Film Studies

Film Studies

Importance of Film Studies

Film Studies is an academic discipline that deals with various theoretical,

historical, technical and critical approaches to films. This branch of study enables a close
scrutiny of the dynamism of cinema. It is sometimes tagged along with media studies and
often compared to television studies. It also creates an awareness about possible careers in the
film field including that of being a film critic or to the production level. Film theory often
includes the study of conflicts between the aesthetics of visual Hollywood and the textual
analysis of screenplay. The study of films continues to grow, as does the industry on which it
focuses. Academic journals publishing film studies work include Screen, Cinema Journal,
and the Journal of Film and Video, etc.

Film Studies as an academic discipline is a new concept in the twentieth century.

Early film schools focused on the production and subjective critique of film rather than on the
critical approaches, history and theory used to study academically. Since the time film was
created, the concept of film studies as a whole grew to analyse the formal aspects of film as
they were created. Established in 1919 the Moscow Film School was the first school in the
world to focus on film. In the United States the USC School of Cinematic Arts was the first
cinematic based school, which was created in agreement with the Academy of Motion Picture
Arts and Sciences. They were also the first to offer a major in film in 1932. Later,
Universities began to implement different forms of cinema related curriculum.

Film Studies enables a scrutiny of the dynamism of cinema. It delves deep into the
intricacies of filmmaking. Cinema is like a hydra, with tentacles reaching into all aspects of
our individual and collective lives.

Basics of Cinema

Script – A piece of prose, longer and more detailed than an outline – written text of a film.

Screenplay – A piece of writing that includes the movement, actions, expression, and
dialogues of the characters

Shooting Script – a detailed final version of the screenplay with the separate scenes arranged
in proper sequence, and used by the cast. It includes - Scene number + type of shot + position
of the camera + time and location + movement of the camera + lens or filter + topic; props;
character; dialogues; music and effect; cut or fade (editing style).

Story Board – a sequential series of illustrations, stills, rough sketches and/or captions
(sometimes resembling a comic or cartoon strip) of events, as seen through the camera lens,
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that outline the various shots or provide a synopsis for a proposed film story.

Production Stage

The three stages of cinema creation – 1. Pre-production (paper works including script,
casting, etc.) – 2. Production (Filming – at the time of shoot and later dubbing) – 3. Post-
production (final touches).

Pre-production – Preparations are made for the shoot, in which cast and film crew are hired,
locations are selected, and sets are built.

Production – The raw elements for the film are recorded during the film shoot.

Post-Production – The images, sound, and visual effects of the recorded film are edited.

Language of Cinema
Types of Shots

The various types of shots are - Extreme Long Shot, Long Shot (LS), Medium Shot
(MS), Close-up (CU), Extreme Close-up (ECU) and Over the Shoulder Shot (OS).

Establishing Shot (or Extreme Long Shot): Shot taken from a great distance, almost always
an exterior shot, shows much of locale. E.g. the outside of a building, or a landscape; Only a
little detail is visible and such a shot gives a general impression – like the beginning of a
story.

Long Shot (LS): a relative term, a shot taken from a sufficient distance to show a landscape,
a building, or a large crowd. It shows the image as approximately as “life” size and it gives
the audience the feel of the real distance between the audience and the screen. The focus is on
the characters with plenty of background in detail.

Medium Shot (MS): also relative, a shot between a long shot and a close-up that shows
people from the waist up. This is also known as ‘Dialogue shot’ where the background is
minimal and focus is on interaction.

Close-up (CU): a shot of a face or object that fills the screen completely. It adds maximum
importance to the object with little background and magnifies the object. It takes us into the
mind of a character revealing all the details.

Extreme Close-up (ECU): a shot of a small object or a part of a face that fills the screen and
it creates a dramatic effect.
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Over the Shoulder Shot (OS): Usually contains two figures, one with his/her back to the
camera, and the other facing the camera.

Dolly Shot – It refers to a moving shot in which the perspective of the subject and
background is changed; the shot is taken from a camera that is mounted on a hydraulically-
powered wheeled camera platform (sometimes referred to as a truck or dolly), pushed on rails
(special tracks) and moved smoothly and noiselessly during filming while the camera is
running.

