Introduction to Energy Storage Elements

Video 1

In this video, we'll be introducing two new elements which has a wide variety of applications in
electrical circuits. These elements are passive, linear and their voltage-current relationship is
time-dependent. We are talking about capacitors and inductors over here which are also known as
energy storage elements because they can store and deliver a finite amount of energy. Now, let's
start looking at the first element over here which is a capacitor. A capacitor is constructed by using
two parallel plates separated by a dielectric or the insulating material, and the capacitance is
measured by taking the ratio of charge by voltage. So it is measured as a charge per unit voltage. C
is equal to Q by V, and we know that the current is given as dq by dt. That is the rate of change of
charges and hence the relationship of voltage and current in the capacitor is given as i is equal to
Cdv by dt. That is the current is proportional to the time rate of change of voltage. If we want to find
the equation for voltage, we can take the integration of the current equation and then find that the
voltage is given in the form of integration of the current. We can say that the voltage across a
capacitor is dependent on the integral of a current through the capacitor and the initial voltage
across it. The unit of the capacitor is given in the form of farads. We may have a very small value as
millifarad and microfarad of the capacitor that we usually use in the circuits.
 Let us now see the power and energy calculation in this particular element. We know that the power
is nothing but the product of voltage and current. So here it is given as Cv dv by dt watts. If we want
to find energy, we can take the integration of the power, and then we can get that particular equation
as half CV square joules. In this particular equation, we have assumed that the initial voltage across
the capacitor is zero.

For the capacitor, we should note down some interesting points. The capacitor behaves as an open
circuit to DC. We have seen the equation as i is equal to Cdv by dt. If we have V as constant which
is there in the DC circuits, then we see that the current value is zero. When I is equal to zero, we
know that it's an open circuit element. Voltage across a capacitor cannot change abruptly or
instantaneously. Again, the equation i is equal to Cdv by dt tells us that if delta is tending to zero,
then the infinite current might be required for this change to happen. The instantaneous change in
the voltage across capacitor is not possible. Capacitor stores the energy into electrical form. Ideal
capacitor can store the energy forever. It is known as a non dissipative element, but a practical
capacitor is modeled by using the internal register. The practical capacitor will lose its voltage over
the time. Now let us look at another element of interest.

This is an inductor. We have shown the symbol over here on this slide with the current and voltage
shown in the passive sign convention. We have the voltage-current relationship for the inductor
shown over here. We can see that the voltage here is proportional to the time rate of change of
current and constant of proportionality is the inductance here. From this, we can again find out the
equation for the current through the inductor, and equation for the current is again, depend on the
integral of voltage across the inductor and the initial value of the current through it. The unit of the
inductor is Henry.

The power and energy calculation for the inductor can also be done on the similar lines of that of the
capacitor. Here also we can see that the power is the product of v and iron. It is given as Li di by dt
watts. To find the energy, we can take the integration of this equation and we find the energy to be
1/2Li squared joules. Here also we have assumed that the initial current value through the inductor is
zero.

