process of welding and so called non-consumable electrodes.

• Consumable electrodes are consumed in the welding operation.

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• In case of use of non-consumable electrode separate filler metal is used to improve properties

of weldment. Selection of a filler metal depends on the metal to be welded.

• Flux gives alloys to bead materials, bead becomes stronger than parent metal. It protects the

bead from atmospheric gases.

V-I characteristics of arc welding:

V = V0 − VDrop

V 
V = V0 −  0  I
 IS 

V = a + bL → arc length characteristics

Where L = Arc Length

At stable equilibrium condition:
Va = V
Power P = VI

I 
P = (a + bL)I = ( a + bL )  s (V0 − a − bL)
 Vo 
For maximum power output:
dP
= 0 → L = ...optimum arc length.
dL
Vopt < Vo
Iopt < IS
Duty cycle: Duty cycle is the percentage of time that a machine will safely operate (or
weld), within a certain time period, at a given amperage.

Arc on Time (AOT)

Duty Cycle =
Total welding Time

Total welding time = Arc on time + Rest

Time For a welding transformer

I2dDd=Ir2Dr

Where
Id = Desired output current in Amp
Ir = Rated output current in Amp
Dd = Desired duty Cycle %

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Dr = Rated duty Cycle%

Hear flow characteristics in Arc Welding:
Heat input rate: Q = KVI
Length of weld head
No of electrodes required / pass =
x
Total number of electrodes required
Number of passes =
Number of electrodes/pass
Length of weld head
Arc on time / pass =
welding speed
Total Arc on Time = A.O.T/pass × No of passes
Time Arc on Time
Total welding time =
Duty cycle
Comparison of Different Electrode polarities:
DCRP and DCSP:

Direct Current Straight

Direct Current Reverse
ACHF
Polarity (DCSP) Polarity (DCRP)

1. Penetration
shallow Deep Intermediate
2/3rd at electrode, 1/3rd 1/3rd at electrode, 2/3
2. Heat generation 50% on both
at workpiece at workpiece
3. Metal deposition
High Low Intermediate
rate
4. Thickness of
Thin sheets Thick sheets Intermediate
work to be welded
5. Stable smaller
Easier Easier Difficult
arc

6. Arc blow Severe Severe Insignificant

(a). Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) or TIG Welding:

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• In a TIG welding process, a high intense arc is produced between non consumable
tungsten electrode and work piece. Typical shielding gases include argon, helium, or a
mixture of these gas elements.
• A separate filler metal rod is used to deposit the material
• This was primarily invented to weld alloys of Aluminium and Magnesium. Aluminium is very
difficult to weld because as soon as it is exposed to atmosphere it forms a layer over it. To
weld these materials work piece should be given negative polarity and electrode positive
polarity.
(b). Gas Metal arc welding (GMAW) or MIG Welding: The electrode is a consumable bare
metal wire, and shielding is accomplished by flooding the arc with Gases such as argon and
helium, and active gases such as carbon dioxide. The bare wire is fed continuously and
automatically from a spool through the welding gun.
Inert gases are used for welding aluminium alloys and stainless steels, while CO2 is commonly
used for welding low and medium carbon steels. GMAW is widely used in fabrication operations
in factories for welding a variety of ferrous and nonferrous metals
(c). Shielded Metal arc welding (SMAW) or stick welding: It uses a consumable electrode
consisting of a filler metal rod coated with chemicals that provide flux and shielding. Currents
typically used in SMAW range between 30 and 300 A at voltages from 15 to 45 V.
Shielded metal arc welding is usually performed manually. Common applications include
construction, pipelines, machinery structures, shipbuilding, job shop fabrication, and repair
work.
(d). Submerged Arc Welding (SAW): an arcwelding process that uses a continuous,
consumable bare wire electrode, and arc shielding is provided by a cover of granular flux. The
Submerged Arc Welding can be used to weld pressure vessels like boilers.

Submerged arc welding is widely used in steel fabrication for structural shapes (e.g., welded I-
beams); longitudinal and circumferential seams for large diameter pipes, tanks, and pressure
vessels; and welded components for heavy machinery.
Low-carbon, low-alloy, and stainless steels can be readily welded by SAW; but not high-
carbon steels, tool steels, and most nonferrous metals. Because of the gravity feed of the
granular flux, the parts must always be in a horizontal orientation.

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(e). Electro gas welding: an AW process that uses a continuous consumable electrode (either
flux-cored wire or bare wire with externally supplied shielding gases) and molding shoes to
contain the molten metal. The process is primarily applied to vertical butt welding.
Principal applications of electro gas welding are steels (low-and medium-carbon, low-alloy, and
certain stainless steels) in the construction of large storage tanks and in ship building.
(f). Plasma Arc Welding (PAW): A special form of gas tungsten arc welding in which a
constricted plasma arc is directed at the weld area.
Argon, argon–hydrogen, and helium are also used as the arc-shielding gases. Plasma is the pool

of ionized gas. Temperature is about 17000  C .

The process can be used to weld almost any metal, including tungsten. Difficult-to-weld metals
with PAW include bronze, cast irons, lead, and magnesium.
(g). Carbon arc welding (CAW): is an arc-welding process in which a non-consumable carbon
(graphite) electrode is used. The carbon arc process is used as a heat source for brazing and for
repairing iron castings. It can also be used in some applications for depositing wear resistant
materials on surfaces.
(h). Stud welding (SW) is a specialized AW process for joining studs or similar components
to base parts. SW applications include threaded fasteners for attaching handles to cookware,
heat radiation fi ns on machinery, and similar assembly situations.