Tilt Shot (Oblique Angle) – Shot taken with the camera tilted up or down on a diagonal
along a vertical axis - a vertical camera movement from a fixed position often used to suggest
an imbalance, or strangeness, or to emphasize size, power or menace.

Dutch Angle – Shot taken with an extreme diagonal tilt which shows imbalance. The angle is
also known as Dutch tilt or canted angle. It is used to portray psychological uneasiness or
tension in the subject being filmed.

Pan Shot – The abbreviation for panorama shot. It refers to the horizontal scan, movement,
rotation or turning of the camera in one direction (to the right or left) around a fixed axis
while filming.

Handheld Shot - The shot taken with a handheld camera or deliberately made to appear
unstable, shaky or wobbly; often used to suggest either documentary footage, 'realism,' news
reporting, cinema verité, or amateur cinematography.

Deep Focus - A style or technique of cinematography and staging with great depth of field,
preferred by realists, that uses lighting, relatively wide angle lenses and small lens apertures
to simultaneously render in sharp focus both close and distant planes.

Types of Angles

The angle is determined by where the camera is placed not the subject matter. The angles can
serve as commentary on the subject matter. The main angles are Bird’s Eye View, High
Angle, Eye-Level and Low Angle

Bird’s Eye View – The Camera is placed directly overhead. The shot looks extremely
disorienting and the Viewer is Godlike.

High Angle (h /a) - Camera looks down at what is being photographed. This angle takes
away power of subject, makes it insignificant. The camera is elevated above the action using
a crane to give a general overview. It takes away power of subject and makes it insignificant.

Eye-Level – Often described as a neutral shot. The camera is positioned as though it is a

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human actually observing a scene. The camera will be placed approximately five to six feet
from the ground.

Low Angle (l / a) - Camera is located below subject matter and it looks up at what is being
photographed. This angle increases the height and power of the subject. A psychological
domination is made possible through this angle.

Wide angle shot (taken with a wide-angle lens)

This has the effect of seeming to exaggerate perspective. It is often used to make the viewer
feel that they are close to the action.

Crane Shots – These are actually Dolly-shots-in-the-air. Shot taken by using a crane (or jib).
The camera moves up, down, left, right, swooping in on action or moving diagonally out of
it.

Camera Movements

Camera movements in cinema are deliberate shifts in the camera’s position or orientation,
used to enhance storytelling, create visual interest, and evoke emotion.

Different Movements

Static (No Movement) – The camera remains stationary, with no movement. It focuses
attention on the subject or action within the frame without distraction. For example, shots
which suggest symmetry and stillness.

Pan – The camera moves in a horizontal manner from a fixed point. It reveals information,
follows action, or creates a sense of scale. For example, the opening shot or canning a car
moving or athlete running.

Tilt – The camera moves in a vertical manner from a fixed point. It emphasizes height, size,
or shifts focus between different vertical planes. For example, tilting up a skyscraper to
highlight its towering size.

Dolly (Tracking) – The camera moves smoothly forward, backward, or sideways on a track
or dolly. It follows characters or action, creating an immersive experience.

Crane (Jib) Shots – The camera moves vertically or horizontally on a crane. It captures
large-scale movements, reveals new perspectives, or adds grandeur. For example, capturing
battle scenes.

Handheld Shots – The camera is carried by the operator, resulting in a shaky, dynamic feel.
It adds realism, urgency, or intimacy. For example: capturing war scenes/ running sequences,
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etc.

Editing

The process (performed by a film editor) of selecting, assembling, arranging,

collating, trimming, structuring, and splicing-joining together many separate camera takes
(includes sound also) of exposed footage (or daily rushes) into a complete, determined
sequence or order of shots (or film) - that follows the script.

Digital Editing refers to changing film frames by digitizing them and modifying them
electronically. Relational editing refers to editing shots to suggest a conceptual link between
them. An editor works in a cutting room and the choice of shots has a tremendous influence
upon the film's final appearance.