For the inductor, interesting points to note that it behaves as a short circuit to DC from the equation v
is equal to L di by dt. We can find out that if we have the current value as constant, then the voltage
across the inductor is zero, making it as a short circuit. For the inductor, the current through the
inductor cannot change instantaneously or abruptly. An inductor stores the energy in the magnetic
field form. Ideal inductor will be again nondissipative element, but a practical inductor will lose its
energy over the time.
The table here shows the relationship of voltage and current along with the power and energy
equation for these elements, capacitor, and inductor. In this video, we have introduced two new
elements, capacitor, and inductor. Both of these element can store and deliver finite amount of
energy. Interestingly, we have seen that the capacitor behaves as an open circuit to DC, while
inductor behaves as a short circuit to DC. Voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously
and at the same time current through the inductor cannot change instantaneously. We have seen the
voltage-current relationship of both of these elements. We have also seen the equation for power
and energy storage in this element.
Introduction to Energy Storage Elements
Reading Objective:
In this reading, you will learn to identify capacitors and inductors in the circuit. You will learn about
the voltage-current relationship of these elements and calculate the energy stored in the capacitor
and inductor.
Main Reading Section:
Introduction to Energy Storage Elements
These elements are passive elements as these elements can store and deliver (finite) amount of
energy. While the capacitor stores energy in electric field form, the inductor stores energy in
magnetic form. These elements are linear, as the voltage-current relationship is linear in nature. But
importantly, the voltage-current relationship is time-dependent and hence more interesting. There
are many useful applications of capacitors and inductors in electric circuits in DC and AC. We will
study many of these features as we go ahead.
An inductor is represented by the symbol L and its unit is Henry denoted by H. Capacitor is
symbolized by the letter C and its unit is Farad, F. Usually the values of practical capacitors are in
Pico-Farad (pF) or micro-Farad (µF).
The voltage-current relationship of the capacitor and inductor is given in the table below. The table
also shows the equations for calculating power and energy stored in these elements. We consider
the elements to be ideal for our discussion here, and initial conditions are assumed to be zero unless
otherwise specified.
Practice Quiz: Introduction to Energy
Storage Elements
1. Calculate the energy stored in a capacitor of 1000 µF at t = 15 s if the voltage across it is
0.25t volts.

7.031 mJ : Correct
Substitute the values of C = 1000 µF and Vc =15*0.25 = 3.75 V in the energy equation (E = ½ CV2)
of the capacitor.

2. The current through an inductor of 35 mH is (0.1+0.2 t) A. Calculate the voltage across the
inductor at t = 1s. Also, Calculate the energy stored in the inductor at t = 1s.

V = 7 mV, energy stored = 1.575 mJ

Correct

Substituting the given values in the voltage-current relationship of the inductor gives the value of the
voltage, V. Use the energy equation (E = ½ LI2) to find the energy stored in the inductor.
Equivalent Capacitance and Inductance
Video 2

In this video, we'll be looking at series and parallel combinations of inductors and capacitors. We
may have a circuit where there are multiple inductors present or multiple capacitors present.
Wherever possible, we will try to draw the equivalent inductor or equivalent capacitor value from
them in order to simplify or reduce the circuit. Now let us see how do we do that. Here we are
showing the example where we have a number of inductors connected in series in a circuit shown
on the left-hand side. On the right-hand side, we show a circuit with L equivalent in place. Now since
the number of inductors are connected in series, we can invoke the KVL over here and we can write
the equation as V_S=V_1+V_2 plus so on up to V_N. These voltages are the voltages across the
inductors. We know the equation for the voltage across the inductor as L di/dt. The current going
through all these inductors is same, denoted as i and so di/dt is the term which we can take as
common and the remaining term is the summation of the values of the inductor.

In the equivalent circuit, we can write the equation

for the voltage as L di/dt, that's the voltage-current relationship of the inductor itself. Now comparing
these two expression, we can find out that L equivalent is nothing but summation of inductors.
Similarly, if we have the inductors in parallel, the circuit can be represented as shown on the slide.
We have shown the number of inductors, L_1, L_2 up to L_N, which are connected in parallel with
the current source. Its equivalent circuit is also drawn with a current source and L equivalent as the
value of the inductor. In this case, we can write the KCL equation, where the current i_s, is equal to
the summation of currents through the individual branches. Current through the inductor is given as
1/L integral of v dt and so we can substitute it in this equation. We may also have the initial value of
the current through the inductors and that can be sum as summation n is equal to 1 to N, i_n of t_0.
That is at the time t_0, this is the initial current through each branch of the inductor. Now in the
equivalent circuit, again, we are writing the equation for the current by using the current-voltage
relationship of the inductor. It is given as i is equal to 1/L equivalent integral of v dt plus again, there
may be an initial value of the current through this inductor. For the KCL to hold true, we would say
that this i_s of t_0, that is the current through L equivalent would be equal to the summation of the
currents through the individual branches in the circuit on the left-hand side. Now comparing the
values of the inductors, we can find out that by expression of L equivalent as given over here. It tells
us that the equivalent inductor value is nothing but sum of reciprocals of the individual inductors. In
this way, we know that inductors combination can be done in a similar way of that of the resistors.
Now, let us look at the capacitors over here. We are showing the circuit with capacitors in series and
also an equivalent circuit has been shown over here. Since the capacitors are connected in series,
we can invoke the KVL here. The voltage of the voltage source would be equivalent to the
summation of voltages across every capacitor. The voltage equation for the capacitor is given as v
equal to 1 by c integral of i dt that is substituted over here and we may have initial voltages across
each capacitor over here, given as v of t_0. Summation of these voltages for n number of capacitors
can be taken as n is equal to 1 to n v_n of t_0. Similarly, the expression for the voltage across the
equivalent capacitor can be written like this. That is v equal to 1 by c equivalent integral of i dt.
Again, we may have the initial voltage across this capacitor denoted as v_s of t_0. For the KVL to be
held true, this v_s of t_0 would be equal to the summation of voltages across individual capacitors in
the circuit. From this, we can find out the value of c equivalent. It is given as a reciprocal of sum of
reciprocals of individual capacitors.