Resistance Welding: The resistance welding is produced by means of electrical resistance

across the two components to be joined.
2
Heat generated: Hg = I Rt

Where I = current passing through circuit

R = Electrical Resistance at the interface
t = time during which current is passing
Heat required for melting:

Heat Required: Hm = mL + mC P (Tm – Ta )

Where: L = latent heat of fusion

Tm = Melting point of the material
Ta = ambient temperature
Melting efficiency (ηm) is given by:

Hm
m =
Hg

For MIG welding:

Wire melting rate = filling rate of weld bead


d2  f = A  v
4

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Where f = feed rate of wire

d = diameter of the wire
A = area of the weld
v = welding speed
Heat transfer efficiency (ηt) is given by:

VI
Ht =  t J / mm3
Av

(a). Resistance Spot Welding: An RW process in which fusion of the faying surfaces of a lap
joint is achieved at one location by opposing electrodes. The process is used to join sheet-metal
parts of thickness 3 mm or less, using a series of spot welds, in situations where an airtight
assembly is not required.
Materials used for RSW electrodes consist of two main groups: (1) copper-based alloys and (2)
refractory metal compositions.

 2
Volume of nugget: V = Dh
4

Diameter of the nugget: D = 6 t mm

Press-type spot welders are intended for larger work than rocker arm type guns.
It is widely used in mass production of automobiles, appliances, metal furniture, and other
products made of sheet metal.

(b). Seam Welding: Electrodes are in the form of rotating wheels and the welding is the
Continuous spot welding. The current is applied through the heavy copper electrodes in a series
of pulses at proper intervals. The process is capable of producing air-tight joints, and its industrial
applications include the production of gasoline tanks, automobile mufflers.

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(c). Projection Welding: Resistance projection welding (RPW) is an RW process in which

coalescence occurs at one or more relatively small contact points on the parts. The welding of
two sheets without any indentation is done. One sheet has some projections.

(d). Other Resistance-Welding Operations:

(i). Flash butt Welding: In flash welding (FW), normally used for butt joints, the two surfaces
to be joined are brought into contact or near contact and electric current is applied to heat the
surfaces to the melting point, after which the surfaces are forced together to form the weld.

(ii). Upset welding (UW) is similar to flash welding except that in UW the faying surfaces are
pressed together during heating and upsetting.
(iii). Percussion welding (PEW) is also similar to flash welding, except that the duration of
the weld cycle is extremely short, typically lasting only 1 to 10 ms.
(iv). High-frequency resistance welding (HFRW) is a resistance-welding process in which
a high-frequency (10 to 500 kHz) alternating current is used for heating, followed by the rapid
application of an upsetting force to cause coalescence.

(v). Ultrasonic Welding (USW): It is a welding technique which uses ultrasonic vibration of
high frequency to weld the two pieces together. It is most used to weld thermoplastic materials
and dissimilar materials. Metal with thin section can also be welded with USW.

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• The frequency applied is 20-60 KHz.

• It is a case of solid-state welding.

Electron beam welding (EBW): In this high velocity electron beam is made to strike at
workpiece. High Vacuum is required and Entire set up is lead lines to avoid getting out of X
rays. The electron beam gun operates at high voltage to accelerate the electrons (e.g., 10–150
kV typical), and beam currents are low (measured in milliamps). Welding speeds are high
compared to other continuous welding operations. No filler metal is used, and no flux or shielding
gases are needed. Minimum heat affected zone.
Any metals that can be arc welded can be welded by EBW, as well as certain refractory and
difficult-to-weld metals that are not suited to AW. Work sizes range from thin foil to thick plate.
EBW is applied mostly in the automotive, aerospace, and nuclear industries.
Laser beam welding (LBW): A fusion-welding process in which coalescence is achieved by the
energy of a highly concentrated, coherent light beam focused on the joint to be welded. It is
used to weld copper and aluminium alloys in electronics industry.
LBW produces welds of high quality, deep penetration, and narrow heat-affected zone. here are
several advantages of LBW over EBW: no vacuum chamber is required, no X-rays are emitted,
and laser beams can be focused and directed by optical lenses and mirrors.
Explosive welding: Explosion welding is solid state welding process where welding is
accomplished by accelerating one of the components at extremely high velocity through the
use of chemical explosives.
This process is most commonly utilized to clad carbon steel plate with a thin layer
of corrosion resistant material.

Friction Welding: Friction welding (FRW) is a solid-state welding process in which coalescence
is achieved by frictional heat combined with pressure. It is used for welding of dissimilar metals.

When properly carried out, no melting occurs at the faying surfaces. No filler metal, flux, or
shielding gases are normally used.

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Friction stir welding (FSW): Friction stir welding (FSW) is a solid-state joining process that
uses frictional heat generated by a rotating tool to join materials. The process is primarily used
in industry to join aluminium alloys of all grades, whether cast, rolled or extruded. FSW has been
used for a variety of applications across industries ranging from aerospace to shipbuilding and
rail to electronics, including EV battery trays.

Thermit Welding: Mixture of aluminium powder and iron oxide that produces an exothermic
reaction when ignited. It is used in incendiary bombs and for welding. Mixture is placed in a
crucible and ignited by means of a firecracker. It is used for repair of railway track.
Finely mixed powders of aluminium and iron oxide (in a 1:3 mixture), when ignited at a
temperature of around 1300°C, produce the following chemical reaction:
8 Al + 3 Fe3O4 –-----> 9 Fe + 4 Al2O3 + Heat
The temperature from the reaction is around 2500°C (4500°F), resulting in superheated molten
iron plus aluminium oxide that floats to the top as a slag and protects the iron from the
atmosphere.
GAS WELDING: Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW) is the term used to describe the group of FW
operations that burn various fuels mixed with oxygen to perform welding. Oxyfuel gas is also
commonly used in cutting torches to cut and separate metal plates and other parts. The most
important OFW process is oxyacetylene welding.
Carburizing Flame: It has silent flame. This flame is obtained when excess of acetylene is
supplied than which is theoretically required. It is used for cast iron. The inner cone has a
feathery edge extending beyond it. This white feather is called the acetylene feather. Maximum
temperature obtained is 3040°C.