Things to be kept in mind by an Editor

Structure – Rhythm – Establishment – Shot sequence – Eye-line match – Jump cut (two
sequential shots of the same subject are taken from camera positions that vary only slightly) –
cinematic time – movement – cutting point

Different Steps in Editing

Capturing (Rushes, that is, from camera to the system) – First Assembly (Rough Cut)
– Fine Cut – Final Cut

Different Styles of Editing

Cut: the most common type of transition in which one scene ends and a new one immediately
begins.

Fade-out/Fade-in: one scene gradually goes dark and the new one gradually emerges from
the darkness. It is used as a transitional device consisting of a gradual change from a
normally lit scene to darkness (fade out, fade-to-black) or from complete black to full
exposure (fade in), or from silence to sound- a 'fade in' is often at the beginning of a
sequence, and a 'fade out' at the end of a sequence.

Dissolve: a gradual transition in which the end of one scene is superimposed over the
beginning of the a new one

Wipe: an optical effect in which one shot appears to "wipe" the preceding one from the
screen. Special wipes include flip wipes, iris wipes, star wipes, etc.

Iris - An earlier cinematographic technique or wipe effect, in the form of an expanding or

diminishing circle, in which a part of the screen is blacked out so that only a portion of the
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image can be seen by the viewer.

Match Cutting – This cut makes sure that there is a spatial and visual logic combination. A
cut between two shots that creates the illusion of the character (in the first shot) looking at an
object (in the second shot). Eg: In the first shot, the character is shown looking at an object
off screen and the second shot shows what is being looked at.

Jump Cut – It is an abrupt, disorienting transitional device in the middle of a continuous shot
in which the action is noticeably advanced in time and/or cut between two similar scenes,
either done accidentally (a technical flaw or the result of bad editing) or purposefully (to
create discontinuity for artistic effect).

Cross – Cutting - The editing technique of alternating, interweaving, or interspersing one

narrative action (scene, sequence, or event) with another - usually in different locations or
places. The editor combines the two events and this editing method suggests parallel action
(that takes place simultaneously). It is often used to dramatically build tension and suspense
in chase scenes, or to compare two different scenes. It is also known as inter-cutting or
parallel editing.

Flash Back – It is a filmic technique that alters the natural order of the narrative. A flashback
may often be the entire film - it takes the story order back chronologically in time to a
previous or past event, scene, or sequence that took place prior to the present time frame of
the film. The flashbacked story that provides background on action and events is often called
the back-story.

Continuity Editing – A strategy in film practice that ensures narrative continuity. The
editing is invisible thus to provide a coherent narrative. It is also known as Chronological
Editing. Continuity editing is the process, in cinema, of combining more-or-less related shots,
or different components cut from a single shot, into a sequence so as to direct the viewer's
attention to a pre-existing consistency of story across both time and physical location. It is
opposed to Montage editing.

Slow Motion – It refers to an effect resulting from running film through a camera at faster-
than-normal speed (shooting faster than 24 frames per second), and then projecting it at
standard speed. (Eg: 12 fps made to move at 24 fps resulting in fast motion and 48 fps made
to move at 24 fps resulting in slow motion)

Lens – A transparent optical device mounted on a camera, which transfers a live image on to
film stock by means of light beam refraction. Wide Angle Lens / Short Lens – any lens
with a short focal length providing a great depth of field and a wide perspective of view.

Anamorphic Lens – A wide-angle lens that permits 180-degree vision. It was introduced
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into cinema in 1928 by a French filmmaker Claude Autant-Lara. With this, people were able
make cinemascope movies (a wide-screen effect through the use of anamorphic lens)

Depth of Field – Distance between the closest and farthest elements within a shot which
remain in sharp focus; varies according to the lens’ focal length, amount of light and the
speed of the film stock.

30-Degree Rule

The 30-degree rule is a basic film editing guideline that states the camera should move at
least 30 degrees between shots of the same subject occurring in succession (when cutting
between two shots of the same subject, the camera angle should change by at least 30
degrees). This ensures a smooth and natural transition between shots and avoids jarring visual
effects. A jump cut occurs when this rule is violated and the audience will start focusing on
the filming technique instead of the story that is being narrated.