From this, we can also find out how the capacitors connected in parallel will be here. When we have
the capacitors in parallel then equivalent would be given by the summation of individual capacitor
values. This way, the combination of capacitors behave in a similar way of that of combination of
conductances.
Let us take one example over here. We have number of capacitors being connected in
series-parallel combinations and similarly, we have inductors connected in series and parallel
combinations. Starting from the left-hand side, we see two capacitors of six microfarads in series,
the equivalent of that is equal to three microfarads that is in parallel with five microfarads so we can
add those values together, making it as eight microfarad and two inductors of three henry each are
in parallel, making the equivalent as 1.5 henry. That is in series with 0.5 henry, making the total
inductance in the circuit as two henry. We can draw only two element equivalent of these two henry
inductor in series with eight microfarad. In this video, we have seen how to obtain the equivalent
value of inductance and capacitance when they are connected either in series or in parallel. We may
have a circuit where a number of capacitors or inductors are connected in series-parallel
combination and these techniques help us in reducing or simplifying our circuit.
Equivalent Capacitance and Inductance
Reading Objective:
In this reading, you will learn how to simplify the circuit containing multiple capacitors and/or multiple
inductors, in series or parallel.
Main Reading Section:

In this way, the combination of capacitors is opposite to that of resistors (or inductors) in series or
parallel.
Practice Quiz: Equivalent Capacitance and
Inductance
1.Simplify the circuit given in Figure 1 to obtain Figure 2 and find the values of x and y.

Fig 1

Fig 2
x = 8, y = 8
Correct: The equivalent inductance can be found using a series combination, and equivalent
capacitance can be found using a parallel combination.
2.Simplify the circuit given in Figure 1 to obtain Figure 2 and find the values of x and y.

Fig. 1

Fig. 2

x = 1, y = 2
Correct: The equivalent capacitance can be found using a series combination, and the equivalent
inductance can be found using a parallel combination.
Source-Free RC Circuits
Video 3

In this video, we'll be learning a source-free RC circuit. Well, let's try to understand what it actually
means. We will be having a circuit which consist of a resistor and a capacitor. We may have a circuit
having multiple resistors and multiple capacitors in it. From that we might be able to draw the
equivalent of one resistor and of one capacitor. And we said it's a source-free circuit, so source or
the forcing function is absent over here. So under the absence of a source, let's try to see how the
RC circuit actually behaves. This circuit can be represented by the first-order equation, and hence,
these are also known as the first-order circuits. We do have the differential equations which are
homogeneous and linear, dependent and its derivatives are both the first degree over here.

We call the response of the circuit as natural response because the response is dependent on the
type of the elements and the way that they are connected. The response is also known as a
transient response because it dies down after a certain time period. This obviously is also known as
a source-free response because the source is absent as we already mentioned.
Now let us consider the circuit of the source-free RC over here. On the left hand side, we have
shown these two elements being connected in the circuit. But we also are showing the
representation where the source has been connected to this RC circuit and has been removed at a
time t = 0. So our experiment of the source-free RC circuit analysis starts at t = 0. This source has
been considered to be previously connected to this. So we assume that the capacitor has been
charged to some initial voltage value. And after that, the source has been removed, now we are
analyzing the circuit.

