• ULTRA-STRUCTURE OF BACTERIA (bacteria-singular; bacterium: plural) [1, 2]:

• “Bacteria are unicellular prokaryotic organism where the organisms lack a few organelles and a
true nucleus”.
• Bacterial cell have simpler internal structure, which lacks all membrane bound cell organelles such
as mitochondria, lysosome, golgi, endoplasmic reticulum, chloroplast and true vacuole etc.
• All the action takes place in the cytosol or cytoplasmic membrane
• Bacteria also lacks true membrane bound nucleus and nucleolus. The bacterial nucleus is known as
nucleoid.
• Most bacteria possess peptidoglycan, a unique polymer that makes its synthesis
• peptidoglycan is a good target for antibiotics.
• Protein synthesis takes place in the cytosol with structurally different ribosome’s

Size Shape Arrangement

• 0.2 µm – 0.1 mm • Coccus (cocci) • Clusters
• Most 0.5 – 5.0 µm • rod (bacillus, bacilli) • Tetrads
• spiral shapes (spirochetes; • Pairs
spirillum, spirilla) • chains
• filamentous and various odd
shapes.
Structures Outside the Cell Wall Structures Inside the Cell Wall
• Capsule • Cell wall
• Flagella • Cytoplasmic membrane
• Pili • Nucleoid
• Sheath • Mesosome
• Prostheca • Ribosome
• Stalks • cytoplasm