180-Degree Rule

It is often considered as a basic guideline regarding the on-screen spatial relationship between
a character and another character or object within a scene. There is an imaginary line called
the axis which connects the characters. The camera kept on one side of this axis for every
shot in the scene, the first character is always frame right of the second character, who is then
always frame left of the first. The camera passing over the axis is called jumping the line or
crossing the line. Breaking the 180-degree rule by shooting on all sides is known as shooting
in the round.

Diegetic and Non-Diegetic Sound

In film language, sound is divided into two terms: Diegetic and Non-Diegetic. Diegetic sound
has a physical origin in the film world (e.g., a character coughing or the radio playing). Non-
diegetic sound has no direct origin in the film world (e.g., the soundtrack or the voice of a
narrator). In other words, diegetic means within the world of the film, and non-diegetic may
be defined as external to the film world.

The Use of Lights

The intensity, direction, and quality of lighting can influence an audience’s understanding of
characters, actions, themes and mood. Light (and shade) can emphasize texture, shape,
distance, mood, time of day or night, season and glamour; it affects the way colours are
rendered, both in terms of hue and depth, and can focus attention on particular elements of
the composition.

Lighting helps the filmmaker to establish the mood of the film and it also takes the
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spectators’ attention to the details. The most important term in regard with the use of light is
‘Chiaroscuro’. It is the use of strong contrasts between light and dark, usually bold contrasts
affecting a whole composition. This creates an effect in cinema and photography and hence
known as ‘Chiaroscuro’.

The system of ‘three-point’ lighting

1. Key light – The primary or the key light source which is used to illuminate the subject
and to present strong shadows

2. Fill light – It is positioned near the camera and it fills the shadows thrown by the key
light. It is used to soften the illumination upon the subject and its area

3. Back light – It comes from behind the subject and it creates a separation for the
subject from the background. It balances the brightness of the key light.

Effects of Lighting

1. High-key – It creates little contrast between bright and dark and is used for revealing
the details. It gives clarity, transparency and intelligibility for the object.

2. Low-key – It creates a high contrast presenting the harsh and the hard. Normally this
kind is used in horror and mystery films for the presentation of the underworld,
shadowy world, fear, evil, etc.

Focus

Focus in cinema refers to the clarity or sharpness of an image within a film frame. It is an
essential tool in cinematography that directs the viewer’s attention and shapes the visual
storytelling. Focus is achieved through camera lenses and techniques, allowing filmmakers to
highlight certain elements while leaving others blurred. Focus depends on the range of lenses
regarding the focal length.

Two kinds of Focus

Deep Focus and Shallow Focus

Deep Focus presents maximum depth of field with wide-angle shots (to highlight the
background). It gives a feel of realism and enhances the magnitude

In Shallow Focus or Narrow Focus, the image fills the screen. The sharpness and clarity is
high and the background is blurred or not clear (the image is foregrounded)
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History of Cinema

A study of the ‘Pre-cinema’ times is very crucial. Cinema emerged from a world of
toys and machines that created the illusion of movement. The basic concept was generated
from a person’s desire to peep into another world- later elaborated as the ‘gaze’.

Genesis and Growth

The experiments were initiated by scientists and not by any artists. The theory was
based on the ability of the brain to retain an image a split second longer than the eye actually
sees it. This phenomenon is known as the ‘Persistence of Vision’ - the eye by which an
afterimage is thought to persist for approximately one twenty-fifth of a second on the retina.
If we see 16 individual images in rapid succession, the brain connects them to make a fluid
sequence of movement. Later the makers of toys also started to think in similar lines and they
made use if this technique in their creation of toys.