Now for this analysis, let us consider this circuit once again, and let us assume that we have initial
value of the voltage across the capacitor given to us as V0. From this, we can also find out how
much energy this capacitor is storing. What is the equation of energy for us? It is given as half CV
squared, again, the value of V here is nothing but V0. We can write the equation for the KVL
considering this as the nodal point over here and both the currents are shown in the downward
direction. So currents which are leaving from this node, the current through the capacitor is given as
C dv by dt current through the resistor is simply V by R. And we can simplify this as dv by dt plus V
by RC is equal to 0.
This becomes our first-order differential equation. Doing the separation of variables gives the
equation as dv by v is equal to -1 by RC into dt.

Now we will find the integration of this, we get the integration equation like this. And from that we can
go into the exponential form, taking the power of e, we get the equation as v(t) is equal to A into e
raised to -t by RC. Now we have to find this value of A, we can readily find this value of A by going to
the initial condition, that is, at the value of t = 0, the voltage across the capacitor is V0, and that's the
same value of A for us. We'll be simply substituting the value of t in this equation to get the value of
A. Now from this, the final equation that we are getting is v(t) = V0e raise to -t by RC. What this
equation is telling us that if the capacitor has been charged to the value of V0, and the source has
been removed, now the voltage across the capacitor is decaying exponentially from that point
onward. And this is what we would expect to happen, when the capacitor has been charged and the
source has been removed, capacitor will start discharging and this is the response which we are
capturing over here.
Now, this response can be understood by taking the time constant value at which it is decaying. The
rapidity with which this response decreases can be obtained in the form of time constant usually
denoted as the letter tau. This time constant is the time required for the response to decay by the
factor of 1 by e or specifically 36.8% of its initial value.

Now for our equation, let us try to find out the value of tau. What we will do is to substitute the value
of t = tau and compare it with the value of e raised to -1, that is, V0e raised to -1. This can also be
equated with 0.368 of the initial value. We will find out the value of tau equal to RC. So the time
constant for the RC circuit for us is nothing but the product of the resistor value and the capacitor
value. Substituted in this equation, we get the v(t) as V0e raised to -t by tau as the equation for the
RC circuit.
 Now, let's try to find out
where is the energy going or where is the energy dissipation happening? We know that there is a
resistor connected in parallel with the capacitor. And so we would be analyzing what is happening in
this resistor in the circuit. We know that the current through the resistor is given as V by R, power
dissipation can be found out as a product of vi, and the energy in the capacitor can be taken as an
integral of the power. Substituting the respective values here and taking the value of t equal to
infinity, tells us that the energy dissipated by the resistor is same as the initial energy stored in the
capacitor. So as the time increases up to infinity, the entire stored energy of the capacitor is
dissipated through the resistor. That value is half CV squared. In this video, we have studied the
source-free RC circuit. We have considered that the source is absent, we also assumed that the
capacitor has been initially charged to the value of V0 voltage. We now know that under the absence
of a source, a capacitor will start discharging. The response of the voltage discharge to the capacitor
we have seen, we know that it is an exponential decrease. We have also seen the time constant, the
time constant for the RC circuit comes as the product of R and C.
Practice Quiz: Source-Free RC Circuits
Question 1
A capacitor of 5 µF is initially charged to 25 V. A resistor of 40 Ω is connected across the capacitor at
time t = 0 s.
1. Calculate the time constant (τ, in ms) of the circuit.
2. Calculate the voltage across the capacitor Vc(t) at time t = 100 µs.