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Neutral Flame: This consists of nearly one to one ratio of acetylene and oxygen by volume. It
is used for mild steel. Maximum temperature obtained is 3200°C.
Oxidizing Flame: Because of an excess amount of oxygen is supplied from the oxygen cylinder,
distance to be travelled by the flame for complete combustion will be reducing, therefore, the
length of inner cone is reduced. It produces roaring sound. It is used for copper zinc-based
alloys. Maximum temperature obtained is 3380°C.
Soldering, Brazing:
Soldering: A joining process in which a filler metal with melting point (liquidus) not exceeding
450°C is melted and distributed by capillary action between the faying surfaces of the metal
parts being joined
The flux is zinc chloride.
The filler material is lead with tin.
Brazing: Brazing joints forms at temperatures higher than 450°C & the non-ferrous filler
metal is drawn into and fills the closely fitted mating surface by capillary action. The joints
obtained in Brazing are stronger than soldered joints.
Common ingredients for brazing fluxes include borax, borates, fluorides, and chlorides.

Braze welding is different from Brazing & here the filler metal is deposited in groves &
capillary attraction is not the factor in distributing the filler metal. Braze welding is frequently
used to repair cracked or broken cast Iron parts.

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CHAPTER 5: MACHINING AND MACHINABILITY

MACHINING: Machining is the process of removing unwanted material from workpiece. The
important elements are workpiece, cutting tool, chips. Culling tools are classified into two
major groups:

Single point cutting tools: In a single-point tool, there is one tool point from which the name
of this cutting tool is derived. The point is usually rounded to a certain radius, called the nose
radius.
Example: Turning tool, parting tool, Shaping tool etc.
Multipoint cutting tools: They have more than one cutting edge to remove excess material
from the work piece.
Examples: Milling cutters, drills, reamers, broaches and grinding wheels are multi point cutting
tools.
Single point cutting tool:

ASA Tool Signature:

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Back rake angle - Side rake angle - End relief angle - Side relief angle - End cutting edge angle
- Side cutting edge angle- Nose radius.
Orthogonal rake system (ORS):
Inclination angle-Normal Rake Angle - side relief angle- end relief angle - end cutting edge
angle - approach angle λ – Nose Radius R.
Conversion formulas from one system to other:

tan I = cos  tan  ab – sin  tan  as

tan n = cos  tan  as + sin  tan  ab

Where Ψ = side cutting edge angle

Back rake angle: For Machining brass, zero-degree rake angles are chosen.
Side cutting edge angle (Ψ):

d
w=
cos 

d = depth of cut
w = width of cut
ft
= cos 
f

True feed : ft = f cos 

t1 = uncut chip thickness.

TYPES OF METAL CUTTING PROCESS:
Orthogonal cutting (Two-dimensional cutting). Cutting edge is at right angle to tool feed.

Oblique cutting (Three-dimensional cutting): Cutting edge is at acute angle to tool feed.
Types of chips:

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Continuous Chips: Ductile materials, High speed, Low feed and depth of cut and High back
rake angle.
Discontinuous Chips: Brittle materials, Low speed, High feed and depth of cut and Low back
rake angle.
Chips with built-up edge: Ductile material, Low speed and High feed and depth of cut.
MERCHANT’S ANALYSIS:

cos 
tan  =
t2
− sin 
t1

t1
chip thickness ratio: r = 1
t2

t l V sin 
r= = c = C =
tc l V cos( − )

1 t2
Chip reduction coefficient:  = = 1
r t1

Shear strain:  = tan ( −  ) + cot 

V VC VS
= =
(
sin 90 −  + 
o
) (
sin  sin 90o −  )
V VC VS
= =
cos ( −  ) sin  cos 

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V cos  V sin 
VS = and Vc =
cos ( −  ) cos ( −  )

Resultant force: R = FC2 + FT2 = Diameter of Merchant circle

F N FS
R= = =
sin  cos  cos( +  − )

 FT 
Friction angle:  =  + tan−1  
 FC 
In general FC > FT, but in some cases FC < FT like face turning operation, broaching, grinding
etc
FT
= 2.5(Grinding)
FC

In that case According to Classical frictional theorem:

1
ln  
r
=  

−
2
Shear plane area: As = AB × b
Where AB is the shear plane length.
t1
As = b
sin 

W.D = Energy required = FC  VC

Merchant’s 1st angle relation (Minimum Power Requirement):

2 +  –  = 90

Lee and Shaffer relation:

 +  –  = 45

Machining constant or Merchants constant (Cm):

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Cm = 2 +  – 

Work done J
SPECIFIC CUTTING ENERGY: SCE =
material removal rate mm3
Specific cutting pressure or specific cutting energy:

FC  VC F
SCE = = C N/mm2
t1  b  VC A0

TAYLOR’S TOOL LIFE EQUATION:

VTn = C
V = cutting speed
T = tool life.
C = machining constant.
n = Tool life exponent (depends only on tool material)

Effect of Back Rake angle on tool life:

When the rake angle increases, Life starts improving because the cutting force reduces. A
further increase in the rake angle results in a larger temperature since the tool becomes thinner
and the area available for heat conduction reduces.
Similarly, when the clearance angle increases, the tool life increases at first. This is due to for
the same volume of flank wear, hf reduces. However, with a further increase in the clearance
angle, the tool becomes thinner and the tool life decreases due to the higher temperature.
Effect of parameters:
Higher the cutting speed tool life will decrease. By increasing the feed and depth of cut, tool
life will decrease.

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Vt
Machinability index =  100
Vs

VS = Cutting speed of standard free-cutting steel for 1 min tool life.

Vt = Cutting speed of metal for 1 min tool life.
Economics of machining:
Minimum Cost Criteria:

 1 − n  Ct 
Topt =   
 n  Cm 

Maximum production rate criteria:

 1 − n  
Topt =   Tc 
 n  

Velocity and Tool life order:

(V )opt min cost  (V )

opt max profit  (V )opt max. prod. rate

(T )opt max prod. rate  (T )

opt max profit  (T )
opt min cost

Various Operation of Metal cutting:

Facing Operation:

length of tool travel L

Time per cut = =
feed velocity fN

D
L= + AP + OR
2
Turning operation:
length of tool travel L
Time per cut = =
feed velocity fN
The empirical formula used for calculating the taper is:

D1 − D2
tan  =
2L
Where θ is half of the included angle, D1 and D2 are the major and minor diameters of the
workpiece and L is the length of the tapered portion.
Offsetting the tailstock:

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If α is very small, then we can approximate