The toy makers created hand held machines that formed the basis of film
development. The coming of the Zoetrope was a landmark in this area. It is a circular drum
with slits which allows moments of darkness. The space in between the slits (openings)
carried pictures and when it was rotated, it created an illusion of movement. (A zoetrope is a
device that produces the illusion of motion from a rapid succession of static pictures. The
term zoetrope is from the Greek words meaning "alive, active", and "turn", - "zoetrope" taken
to mean "active turn" or "wheel of life".) The experiment was conducted in1834 by William
Horner (British) and therefore the modern invention of the Zoetrope is attributed to him.

Experiments in Photography

At the very same time, experiments were happening in the field of photography too. in
1816 Nicephore Niepce made the first photographic images. After 23 years, in 1939, Louis
Daguerre created clear, sharp images on silver copperplate (required 15 minutes exposure
time) and in 1841, he made a progress with more clear images which needed only 3 minutes
exposure time.

A major landmark in this field happened in 1872 when Eadweard Muybridge in San
Francisco put together 12 photographs taken at different moments. The picture was that of a
trotting horse later presented in 1878. Muybridge set 12 cameras along a track, to capture a
horse, which ran down the track. By putting it together, he created movement with
photography.

In 1882, Etienne-Jules Marey invented the ‘Photographic Gun’, which had a lens in
the muzzle and paper in the chamber. One needed to pull the trigger to capture images and it
had the capacity of 12 rapid exposures. Eventually, it went up to 100 exposures.
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George Eastman in 1884 caused a revolution in the field with the discovery of
celluloid film. Though it was originally created for the still camera, it made motion pictures
also possible. The material was flexible and it allowed the light to pass through.

Experiments in Projection

Thomas Edison attempted to create equipments for projections initially but it was his
close ally, Dickson, who carried the experiments forward in this field. William Dickson in the
month of October, 1889 initiated experiments in the field of projection. He tried to project
pictures with sound but the quality was extremely poor. So, he preferred silent, individual
showings of films. People were able to see images of dancing, juggling, clowning, wonders
of the world, etc.

Kinetoscope – It is an early motion picture exhibition device. The Kinetoscope was

designed for films to be viewed by one individual at a time through a peephole viewer
window at the top of the device. The Kinetoscope was not a movie projector but introduced
the basic approach that would become the standard for all cinematic projection before the
advent of video, by creating the illusion of movement by conveying a strip of perforated film
bearing sequential images over a light source with a high-speed shutter. First described in
conceptual terms by U.S. inventor Thomas Edison in 1888, it was largely developed by his
employee William Kennedy Laurie Dickson between 1889 and 1892. On April 14, 1894,
the first commercial exhibition of motion pictures in history was given in New York City,
using ten Kinetoscopes. Instrumental to the birth of American movie culture, the Kinetoscope
also had a major impact in Europe.

The experiments in the field of projection had started way back in 1646 itself. Father
Athanasius Kircher (German) made drawings of a box that could reproduce an image through
a lens. It was known as the ‘Magic Lantern’ projection and it is considered as the ancestor of
present day slide projector. The Showmen travelled all across Europe conducting magic
lantern shows. They used drawn images in the beginning but eventually used photographs.

The magic lantern shows underwent a transition in the 18th century with a man named
Étienne-Gaspard Robert popularly known as “Robertson”, developed the projector known as
phantasmagoria. It was a form of theatre, which used a modified magic lantern to project
frightening images such as skeletons, demons, and ghosts onto walls, smoke, or semi-
transparent screens, frequently using rear projection. The projector was mobile, allowing the
projected image to move and change size on the screen, and multiple projecting devices
allowed for quick switching of different images. Invented in France in the late 18th century, it
gained popularity through most of Europe (especially England) throughout the 19th century.

The ‘photo plays’ drew viewers to a story just as film does today. Later people
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attempted a combination of magic lantern shows, live actors, and photography which lasted
up to 2 hours and told melodramatic stories. This type of shows proved the potential of a
projected film.

The major and the most important landmark in the history of cinema happened in
1894 with the arrival of the Lumière brothers (Auguste Marie Louis Nicolas and Louis Jean
(French) - the earliest filmmakers in history. (the word "lumière" translates as "light" in
English). They tried a new version of Edison’s Kinetoscope and later designed their own
machine within a year. The machine named Cinematographe shot the pictures, printed them,
and projected them. The camera was portable and the hand crank provided the power.