Structure Outside the Cell Wall

Capsule:
• Capsule is 0.2µm thick viscus layer outer
layer to the cell wall.
• Capsule is 98% water and 2% polysaccharide
or glycoprotein/ polypeptide or both.
• There are two types of capsule.
i. Macro-capsule: thickness of 0.2µm or
more, visible under light microscope
ii. Microcapsule: thickness less than 0.2µm,
visible under Electron microscope
• Capsule is very delicate structure.
• It can be removed by vigorous washing.
• Capsule is most important virulence factor of bacteria.
Function of capsule:
o It helps in attachments as well as it prevent the cell from desiccation and drying.
o Capsule resist phagocytosis by WBCs
Flagella
• It is 15-20 nm filaments (hair like helical structure) extending from cytoplasmic membrane to
exterior of the cell.
• The location of the flagella depends on bacterial species as polar situated at one or both ends
which swims in back and forth fashion and lateral at along the sides.
• The parts of flagella are the filament, hook and the basal body.
• Filament is external to cell wall and is connected to the hook at cell surface, the hook and basal
body are embedded in the cell envelope.
• Hook and filament is composed of protein subunits called as flagellin.
 • It is composed of flagellin protein (globular protein) and known as H antigen.
• Flagellin is highly antigenic and functions in cell motility.
• Flagellin is synthesized within the cell and passes through the hollow centre of flagella.
• The arrangement of flagella may be described as
i. Monotrichous– single flagella on one side iii. Amphitrichous–single or tuft on both sides
ii. Lophotrichous– tuft of flagella on one side iv. Peritrichous–surrounded by lateral flagell
Function of Flagella
• Flagella are fully responsible for the bacterial motility.
• Deflagellation by mechanical means renders the motile cells immotile.
• The apparent movement of the bacterial cell usually takes place by the rotation of the flagella
either in the clockwise or anticlockwise direction along its long axis.
• Bacterial cell possesses the inherent capacity to alter both the direction of rotation and the speed;
besides, the meticulous adjustment of frequency of ‘stops’ and ‘starts’ by the appropriate
movement of the flagella.
Pili / Fimbriae
• Hair-like proteinaceous structures that extend from the cell membrane to external environment are
pili which are otherwise known as fimbriae.
• They are thinner, shorter and more numerous than flagella and they do not function in motility.
• There are two types of pili namely:
i. Non-sex pili (Common pili) eg. fimbriae. The fimbriae are antigenic and mediate their
adhesion which inhibits phagocytosis
ii. The sex pili help in conjugation.
Cell Walls
• Beneath the external structures is the cell wall.
• Animal cells do not have a cell wall outside the cell membrane.
• Plant cells and fungal cells do have a cell wall.
• Most prokaryotic cells like bacteria (almost all) have a cell wall.
• They are essential structures in bacteria.
• A bacterium is referred as a protoplast when it is without cell wall.
• Cell wall may be lost due to the action of lysozyme enzyme, which destroys peptidoglycan.
This cell is easily lysed and it is metabolically active but unable to reproduce.
• A bacterium with a damaged cell wall is referred as spheroplasts.
• It is caused by the action of toxic chemical or an antibiotic, they show a variety of forms and
they are able to change into their normal form when the toxic agent is removed, i.e. when
grown on a culture media.
• They are made of chemical components, which are found nowhere else in nature.
• Gram stain invented by Hans Christian Gram
• Divides Eubacteria into two main groups based on stain.
• Gram-positive cell wall is thick homogeneous monolayer
• Gram-negative cell wall is thin heterogeneous multilayer
• Correlates with two types of cell wall architecture.
Gram Positive Cell wall
• Composed of peptidoglycan.
• Mucopeptide (peptidoglycan or murien) formed by N acetyl glucosamine and N acetyl
muramic acid alternating in chains, cross linked by peptide chains.
• Embedded in it are polyalcohol called Teichoic acids.
• Some are linked to Lipids and called Lipoteichoic acid.
• Lipotechoic acid link peptidoglycan to cytoplasmic membrane and the peptidoglycan gives
rigidity.
Structure and Function of Peptidoglycan
• Single bag-like, seamless molecule
• Composed of polysaccharide chains cross linked with short chains of amino acids: “peptido”
and “glycan”.
• Peptidoglycan provides support and limits expansion of cell membrane
• Provides shape and structural support to cell
 • Resists damage due to osmotic pressure
• Provides some degree of resistance to
diffusion of molecules
• Lysozyme found in secretions cuts
peptidoglycan
• Antibiotic penicillin prevents cross linking
• Cells in isotonic medium are not harmed
• Gram-positive cell walls contain teichoic acids lipoteichoic acid.
• Polymer of phosphate and ribitol or glycerol
• Lipoteichoic acid covalently attached to membrane lipids.
• Major contributor to negative charge of cell exterior.
• Appears to function in Ca++ binding
• Teichoic acids are thought to stabilize the Gram positive cell wall and may be used in
adherence.
GRAM-NEGATIVE CELL WALL
• The cell walls of Gram-negative bacteria are more chemically complex, thinner and less
compact.
• Gram-negative bacteria have relatively thin cell wall consisting of few layers of peptidoglycan
and a outermembrane. Peptidoglycan comprises 5-10% of the wall material (thickness 2-6 nm).
• Outer membrane composed of: lipoprotein, phospholipid and lipopolysaccharide.
1. Outer Membrane (Outer Lipopolysaccharide and Phospholipids layer)
• Outer membrane is
found only in Gram-
negative bacteria.
• It functions as an
initial barrier to the
environment.
• It protects the cells
from permeability
by many substances
including penicillin
and lysozyme.
• It is the location of
lipopolysaccharide
(endotoxin) which is
toxic for animals.

• This is composed of:

A. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) B. Phospholipids
 A. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS): Lipopolysaccharides are outer most part of Gram (-) bacterial
cell wall, which acts as an endotoxin.
Lipopolysaccharides,are composed of:
o polysaccharides and lipid A (responsible for much of the toxicity of Gram -ve bacteria)
o core polysaccharide
o a terminal series of repeat units ( O antigen).
B. Phospho-lipid of outer membrane (distinct from all other biological membranes):
• Its outer leaflet contains a lipopolysaccharides.
• This membrane has special channels (tiny holes or openings) called porins (consisting of
protein molecules).
• Porins block the entrance of harmful chemicals and antibiotics, making Gram-ve bacteria much
more difficult to treat than Gram+ve cells.
C. Lipoprotein: It cross-link the outer membrane and peptidoglycan layers.