D−d
sin  = tan  =
2L

(D − d) = (D − d)  Total length of workpiece

∴ Offset: S = L
2l 2 Taper length

This is the most general situation where the taper is to be obtained over a small portion
of the length (l) of the job while the actual length of the work piece, L could be long.
However, when they are equal i.e. L = l, then:

Offset: S=
( D − d)
2
In turning:
Di − Df
As depth of cut: d = and V = DavgN mm / min
2
Di + Df D + Df
Davg = V= i N
2 2

 Di2 − Df 2 
Thus, MRR =    fN mm3/min
 4 

Thread cutting operation

L
Time/cut : tm =
fN
L = Length of the component + AP + OR
f = pitch → single start = lead → multi-starts
Lead = pitch × number of starts
Gear ratio = Train value = speed of follower/speed of driver

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number of teeth on driver gear pitch to be cut on job

Gear ratio = =
number of teeth on driven gear pitch on lead screw

Lead of job threads

Gear ratio =
lead of lead screw threads
Drilling:

L
Time/hole : tm =
fN
L = Length of tool travel
L = t + (AP1) + AP + OR

D
Break through distance: A =
2 tan 
 2
MRR in drilling: MRR = D fN
4

Broaching: Broaching is a method of removing metal by a tool that has successively

higher cutting edges in a fixed path.
Knurling Process: Knurling is a manufacturing process, typically conducted on a lathe,
whereby a pattern of straight, angled or crossed lines is rolled into the material to make
a grip on the surface.
Thread Rolling: A work blank is pressed between either two flat dies or three circular
die process and threads are produced plastic deformation process.
Boring: It is the process of enlarging already existing hole to bring it to the required size.
Reaming: It is the process of finishing the hole.
Counter Boring: Counterboring provides a stepped hole, in which a larger diameter
follows a smaller diameter partially into the hole.
Counter sinking: This is similar to counterboring, except that the step in the hole is
cone-shaped for flat head screws and bolts.
MILLING:
The material removal rate is:

MRR = w  d  fm

Peripheral or slab milling operation: In peripheral milling, also called plain milling,
the axis of the tool is parallel to the surface being machined.
Two forms of peripheral milling: In peripheral milling, the direction of cutter rotation
distinguishes two forms of milling: up milling and down milling.

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Two forms of peripheral milling operation Up milling or conventional milling

Up milling (conventional milling): the direction of motion of the cutter teeth is

opposite the feed direction when the teeth cut into the work. the chip formed by each

cutter tooth starts out very thin and increases in thickness during the sweep of the cutter.

Down Milling (Climb Milling): The direction of cutter motion is the same as the feed

direction when the teeth cut the work. Each chip starts out thick and reduces in thickness

throughout the cut.

AP = O1O2

AP = Dd − d2 = d(D − d)

2fm d
Maximum chip thickness: t1max =
NZ D

fm d
Average chip thickness: t1avg =
NZ D
fm = Table speed or feed in mm/min
f × N = ft × Z × N

fm
Feed per tooth: ft =
NZ
f = table feed in mm/rev
ft = table feed in mm/tooth
N = rpm of cutter
Z = Number of teeth
d = depth of cut
D = diameter of milling cutter
Face Milling: In face milling, the axis of the cutter is perpendicular to the surface being
milled.

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(a). When cutter is centered over the work piece and (b). When cutter is offset
to one side over the work.

2 2
Symmetric milling: A = 0.5(D − D − w )

If D = w, A = 0.5D
If D < w, then a slot is cut into the work and it = 0.5D.

When Cutter is offset: A = w(D − w)

Grinding: Grinding is a chip-removal process that uses an individual abrasive grain as
the cutting tool, and it is accomplished by abrasive particles that are contained in a
bonded grinding wheel rotating at very high surface speeds.
Grinding Wheel Specification:
The preceding parameters can be concisely designated in a standard grinding wheel
marking system defined by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). This
marking system uses numbers and letters to specify abrasive type, grit size, grade,
structure, and bond material.

The undeformed chip length (l) in surface grinding is approximated by the equation

l = Dd
The undeformed chip thickness, t, by the equation:

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 4V   d 
t=    
 VCr   D 
Grinding Ratio: Grinding-wheel wear is generally correlated with the amount of
workpiece material ground by a parameter called the grinding ratio, G, defined as:

volume of material removed

G=
Volume of wheel wear
External Centreless grinding: The following equation can be used to predict through
feed rate, based on inclination angle and other parameters of the process:

fr = DrNrSinI

Where:

fr: through feed rate, mm/min

Dr: diameter of the regulating wheel, mm

Nr: rotational speed of the regulating wheel, rev/min

I: inclination angle of the regulating wheel

Honing: Honing is an abrasive process performed by a set of bonded abrasive sticks. A

common application is to finish the bores of internal combustion engines. The motion of
the honing tool is a combination of rotation and linear reciprocation, regulated in such a
way that a given point on the abrasive stick does not trace the same path repeatedly.
Honing speeds are 15 to 150 m/min. Hone pressures of 1 to 3 MPa are typical.
Lapping: Lapping is an abrasive process used to produce surface finishes of extreme
accuracy and smoothness. Common abrasives are aluminium oxide and silicon carbide
with typical grit sizes between 300 and 600.

NON -TRADITIONAL MACHINING:

Requirements: When material is very hard and strong which is difficult to machine by
traditional process. When job is very complex.
(a). Electric Discharge Machining: The shape of the finished work surface is produced
by a formed electrode tool.
(i). High voltage, low current process.
(ii). Mechanism of metal removal: Erosion, melting, vaporisation.
(iii). Dielectric is kerosene.
1
(iv). Energy released/spark: E = CVd2 J
2

 V0 
Cycle time : tc = RC ln   sec
 V0 – Vd 

E
Avg. power input: Pavg =
tc

The discharge voltage (Vd) and dc source voltage (Vo) relation is given by:

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(
Vd = Vo 1 − e− tc /RC )
For maximum power delivery:

 Vd 
  = 0.72
 Vo opt

For a purely inductive discharging circuit, the critical value of resistance is:

L
R min =
C

Where,

L = inductance of discharge circuit,

If R falls below this critical value, arcing, instead of sparking, will take place.