December 28, 1895

The first theatre was declared open to the paying public at the basement of a Paris
Café. Popularly known as the Lumieres’ Show, they showed films which had the

1. Workers leaving the Lumiere Factory.

2. The Arrival of the Mail Train

3. A Baby’s Meal.

Establishment of Studio

It was Black Maria, the first studio that was established in the US (Thomas Edison in
1893). The roof of the studio was opened to allow sunlight to enter. The building rotated to
catch the sun’s rays. The Camera could only move forward and backward and it used
electricity. The world's first film production studio, popularly known as the Kinetographic
Theater, was completed for the purpose of making film strips for the Kinetoscope.

Other Major Filmmakers of the Early Era

Méliès, Georges: While the Lumière brothers demonstrated cinema’s documentary function,
Méliès is considered the first to explore the medium’s potential for fictional storytelling. In
films such as A Trip to the Moon (1902), Méliès created whimsical adventure stories that
were shot on elaborate stage sets and that became popular for their sight gags and
otherworldly imagery. Méliès was a pioneer in the use of optical effects, editing, mise-en-
scène, and lighting design. His inventive and fantastical films revealed the medium’s ability
to convey artistic creativity and imagination.

Porter, Edwin S.: Porter’s two 1903 films, Life of a Fireman and The Great Train Robbery,
feature groundbreaking editing techniques such as simultaneous parallel action, elliptical
shifts in time and location, and cutting away from scenes before completion. These films
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were the first to use the shot, rather than the scene, as the primary unit of composition, as
well as the first to establish causality and meaning between shots. The Great Train Robbery
was the most successful film made before 1912, establishing cinema as a viable profit-
making enterprise.

Griffith, D. W.: Griffith is a controversial figure whose career combined unrivalled technical
ingenuity with highly objectionable political views. During his most productive period,
1908–1913, Griffith directed 450 one-reel films. He is considered the principal architect of
classical Hollywood editing, with innovations such as accelerated, associative, and parallel
montage; psychological editing with cuts from medium to close shots; and use of flashbacks
and switchbacks. Griffith also pioneered new compositional techniques, such as tracking
shots, high- and low-angle shots, and realistic lighting. His film The Birth of a Nation (1915)
is technically brilliant and emotionally gripping but also ideologically insidious in its racism
and historical revisionism. The film was very successful financially, accorded the medium of
film great prestige, and swayed later Hollywood production toward emotional, melodramatic,
and sensational narratives.

Hollywood and Bollywood

Hollywood is a district in Los Angeles, United States. Due to its fame and cultural
identity as the historical centre of movie studios and movie stars, the word Hollywood is
often used as a metonym of American cinema. Several constituents of filmmaking such as
editing, effects, props, post-production, and lighting companies remain in Hollywood, as does
the Paramount Pictures. Dubbed as the ‘dream factory’, Hollywood has become synonymous
with movies. But the largest film industry in the world is not that of the US, but it belongs to
India (Bollywood – Bombay Hollywood – around 800 films per year including regional – the
most coming from Andhra Pradesh – the state also holds the record for the most number of
theatres).

Censorship

It is defined as the process of determining what can or cannot be viewed by the public
or depicted by the motion picture industry. It also refers to changes required of a movie by
some person or body. In the 20th Century, censorship was achieved through the examination
of books, plays, films, television and radio programs, news reports, and other forms of
communication for the purpose of altering or suppressing ideas found to be objectionable or
offensive. The rationales for censorship have varied, with some censors targeting material
deemed to be indecent or obscene; heretical or blasphemous; or seditious or treasonous.

Censorship tends to be imposed in three main areas – sex, violence and politics. In
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India, it is The Central Board of Film Certification (often referred to as the Censor Board
established in 1952) which is a statutory censorship and classification body under the
Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India who looks over this matter.
It is tasked with "regulating the public exhibition of films under the provisions of the
Cinematograph Act 1952". It assigns certifications to films, television shows, television ads,
and publications for exhibition, sale or hire in India. Films can be publicly exhibited in India
only they are certified by the Board.