Time constant τ = 0.2 ms, voltage across the capacitor Vc(t) = 15.16 V

Correct: Substitute R = 40 Ω and C = 5 µF in the time constant equation and V = 25 V and t = 100 µs
in the voltage equation.
Source-Free RL Circuits
Video 4

In this video, we'll be analyzing source-free RL circuit. Now, let's see what it means. We may have a
circuit where we have a resistor and an inductor. Or we may have a circuit where there are multiple
resistors and multiple inductors present. We might be able to draw the equivalence in form of one
resistor and one inductor element. We also said that it's a source-free circuit, meaning that the
source or the forcing function is absent. Now let us see under the source free circuit, how does this
particular circuit functions.

We have the circuit here, which can be termed as the first-order circuits because the circuit can be
represented with the first-order differential equation. We also have the homogeneous linear
differential equation here because the dependent variable and its derivative would both be in the first
degree, that is the same degree. We call the response of the circuit as natural response because the
response depends on the nature of the circuit and the type of connections that we have. The
response is also transient in nature that is that it will die down after a certain time. The response is
also called as a source-free response because the source is absent here.
Now let us try to study the source-free RL circuit given over here in the figure. We may assume that
the initial current through the inductor is given as I_0 and so the energy in the inductor is given as 1/2
LI_0^2. Now, let us apply a simple loop equation here. We can write the loop equation according to
the direction of the current and the polarities which are shown so we get the equation as V_L+V_R =
0. V _L is the voltage across the inductor so it is given as L di/dt, the voltage across the resistor is
simply Ri, and from this, we can write the first-order differential equation.

Integrating this and doing the separation of variables, we can see that the equation can be written as
ln i(t) by I_0= -Rt/L. From this, taking the power of e, we can write the equation of current here as I_0
into e^Rt/L. What we can find out here is that the initial value of current is I_0, and then this current is
exponentially decreasing as the time increases.
 The response can be shown graphically like
this. From this graph, we try to find out the time constant of the circuit. That is the rapidity with which
the current is decreasing that is denoted as the time constant. Here we will have the time constant
which is equal to the time required for the response to decay by a factor of 1/e, or 36.8% of its initial
value.

The time here can be calculated by substituting t is equal to Tau and by doing that, we can see that
the value of Tau is coming as L/R. That is i(t) is nothing but I_0 into e^-t/Tau, and the value of Tau
equal to L/R.
Where is the energy after all getting dissipated? For this, we need to look at the resistor. We can first
find out the voltage across the resistor by taking the product of I into R. We have already found out
the equation of current here. Power dissipation in the resistor is given as the product of voltage and
current. Then we can find the energy by taking the integration of the power here and then
substituting the values. We can find out that as the time is increasing to infinity, we have the energy
that is 1/2 LI_0^2 being lost through the resistor. What we have learned in this video is to analyze the
source-free RL circuit. When we have the source which is absent and we will be having the current
through the inductor decreasing exponentially with respect to the time. If the initial energy stored in
the inductor is 1/2 LI_0^2, then over the time, that is, as the time increases up to infinity, all this
energy would be lost via the resistor. The energy lost would also be equal to 1/2 LI_0^2 as the time
approaches infinity. This is what is the analysis of RL circuits here.
Practice Quiz: Source-Free RL Circuits
1.A 200 mH inductor is connected in series with a 25 Ω resistor. The current through the inductor is I
= 20 A at time t = 0 s.
1. Calculate the time constant (τ, in ms) of the circuit.
2. Calculate the current through the inductor at time t = 24 ms.
Time constant τ = 8 ms, current through the inductor i(t) = 0.9957 A
Correct : Substitute R = 25 Ω and L = 200 mH in τ equation to get the time constant. Substitute Io =
20 A and t = 24 ms iniL(t) equation to get the current value at 24 ms.

2. State whether the following statement is true or false.

​

, a larger value of the time constant makes the current

response decay slow.