As in EDM, an overcut exists in wire EDM that makes the kerf larger than the wire
diameter.

MRR = Cross section area of cut  wire feed mm3 / sec ( )

CSA of cut = width of cut × thickness of W/P

Width of cut = Wire diameter + Spark gap around the wire

MRR in the RC circuit:

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MRR characteristics in EDM using RC relaxation circuit

(b). Electro Chemical Machining (ECM):

• High current low voltage.

• Mechanics of MRR: Ion displacement

• Medium: Conducting electrolyte

• Tool Materials: Cu, Brass, Steel

 AI  g  AI  cm3
MRR =   =  
 ZF  sec  ZF  sec

F = Faraday's constant = 96,500 coleuses

I = current flowing in amperes

Z = Valences of metal dissolved

A=atomic wt of material in gms.

ρ = density of work piece, gm/cm3

MRR for an alloy:

0.1035  10−2  1  3
Q=   cm / amp − sec
   ( xiZi / Ai ) 

If the total overvoltage at the anode and the cathode be ∆V and the applied Voltage is V,

the current I is given by:

V − V
I=
R
Where R is ohmic resistance of the electrolyte.

Kinematics of ECM:
Current density = VK /y= ρ.f/Z
Where,
y = gap between tool and work,
V = applied voltage,
K = conductivity of electrolyte (mho/mm)

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ρ = density of work material kg/mm 9

f = tool feed rate (mm/sec)

(c). Ultrasonic Machining (USM):

• Mechanics of MRR: Brittle fracture caused by impact of abrasive grains due to tool

vibrating at high frequency.

• Medium: Slurry (abrasives mixed with water, paraffin etc.)

• Abrasives: Al2O3, B4C (Boron Carbide), SiC, diamond (Usually B4C with water as slurry

and SiC with paraffin as slurry) and 100 — 800 grit size.

• Vibration frequency: 15 to 30 KHz

• Vibration Amplitude: 25 to 100 gm

• Tool: Material soft steel, cu or brass.

• For a given work material, the removal rate in USM:

Q  Zv

Where:

Q = Volume of work material removal rate

ν = frequency

Z = Number of particles making impact/cycle

v = volume of work material dislodged/impact

Shape Application: Round and irregular holes, impressions.

Limitations: Very low MRR, tool wear, depth of holes and small cavities

(d). Abrasive jet machining:

• Mechanism of material removal is due to brittle fracture by impinging abrasive grains at

high speed.

• This process is more suitable when the work material is brittle and fragile.

• Media for flow of abrasives is air or CO2, abrasive material is Al2O3 or SiC.

MRR in AJM:
Metal removal Rate in AJM is given by:
3/4
3 1.5   
MRR = Zd V   Where,
 12Hw 

χ = constant,

Z = no. of abrasive particles impinging per unit time

d = mean diameter of abrasive grains

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V = velocity of abrasive grains

ρ = density of abrasive materials

HW = hardness of work material

MRR Variation in AJM with different parameters

Shape Applications: Deburring, trimming and deflashing, cleaning, and polishing.

Materials Application: Cutting is accomplished successfully on hard, brittle materials
(e.g., glass, silicon, mica, and ceramics) that are in the form of thin flat stock.

(e). Electron beam machining (EBM): It uses a high velocity stream of electrons

focused on the workpiece surface to remove material by melting and vaporization. EBM

must be carried out in a vacuum chamber to eliminate collision of the electrons with gas

molecules.

The Total range to which electron can penetrate (δ) depends on the kinetic energy i.e.
on the accelerating voltage V. It is given by:

V2
 = 2.6  10−17


Where:

δ = range in mm

V = the accelerating voltage in volts

ρ = density of the material in kg/mm3

(f). Laser Beam Machining (LBM): It uses the light energy from a laser to remove

material by vaporization and ablation. Ideal properties of a material for LBM include

high light energy absorption, poor reflectivity, good thermal conductivity, low specific

heat, low heat of fusion, and low heat of vaporization.

The time required to rise the surface to melting temperature is

2
  mK 
tm =  
  2H 

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K
α = thermal diffusivity =
C

K = thermal conductivity, J/m°C

H = heat flux = heat absorbed
θm = melting point temperature of work.

2Km
The critical value of ‘H’ is given by: Hcr
d

Where:
d = focused diameter of incident beam.
If H = Hcr
Power intensity is the minimum value.
(g). Plasma Arc cutting (PAC): A plasma is a superheated, electrically ionized gas.
Plasma arc cutting (PAC) uses a plasma stream operating at temperatures in the range
10,000°C to 14,000°C to cut metal by melting.

CHAPTER 6: METROLOGY AND INSPECTION

Introduction:
• Fits: Assembly condition between “Hole” & “Shaft”.
• Hole – A feature engulfing a component
• Shaft – A feature being engulfed by a component.
• Tolerance is the difference between the upper limit (UL) and lower limit (LL).

Tolerance = UL − LL

• Limits of sizes are two extreme permissible sizes for a dimension of the part.
+0.18
Unilateral Limits i.e. only on one side of basic limit e.g. 25
+0.10

Bilateral Limits i.e. on both sides of the basic size e.g. Ø25 ±0.04

• Upper deviation is the algebraic difference between the maximum size and the basic size.
The upper deviation of a hole is represented by a symbol ES (Ecart Superior) and of a shaft, it
is represented by es.
• Lower deviation is the algebraic difference between the minimum size and the basic size. The
lower deviation of a hole is represented by a symbol EI (Ecart Inferior) and of a shaft, it is
represented by ei.
• Mean deviation is the arithmetical mean of upper and lower deviations.
• Fundamental deviation is the deviation, either the upper or the lower deviation, which is
nearest one to zero line for a hole.

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BASIS OF FITS:
Hole Basis: If the system of assembly of shaft and hole is consisting of basic hole, then that
type of system is known as Hole Basis System.

Shaft Basis: If the system of assembly of shaft and hole consisting of basic shaft, then that
type of system is known as Shaft Basis System.