The Board has got a rating pattern and they issue certificates under four heads. They
are:

1. ‘U’ – (Universal) - Unrestricted Public Exhibition. (Suitable for all) Films under this
category should not upset children over four years. Films under this category may
contain only mild themes and mild profanity or sexual references. Any
nudity/sexuality/drug innuendo is cut. Moderate violence (e.g. fantasy) may be
allowed if justified by context.

2. ‘UA’ (U / A) – Parental Guidance. Unrestricted Public Exhibition but with parental

guidance for children under the age of 12. Those aged under 12 years are only
admitted if accompanied by an adult. Films under this category may contain
mature/strong themes, moderate profanity or sexual references, mild references to
drug abuse. Sexual activity may be briefly and discreetly portrayed. Strong violence is
allowed if it has contextual justification. Sexual violence may be implied or briefly
indicated.
3. ‘A’ – (Adults Only) - Restricted to adults (18 years or over) only. Parents consider the
content in these films too strong for their younger children so this category is off-
limits to minors. Films under this category can contain adult themes. They do not
have any limitation on the bad language that is used. Hard drugs are generally
allowed, and strong sexual references along with detailed sexual activity is allowed if
justified by context. Very strong, gory and/or sadistic violence is usually permitted.
Strong sexual violence having contextual justification is permitted unless it is
eroticised or excessively graphic.

4. ‘S’ - Restricted to any special class of persons - This rating signifies that the film is
meant for a specialised audience, such as doctors.

Mise-en-Scene

It is a French term for “staging” (putting on stage) or “put into the scene or shot”. Originally
it was a theatre term but later was adapted to films during the French New Wave. It is the
degree of control the that the creator has over the object, locations and actors in the scene. To
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put it in simple words, it is the arrangement of everything that appears in the framing.

In film theory, it refers to all the elements placed (by the director) before the camera and
within the frame of the film -- including their visual arrangement and composition; elements
like settings, decor, props, actors, costumes, makeup, lighting, performances, and character
movements and positioning.

Basic Elements of Mise-en-scene

Chiefly, there are five elements as part of Mise-en-scene. They are as follows:
1. Settings and Props – The environment where the action takes place, including
locations, sets, and objects thus making the audience aware of the background or
scene including the properties used in the scene)
2. Costume, Hair and Make-up - The clothing, accessories, and appearance of
characters, which reveal personality, era, or social status (indicates the character’s
personality, job and status)
3. Actors – The movement of the characters, gestures, and interaction contributing to
storytelling and emotional depth (Facial Expression and Body Language – Figure
behaviour)
4. Lighting and Colour – The use of light and shadow to create mood, highlight
characters, or convey themes.
5. Positioning of Characters / Objects within the Frame – The arrangement of
characters, objects, and space within the frame. This includes balance, symmetry, and
depth.

Mise-en-scene is often referred to as the identity of the filmmaker and it is a ‘visual theme’ or
‘telling a story’. It is a powerful tool for visual storytelling, as it helps to establish tone, build
atmosphere, and convey subtext. Directors carefully craft it to enhance the audience's
emotional and intellectual engagement.

Auteur Theory

The word auteur means “author” in French. ‘Auteur theory’, denotes a critical theory
(originally known as la politique des auteurs or “the policy of authors”) popular in France in
the late 1940s and early 1950s. It was introduced by Francois Truffaut and the editors
(including legendary film critic and theorist Andre Bazin) of the celebrated French film
journal Cahiers du Cinéma, arguably the most influential film magazine in film history. Their
ideas were subsequently elaborated in the 1960s by American critic, Andrew Sarris. The
theory ascribed overall responsibility for the creation of a film and its personal vision,
identifiable style, thematic aspects and techniques to its filmmaker or director, rather than to
the collaborative efforts of all involved (actors, producer, production designer, special effects
supervisor, etc).