True
Correct: A larger value of the time constant may mean a large value of L. Consequently, a higher
amount of initial energy will be stored in the inductor (for the same initial current). It will take more
time for the dissipation of energy. If the larger time constant is achieved by reducing R, then the time
required for the same energy to dissipate through a smaller resistor would be higher.
Examples of Source-Free RC and RL Circuit
Video 5

In this video, we'll be seeing some examples of source-free RC and RL circuits. Now let us begin
with the first example, which is the source-free RC circuit. In this circuit we are showing the resistor
of three ohm in parallel with the capacitor having the value of 1/15 farads. Why we call it as a
source-free circuit? Because the source has been connected to it up to the time t=0 and after the
time t=0, the source has been removed. It is shown with respect to the graph on the right-hand side.
Mathematically also, we are saying that the current value of the current source IS(t)= 2 Amperes. For
t<0 and for t>=0, the value of the current source is equal to 0. That is, the current source has been
removed at a particular time. That is the time of analysis for us.

Now for this particular circuit, let's write a simple equation for the current. That is the current entering
is IS, and the current leaving through two branches is VC/3 through the resistor, and dv_c/dt through
the capacitor. Now as we know, for t >=0, the value of IS=0. We can rewrite that equation and
simplify it as dv_c * dt +5 * vc= 0. We know how to solve this particular differential equation. The
result of this would be Vc(t) =VC(0){ e^-t}* RC. For this equation, we need to know the initial value of
the voltage across the capacitor. Since the current source was initially connected, the capacitor
would be open circuit, and the entire current would have flown through the three ohm resistance,
making the voltage across the resistor as equal to sic volts. This is the same voltage which will
appear across the capacitor. Indeed, what we are saying is that the capacitor has been initially
charged to the value of six volts. From the time constraint value of RC, we can find out the value of
two and we can substitute it over here. We get the equation for the voltage across the capacitor as 6
e^ -5t volts.
Similarly, we can find the equation for the current through the capacitor that can be taken by finding
out the current through the resistor. Now as we can see, since the capacitor is discharging, the
current direction is opposite. We append a minus sign to that. It is given as -Vc of t *3. Or it can be
found out by using cd_v/dt as well. We get the equation for current as -2(e^-5t) Amperes.

In brief, what we're seeing over here is that the voltage equation is six volts for t<0. That is, the
capacitor has been charged to six volts, then the source has been removed. Because of that, the
capacitor starts discharging. This response is captured over here as 6(e^ -5t) volts for t>=0.
Similarly, the current through the capacitor is zero Ampere for t<0, it is behaving as open circuit.
When the source is removed, now the current is -2(e^-5t) Amperes.

Graphically what we see here is that the capacitor voltage was equal to six volts to begin with and
then it is rapidly decreasing. While the current through the capacitor was initially zero, and then it
became -2. After that, again, there is a decrease in the current. This is being shown with respect to
time and this is the value of -2. This is the value of six volts as a voltage across the capacitor. What
we understand from here, again is that the voltage across the capacitor cannot change
instantaneously, but the current can have the abrupt change in its value.
Now let us look at another example of a source-free RL circuit. We have the resistor and inductor
connected over here and a source of V is voltage source has been shown. But graphically what
we're showing here is that the source has been removed at time t=0. Mathematically also it is being
expressed as follows. The Vs (t) = 2v for t<0 and it's equal to zero for t>=0. What it means is that at
a time t =0, the source has been removed from the circuit. Now, what we can do over here is to write
the KVL equation. Vs =i_L/3 + 1/15 * di_L/dt. When t>=0, second, we can write the differential
equation. For this differential equation, we know the solution is given as i_L (t)= iL (0) e^-Rt/L. R/L is
the reciprocal of the time constraint in this circuit. Now, for this, we need to know the initial value of
the current through the inductor. Before the source has been removed, the inductor behaves as a
short circuit because of the presence of the DC source and the current flowing through that particular
inductor would it be given as six Amperes. Now, with this value of the current, we can substitute it in
the equation and get the expression as 6(e^-5t) Amperes.