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IS: LIMITS AND FITS

• Limits and fits comprise 18 grades of fundamental tolerances
• There are 25 types of fundamental deviations:

i(microns) = 0.453 D + 0.001 D

D is the size or geometric mean diameter in mm.

Tolerance IT
IT6 IT7 IT8 IT9 IT10 IT11 IT12 IT13 IT14 IT15 IT16
grade 5
10 16 25 40 100 160 250 400 640 1000
Magnitude 7i 64 i
i i i i i I i i i i

Fits: The condition which denotes the relationship between two mating parts with respect to
the degree of clearance or interference appearing on the assembly is known as fit.

HOLE BASE & SHAFT BASE SYSTEM

(a). Clearance Fit: When lower limit of hole is greater than upper limit of shaft. Such fits

give loose joint.

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(i). Loose Fit: It is used between those mating parts where no precision is required. It

provides minimum allowance and is used on loose pulleys, agricultural machineries etc.

(ii). Running Fit: For a running fit, the dimension of shaft should be smaller. For a running

fit, the dimension of shaft should be smaller enough to maintain a film of oil for lubrication. It

is used in bearing pair etc.

(iii). Slide Fit or Medium Fit: It is used on those mating parts where great precision is

required. It provides medium allowance and is used in tool slides, slide valve, automobile

parts, etc

(b). Interference fits: When lower limit of shaft is greater than upper limit of hole.

There are three types of interference fits namely: Shrink Fit or Heavy Force Fit, Medium

Force Fit and Tight Fit or Force Fit.

(c). Transition fit: When a part is selected randomly from whole lot and randomly from

shaft lot, some of the assembly have clearance fit, some are having interference fit. This is

called as transition fit.

There are three types of transition fits namely: Push Fit or Snug Fit, Force Fit or Shrink Fit
and Wringing Fit.
Allowance: It is the difference between the basic dimensions of the mating parts. When the

shaft size is less than the hole size, then the allowance is positive and when the shaft size is

greater than the hole size, then the allowance is negative.

Unilateral system: In this system, the dimension of a part is allowed to vary only on one side

of the basic size, i.e. tolerance lies wholly on one side of the basic size either above or below it.

Bilateral system: In this system, the dimension of the part is allowed to vary on both the sides

of the basic size, i.e. the limits of tolerance lie on either side of the basic size.

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LIMIT GAUGES:

• Plug gauge: used to check the holes.

• Snap, Gap or Ring gauge: used for gauging the shaft and male components.

Wear allowance:

• GO gauges which constantly rub against the surface of the parts in the inspection are

subjected to wear and loose their initial size.

• The size of go plug gauge is reduced while that of go snap gauge increases.

1
Gauge tolerance (GT) = (work tolerance)
10
1 1
Wear allowance = (gauge tolerance)= (work tolerance)
10 100
Wear tolerance is only provided where W.T ≥ 0.1 mm
Slip gauges:

They are in the form of rectangular prisms, very accurately made in varying lengths. They are

made of hardened steel having flat parallel surfaces. They are also called Gauge blocks.

Slip-gauge size of range, mm Increment, mm Number of pieces

1.005 - 1
1.001 to 1.009 0.001 9
1.010 to 1.490 0.010 49
0.500 to 9.500 0.500 19
10 to 100 10.000 10

One of the principles to be remembered is that the number of blocks used should always be

the smallest.

Vernier Scale: A caliper is a device used to measure the distance between two opposing sides

of an object. It can be as simple as a compass with inward or outward-facing points.

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Least Count: The least count or the smallest reading which you can get with the instrument

can be calculated as:

LC = 1 MSD – 1 VSD

1 MSD
LC =
Number of divisions on vernier scale

If the zero of the vernier scale lies ahead of the Nth division of the main scale, then the main
scale reading (MSR) is:
MSR = N
If nth division of Vernier scale coincides with any division of the main scale, then the Vernier
scale reading (VSR) is:
VSR = n × LC

Total reading: TR = MSR + VSR = N + n  LC

Micrometre: A micrometre, sometimes known as a micrometre screw gauge, is a device

incorporating a calibrated screw widely used for accurate measurement of components.
Micrometre screw gauge is an instrument used to measure the diameter of thin wires, the
thickness of small sheets of glass, plastic, etc.

Least count of micrometer is given by:

Pitch of screw gauge

LC =
Total number of divisions on circular scale

Dial indicator: It Converts a linear displacement into a radial movement to measure over a
small range of movement for the plunger.
Its application is direct measurement to be measured by the actual dimensions, and
comparative measurement to read the amount of displacement from the phrase reference
dimension.
Angular measurement devices:
(a). Sine bar: It is a simple instrument which can be easily used for setting and measuring
angles. Fairly high accuracy can be expected when measuring smaller angles, that is less than
45°.

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h h
sin  =   = sin−1  
l l

(b). Bevel Protractor: It is part of the machinist's combination square. The flat base of the
protractor helps in setting it firmly on the workpiece and then by rotating the rule, it is possible
to measure the angle.
(c). Clinometer: A clinometer is a tool that is used to measure the angle of elevation, or angle
from the ground, in a right - angled triangle. A Clinometer basically consists of a precision level
mounted in a holder which is attached to a rotatable member.
(d). Autocollimator: An autocollimator is an optical instrument that is used to measure small
angles with very high sensitivity. As such, the autocollimator has a wide variety of applications
including precision alignment, detection of angular movement, verification of angle standards,
and angular monitoring over long periods.

Straightness, Flatness and Squareness:

Straightness: It is defined as the deviation of surface from ideal straight line. This straightness
can be measured in 3 ways.
Spirit level: Surface under examination is divided into number of segments equal to the size
of spirit level. Spirit level is there kept from one segment to another and position of bubble in
it is noted down. The deviations of bubble form the center position are recorded.
Flatness: Flatness is defined as the departure of surface from ideal flat surface.
Interferometry:
Optical flat as comparator: Using optical flat difference is the size of slip gauge can be
calculated from a master reference. Suppose the difference ∆h has to be calculated:
From the similar triangles

Optical flat

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Surface Finish:
Roughness height: This is the parameter with which generally the surface finish is indicated.
It is specified either as arithmetic average value or the root-mean-square value.
Roughness width: It is distance parallel to the nominal part surface within which lie the peaks
and valleys, which constitute the predominant pattern of the roughness.
Roughness width cut-off: This is the maximum width of the surface that is included in the
calculation of the roughness height.
Waviness: Waviness refers to those surface irregularities that have a greater spacing than
that of roughness width.