The theory states that, the directors should be considered the ‘true’ authors of film (rather
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than the screenwriters) because they exercise a great deal of control over all facets of film
making and impart a distinctive, personal style to their films. To put it in simple words – an
auteur is often considered as a director with a recognizable or signature style. Idea that every
film should have one person who controls everything in a movie and also that he would leave
his style on his movies. Auteur is the French term for author. The auteur is usually considered
the director.

For example, the director, Alfred Hitchcock is regarded as the ‘Master of suspense’, with a
focus on voyeurism and psychological tension. Another director us Stanley Kubrick who is
known for meticulous attention to detail and a wide variety of genres with philosophical
depth.

Genre Films

Genre refers to the method based on similarities in the narrative elements from which films
are constructed. Generally, the term is used to name the class or type of a particular film (i.e.,
westerns, sci-fi, etc.) that shares common, predictable or distinctive artistic and thematic
elements, narrative content, plot, and subject matter, mood and milieu (or setting) or
characters.

The genres include Children’s films, family films, cult films, animation films, documentary
films, pornographic films and silent films. A further categorization is listed below.

Buddy Films – presents the friendship between two or more male protagonists (father – son).
Two mismatched persons (usually males) are forced to work together, often a pair of police
cops; situations are often contrived to present the pair with challenges or strains that both
strengthen their bond and weaken it. Buddy films are often action/comedy films with witty
dialogues and sometimes with the inclusion of a love triangle. Eg: Men in Black (1997).

Road Movie – theme of discovery, obtaining self-knowledge, roadster is a male and it

presents his perspective, sequence of events unveiled. A road movie is a film genre in which
the main characters leave home to travel from place to place, typically altering the
perspective from their everyday lives. It is a type of bildungsroman, a story in which the hero
changes, grows or improves over the course of the story.

Fantasy Films – horror, science fiction, adventure – journey to improbable places, meetings
with improbable creatures, use of myths, etc, are part of such films.

Gangster / Detective / Thriller Films – Action packed, popular cinema, resolving mystery,
male heroics, stylized presentation, etc.

War Movies – Resistance films, heroics, thrilling events, scenes evoking pity, etc.
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Animation Films – The shooting inanimate objects, such as drawings, frame by frame in
stop-motion photography. E.g.: Tom and Jerry

Romantic / Family oriented films – story of relationships

Musical – Descent from the opera, musical and romantic elements (songs), dance, colourful,
costume dramas (films which refer to the time in history through the costumes), imaginative,
fantasy. It is a major film genre category denoting a film that emphasizes segments of song
and dance interspersed within the action and dialogue; known for its distinctive artists, stars,
singers, and dancers. There are two major types of Musical – ‘backstage’ musicals and
‘music- integrated’ musicals. E.g. The Jazz Singer (Alan Crosland, 1927), My Fair Lady
(George Cukor, 1964)

Western – also known as the ‘Horse Opera’ – adventure, migration, individualism – Cowboy
films. Westerns are the major defining genre of the American film industry - a eulogy to the
early days of the expansive American frontier. They are one of the oldest, most enduring
genres with very recognizable plots, elements, and characters (six-guns, horses, dusty towns
and trails, cowboys, Indians, etc.). Over time, westerns have been re-defined, re-invented and
expanded, dismissed, re-discovered, and spoofed. E.g., The Great Train Robbery (Edwin S.
Porter, 1903); Movies of Clint Eastwood.

Documentary – It is a non-fiction (factual), narrative film with real people (not performers
or actors. Normally, it is a low-budget, journalistic record of an event, person, or place. A
documentary film-maker should be an observer, capturing reality as it happens. Documentary
is also referred to as ‘doc’ or ‘docu’. It is also called direct cinema.

Select Bibliography

Villarejo, Amy. Film Studies – The Basics. New York: Routledge, 2007.

Hayward, Susan. Key Concepts in Cinema Studies. New York: Routledge, 2004.

Hollows, Joanne, Peter Hutchings and Mark Jancovich (eds.). The Film Studies Reader.

London: OUP, 2000.

Monaco, James. How to Read a Film? New York: OUP, 2000.

Cine Glossary and various other Online Sources

Prepared and compiled by:

Ranjith Krishnan K R