When the t>=0, we can also get the equation for the voltage. That voltage equation we can find out
by using di_L/dt or by using the product of R(i) from the resistor. The equation of a VLT that we'll get
over here is -2(e^ -5t) volts.
Now, in a similar way of that of the source-free RC circuit, we can denote the summary for the
source-free RL circuit. Here the initial current is six Amperes, and then it is rapidly decreasing with
the expression as 6(e^-5t). Initially the value of voltage across the inductor is zero volt. When the
source is removed, now the value of the voltage is -2(e^-5t), that it is showing the decay from the
value of -2 on volts. In this video, we have seen one example each of source-free RC and RL circuit,
we have found out that the voltage across the capacitor cannot change instantaneously. Similarly,
the current through the inductor cannot change instantaneously. We have found out that the voltage
across the capacitor would be decreasing exponentially once the source is removed. Similarly,
current through the inductor would be decreasing exponentially as the source is removed.
Practice Quiz: Examples of Source-Free
RC and RL Circuit
1. Determine the inductor voltage VL(t) for t > 0 in the following circuit.
Driven RC and RL Circuit ​
Video 6

In this video, we'll be learning the driven RC and RL circuits. What do we mean by driven here?
That there will be a source present to drive the circuit. We also call that as opposing function. Let us
now see what is the effect of this source on the RC and RL circuits. We would have the first-order
differential equations over here again, and we would be obtaining the response which would be
under the forcing function being available. The input can be suddenly applied to the circuit. How do
we apply the input to the RC or RL circuit here? In the electrical circuit, we'll be making use of
switches in order to apply the source to the circuit. Mathematically, we can model it by using the unit
step function or impulse function, or sometimes a unit pulse function. The application of the source
to the RL and RC circuit is what we are terming as a driven circuit.

Now let us try to understand a mathematical function called as unit step function here. The
nomenclature for this is u(t). U(t) is mathematically defined as zero for t less than zero and it is equal
to one for t greater than zero. Graphically also, we showed that the value is zero for t less than zero
and it is equal to one for t greater than zero. It looks like a step, and that's why we call it a step
function. The function can also be delayed by an amount termed as t_0 over here, we would say
then that the state has been applied not at t=0, but at t=t_0. The function now becomes u(t)-t_0,
u(t)-t_0 is 0 for t less than t_0, and it's 1 for t greater than t_0.
 How do we use in the electrical
circuit? This will be shown by using the switch as shown here in this slide. At t=0, this switch closes
and connects the voltage source to the point A and B. This is an application of the source to the
circuit which is there on this right hand side.

Similarly, for the current source, we can write the value of the current source is i_0 into u(t). It means
that current source offer value i_0 is applied to the circuit of interest. Again, this is shown by using
the switchover here at t=0, the switch closes, making the current to flow in the circuit from the point A
and the return from point B.

In this example, we'll see the RC circuit and utilization of unit step function as well. Here, the
switches being thrown at t=0 and it makes the voltage source to appear on the RC circuit.
Mathematically, it can be modeled as V_s(t) equal to V-u(t), we have a resistor and capacitor being
connected in series here. Let us consider what is happening in this circuit for t less than zero. At a
time when t is less than zero, we do not have a source present in the RC circuit. The current through
the circuit=0. The voltage across the capacitor is also zero. We can consider that the capacitor has
been initially not being charged.

Now, when the switch is thrown at point B, at t=0. The source is applicable to the circuit. But based
on the property of the capacitor, we know that the voltage across the capacitors is not going to
change suddenly. The entire voltage of the source is appearing across the resistor. Because of this,
the current will start flowing through the circuit. This current will make the capacitor to charge, and as
the capacitor is charging, there would be voltage which is developed across the capacitor. Voltage
across the resistor will go down. Voltage across the capacitor will start increasing.

Now, this process will slow down because the capacitor will start charging. Finally, as the time
progresses, the capacitor will be fully charged. Because of this, it will again be the open circuit with
respect to the source which is being applied.
Now, let us try to analyze this circuit by using a simple equation. At this particular point, we can apply
the Nodal equation. We know over here that the voltage on this side is V_u(t). The voltage on the
other side of the node is the voltage across capacitor that is V_c. So the current is V_u(t)-V_c/R.
That current would be same as the current through the branch, that is current through the capacitor,
and that is given as C dv/dt. We can simplify the equation as Dv_c/dt+1/RC*vc= V by RC into u(t).
Hi. For the time t greater than equal to zero, we can rewrite the equation in the simple form. We
know that the function u of t is equal to one for t greater than or equal to zero. So we can now
remove that particular notation and rewrite the equation in a simple form.