Example:
LAY DIRECTION: It is the direction of the predominant surface pattern produced on the
workpiece by the tool marks. The different types of lays are as under
Symbol Diagram Description
= Parallel lay: Surface is
produced

⊥ Perpendicular lay: Surface is

produced by shaping and
planning
X Crossed lay: Such surface
can be produced by knurling
operation
M Multidirectional lay: Such
surfaces are produced by
grinding operation
C Circular lay: The surfaces are
produced by facing operation

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R Radial lay

Types of lays

CENTER LINE AVERAGE VALUE (CLA, RA):

If y=(f(x) is the characteristic equation of the roughness, Ra value can also be expressed as
1 L 1
Ra =
L 
0
y ( x ) dx 
N  yi

Cutoff length is one in which measurement of roughness is being carried out (or length of travel
of stylus). So, Ra value can also be represented as

Ra =
a + b
L
Where ∑a = area above the line
∑b= area below the line
L= cutoff length

1
Root mean square roughness: Rrms 
N y 2
i

PEAK TO VALLEY HEIGHT (RT OR RMAX): It is the difference between highest peak and
deepest valley.

Hmax
Ra =
4
In case of turning operation when the nose radius (R) and the feed rate (f) is given Maximum
height of unevenness can also be expressed as:
2
f
H max =
8R
If complete tool signature is given, the peak to valley height can also be calculated as
f
H max =
tan + cot 1
Where
f= feed rate
ψ =side cutting edge angle

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ψ1 =end cutting edge angle

CHAPTER 7: COMPUTER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING

CIM: A computer is a machine that can be instructed to carry out sequence of arithmetic or
logical operation automatically via computer programming.
CIM is the technique of using computers to control an entire production process. It’s commonly
used by factories to automate functions such as analysis, cost accounting, design, distribution,
inventory control, planning and purchasing.
These functions are often linked to a central, computer-controlled station to enable efficient
materials handling and management, while delivering direct control and monitoring of all
operations simultaneously.
Methodology CAD/CAM: To use technical data from a database in the design and production
stages. Information on parts, materials, tools, and machines are integrated.
CAD (Computer Aided Design): Allows the design in a computer environment.
CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing): To manage programs and production stages on a
computer.
Evolution of Numerical Control:
(i). Numerical Control (NC): Data on paper or received in serial port, NC machine unable to
perform computations and Hardware interpolation.
(ii). Direct Numerical Control (DNC): Central computer control a number of machines DNC
or CNC.
(iii). Computer Numerical control (CNC): A computer is on the core of each machine tool,
Computation and interpolation algorithms run on the machine.
(iv). Distributive numerical control: scheduling, Quality control and Remote monitoring.

Solid modelling:
Wire frame Geometric modelling:
• 2-D Two-dimensional representation is used for a flat object.

• : It allows somewhat beyond 2D capability by permitting a 3-D object to be represented

if it has no side wall details.
• 3-D allows for full three-dimensional modelling of a more complex geometry.
• The most advanced method of Geometric modelling in 3-D is solid modeling.

Bezier Curve:
• A parameter Bezier curve segment is a weighted sum of (n + 1) control points P0, P1, P2, ….,
PN

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Where, Bi,n (t) = Bezier blending function

• The Blending function is always a polynomial one degree less than the no. of control point.
• Bezier as convex hull of its control points.

• A Bezier curve of order (n+1) [degree n] has (n+1) control points.

• Bezier curves are widely used in computer graphics to model smooth curves.
Coon’s Patch:
• A Coons patch is a bicubic parametric surface formed by four corner points, eight tangent
vectors (two vectors in the u and w directions, respectively, at each of the four corners),
and four twister vectors at the respective four corner points.
NURBS:
• It stands for the Non uniform rational basis spline. It is a mathematical model commonly
used in computer graphics for generating and representing curves and surfaces.
• It offers a greater flexibility NURBS and precision for handling both the analytical and
modeled shapes.
• NURBS is flexible for designers, designing a large variety of shapes by manipulating the
control points and the weightages.
• Weights in the NURBS data structure determine the amount of surface deflection towards
or away from its control points.
Transformation of geometry:
1. Translation:
Any graphical entity can be translated or moved in X or Y direction by using this routine. Basic
equations used in this subroutine are:
X  = X + TX
Y  = Y + Ty
(X , Y ) are the new coordinates after translation and (X, Y) are the old coordinates before
translation. Tx and Ty are the distance to be translated in x and y direction respectively.
The equations can be written in matrix form as

1 0 0
 
X ' Y ' 1 = X Y 1 x  0 1 0
T Ty 1
 x

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1 0 0
 
Here matrix  0 1 0 is called the translation matrix.
 Tx Ty 1

In 3D transformations, the x, y and z coordinates of a point are considered. For translation, the
transformation matrix [RT] is given by:
1 0 0 0
 
0 1 0 0
[RT] = 
0 0 1 0
 
 Tx Ty Tz 1 

Tx, Ty, Tz being translation in x, y and z. directions respectively.

2. Scaling: This routine is used to enlarge the object or make it small. The basic equations are:
X’ = X. Sx
Y’ = Y. Sy
where Sx and Sy are the scaling factor in x and y direction, respectively.

Sx 0 0
 
X ' Y ' 1 = X Y 1  0 Sy 0
0 0 1 


Sx 0 0 0
 
0 Sy 0 0
For 3-D scaling, the transformation matrix is given by: [Rs] = 
0 0 Sz 0
 
 0 0 0 1 

where Sx, Sy and Sz are scaling factors in x, y and z direction respectively.

3. Rotation: Rotation of any point is effective with respect to some fixed point. We assume
anticlockwise rotation as positive and clockwise rotation as negative.