2. PEPTIDOGLYCAN LAYER (Thin inner layer): Peptidoglycan makes up only 5 – 20%

of the cell wall and is not the outermost layer, but lies between the plasma membrane and an
outer membrane.

Primary function of the bacterial cell wall:

• To prevent the cell from expanding and eventually rupture or osmotic lysis of the cell protoplast.
• It is very rigid and gives shape to the cell.
• They may cause symptoms of disease in animals.
• They are the site of action of some of our most important antibiotics.

CELL MEMBRANE/ CYTOPLASMIC MEMBRANE

• Lies beneath the cell wall and separating it from the
cell cytoplasm.
• Completely encloses the bacterial cell protoplast
• Composed of 60% protein and 40% phospholipid
• 5-10 nm thick, elastic and semipermeable layer
• Composed of Phospholipid, proteins and enzymes

.Phospholipid (20-30%): Form bi-layered structure in which

proteins are embedded and has two parts:
1. Hydrophilic head part 2. Hydrophobic tail part.

Proteins (70-80%), which are of two types: 1. peripheral proteins and 2, integral
proteins
• Plasma membranes in bacteria are composed of phospholipids contains a polar group
attached to a 3 carbon glycerol back bone.
• Arranged as a bi-layer
• Two fatty acid chains (hydrophobic) dangling from the other carbons of glycerol.
• The phosphate end of the molecule is hydrophilic and is attracted to water.
• The fatty acids are hydrophobic.
• Phospholipids arrange themselves spontaneously in water: lipid “tails” inward; glycerol “heads”
outward.
• The membrane proteins associate with both sides of the membrane, or may imbed in the
membrane, or pass through the membrane.
Functions of the Cytoplasmic Membrane
• Proteins in the cytoplasmic membrane have a variety of functions including transport and energy
transformations.
• The plasma membrane is selectively permeable (control what moves into and out of cell).
• Osmotic or permeability barrier: the membrane is impermeable to molecules that are charged
or greater than molecular weight of 100
 • Energy generation: Location of the electron transport system (ETS) and the ATP synthsizing
enzyme ATPase
• Specialized functions involving: cell wall synthesis, cell division and DNA replication.
Mesosome
• The outer membrane of cytoplasm forms much coiled invagination called mesosome.
• The surface of mesosome has many respiratory enzymes, which takes part in respiration.
• It is absent in eukaryotic cells.

Structure Inside the Cell wall: Cytoplasm and Cytoplasmic Constituents of Bacterial Cells

Cytoplasm:
o This is a Colloidal system containing a variety of organic and inorganic solutes containing
80% Water and 20% Salts, Proteins.
o They are rich in ribosomes, DNA and fluid.

Cytoplasmic Constituents of Bacterial Cells

1. Genetic materials: 2. Ribosomes 3.Inclusions
Chromosome (DNA)
Plasmids

Genetic Materials: In prokaryotes nucleus is not distinct.

• Nuclear membrane and nucleolus are absent.
• The genetic materials consists of DNA.
• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): This is the genetic material of the cell.
• It contains a single chromosome consisting of a circular
DNA filament and haploid.
• They are highly coiled with intermixed polyamines and
support proteins.
• The genetic material DNA is present in the cytoplasm
without histon proteins.
• It can be replicated in a semi-conservative fashion and
passed on to progeny cells.
• Plasmids are extra circular DNA.
• The cytoplasmic carriers of genetic information are termed plasmids or episomes.

Ribosome
• The procaryotic ribosome (L) is 70S in size, being composed of a 50S (large) subunit and a
and 30S (small) subunit. The eucaryotic ribosome (R) is 80S in size and is composed of a 60S
and a 40S subunit.
• Ribosomes are made of two subunits, a large subunit and a small subunit. Each subunit is
made up of RNA and various proteins.
Function of Ribosome:
• Ribosomes function in protein synthesis.
• Amino acids are assembled into proteins according to the genetic code on the surfaces of
ribosomes during the process of translation.