From the figure:

X= r cos  and Y= r sin 
X' = r cos ( + ) and Y’= r sin ( + )

 cos  sin  0 
 
X ' Y ' 1 = X Y 1  − sin  cos  0 
 0 0 1 

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Rotation in 3-D can be about x, y or z axis. These equations of rotation of a point about z-axis
is:
 cos  sin  0 0
 
− sin  cos  0 0
Rotation about Z-axis: R z  = 
 0 0 1 0
 
 0 0 0 1

1 0 0 0
 
0 cos  sin  0
Rotation about X-axis: R x  = 
0 − sin  cos  0
 
0 0 0 1

cos  0 − sin  0
 
0 1 0 0
Rotation about Y-axis: R y  = 
 sin  0 cos  0
 
 0 0 0 1

4. Reflection:
(i). Reflection of X-axis (Y = 0 axis): Reflection matrix is given by:
1 0 0
 
R x  = 0 −1 0
0 0 1

After reflection, coordinates are (x, y) then:

X ' Y ' 1 = X Y 1 x R x 

(ii). Reflection of Y-axis (X = 0 axis): Reflection matrix is given by:

 −1 0 0

[Ry] = 0 1 0

 
 0 0 1

Hence to find coordinates of point P' i.e. (x', y’) after reflection about y-axis:

X ' Y ' 1 = X Y 1 x R Y 

(iii). To Find Reflection Matrix when the Axis of Reflection is the Line Passing Through
origin (Y = X):

0 1 0
 
R x = Y  = 1 0 0
0 0 1

Hence to find coordinates of point P' i.e. (x', y’) after reflection about X= Y-axis:

X ' Y ' 1 = X Y 1 x R X = Y 

(iv). To Find Reflection Matrix when the Axis of Reflection is the Line Passing Through
origin (Y = - X):

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 0 −1 0
 
R x =− Y  =  −1 0 0
 0 0 1

Hence to find coordinates of point P' i.e. (x', y’) after reflection about X= - Y axis:

X ' Y ' 1 = X Y 1 x R X =− Y 

Numerical control:
Open systems: The open loop system means the output of the system is free from their input
due to being the non-feedback system. The open loop system is more stable as compared to a
closed loop system. The open loop system gives the fast response.
Examples: The traffic light, automatic washing machine, etc. are the examples of the output
system.

Closed system: In the closed-loop system, the desired output depends on their input due to
being the feedback system. The construction of the closed-loop system is quite difficult. closed-
loop system is reliable, and the accuracy of the system is more as compared to open loop system.
Example: The temperature controller, toaster etc. are the examples of the closed-loop system.

BASIC LENGTH UNIT(BLU): BLU is the distance moved by table corresponding to single pulse.

nS = No. of steps

360
Step angle =
nS

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Lead screw pitch (mm)

BLU =
Steps per revolution of stepper motor

t = time period of pulse coming to stepper motor

fP = frequency
Total pulse = fP × t
360
Total angle =  fpt
nS

360  fpt fpt 60fpt

So, No. of revolutions = = rps N =
nS  360 nS nS

Also, linear velocity of stepper motor, V is given by the expression:

V = pulse frequency x BLU x 60 mm / min

PART PROGRAMING CODES:

G and M Codes:
G codes Interpretation M codes Interpretation
G00 rapid traverse M00 Programs stop
G01 linear interpolation M01 Planned stop
G02 circular interpolation (CW) M02 end of program
G03 circular interpolation (CCW) M03 CW spindle rotation
G04 Dwell M04 CCW spindle rotation
G05 Hold M05 spindle off
G08 For acceleration M06 Tool change
G09 For Retardation M07, 08 Coolant on
G17 XY plane selection M09 Coolant off
G18 YZ plane selection M10 Clamp
G19 ZX plane selection M11 unclamp

G33 thread cutting constant lead M17 end of sub program

G34 thread cutting with increasing M30 end of sub of main program
lead
G35 thread cutting with decreasing
lead
G41 Tool radius compensation left
G42 Tool radius compensation Right
G63 Tapping
G70 English programming
G71 Metric programming
G90 Absolute Positioning

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G91 Incremental positioning

Other important codes for programming:

Symbol Interpretation
N Sequence Number or block number
G Preparatory Function
X X Axis Command
Y Y Axis Command
Z Z Axis Command
R Radius from specified center
A Angle ccw from +X vector
I X axis arc center offset
J Y axis arc center offset
K Z axis arc center offset
F Feed rate

S Spindle speed
T Tool Number
M Miscellaneous function

NC Words order:
N__G__X__Y__Z__f__S__T__M__
It is the sequence of the words which will be followed while writing a block of the program.
Note:
• It is generally possible to include more than one G- address in a block, provided these
functions are mutually exclusive.
• G02 and G03 together in one block are not permissible. If they are given, the latter i.e.
G03 will become operational overriding the earlier of same category.
• Model G-codes behave as settings to the control.
• T01: tool designation represents the first tool used in the CNC program. T02: tool designation
represents any tool in the CNC program between the first and last tool. T03: Tool designation
represents the last tool used in the CNC program.
• T99: Tool designation represents empty tool (dummy tool) as an empty tool pocket
identification.
Interpolator:
• Interpolator in a CNC machine coordinates axes movements.
• An interpolator determines the velocities of individual axis to drive the tool along the
programmed path at given feed rate.
• It also provides intermediate coordinate positions along the programmed path.

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Advanced CNC programming languages

• Automatically Program Tool (APT) Developed at MIT in 1954. Derived from APT:
(i). ADAPT (IBM)
(ii). IFAPT (France)
(iii). MINIAPT (Germany)
APT Language: APT is not only an NC language, it is an computer program that performs the
calculations to generate cutter positions based on the APT statements.
Four type of statements in APT Language:
(a). Geometry statements
(b). Motion statements:
Point to point motions: Only two basic PTP motion commands: GOTO and GODLTA. The GOTO
statement instructs the tool to go to a particular location specified in the descriptive data. The
GODLTA command specifies an incremental move for the tool.
(c). Postprocessor statements
(d). Auxiliary statements
• Compact II
• Autospot
• SPLIT
****

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