Now, we have the equation which is called as a non-homogeneous first-order differential equation,
as the right-hand side is not zero over here. This is not zero because the source is being applied in
this particular circuit. We can relate this particular equation with a simple equation on the right-hand
side, that is d x of d by d t plus a times x of t is equal to f of t. If we multiply both sides by e^at to the
equation which is on the right-hand side, then we can get this particular expression. This expression
shows that the derivative of the product a^at*x of t is what we have on the left-hand side of this
equation, and from this, we can rewrite the equation, take the integral of it, and multiply both sides
by e^-80 in order to get the solution that is x of t.
Now, X of t over here is given as e^-80, integral of e^80 into f of t d t+a*e^at. This expression can be
written as the summation of two functions, x f of t plus x n of t. These are denoted as the forced
response and natural response respectively. Forced response is known as the steady-state
response of the circuit and natural response is known as a transient response as well. The natural
response is the transient response as it dies down after a certain time period. After a five t time
period, we assume that the change in the response is less than 1% of the original value where we
say that the response has reached to the steady-state, and that is what is known as the steady-state
response of the circuit.

Now, let us try to see how we can get this particular responses for our circuit. In our circuit we have a
forcing function which is constant in nature. So we can again relate to this simple equation, that is d,
d t of x of t+a*x of t is equal to b. B's our constant forcing function over here. If we find the
expression of d x f of t from this, we will get the solution as b by a, and the x t can be then written as
b by a plus a times e^at. Here, Ae^-at is a natural response of the circuit and b by a is the force
response of the circuit. Relating it with our expression, we had this particular explanation of the
circuit comparing with the expression of x of t, we can make the substitutions over here. Now, in our
case, b is equivalent to V by RC, and the value of a is nothing but equal to one by RC. So we can
get this particular expression, we find out that V_c of t is equal to V plus Ae raised to minus t by RC.
So A e raised to minus t by RC is your transient response which will die down and the steady-state
response of the circuit would be equal to V. What it actually means, that the capacitor would be
finally charged to the voltage equal to V. That's the voltage of our forcing function in the circuit.
These are the expression for the capacitor voltage and current, we need to get the value of constant
A over here that we can simply get by substituting the t is equal to zero in the expression, we get the
value of a equal to minus v. So our final expression for the voltage across the capacitor is given as V
into 1-e raised to minus t by RC for t greater than or equal to zero.

This expression we can use in order to find out the current through the capacitor and here the
current expression is given as V by R into e raised to minus t by RC.

This we can plot graphically as well. So over here what we can see that as the source is being
applied to this RC circuit, the capacitor has started charging in the exponential manner and after a
certain time period, it reaches to the steady-state. Usually, the steady state is reached after the 5t
time period. The toe that is time constant for the RC circuit is nothing but a product of RNC. So after
5t time period, we will have reached to the steady-state, which is equal to the voltage of the voltage
source itself. Similarly, as we can see over here, the capacitor current will charge decaying. As the
capacitor starts charging, the current through that will decay and after five t time period, the
capacitor will behave as the open circuit. In this video, we have seen how to analyze the driven RC
circuit. We have applied the source to the RC circuit at a time t is equal to zero and what we have
observed, data capacitor starts charging, it charges towards the voltage given by the voltage source,
and as it is charging, the current through the capacitor starts decreasing, making it as the open
circuit at the end of it.
Source-Free RC and RL Circuits and Driven
RL and RC Circuits
Reading Objective:
In this reading, you will learn about source-free RC circuits. By calculating the time constant of the
RC circuits, you will analyze the significance of the time constant in RC circuits. You will also learn
about source-free RL circuits. By calculating the time constant of the RL circuits, you will analyze the
significance of the time constant in RL circuits. You will also explore the response of the RC and RL
circuits when the source is applied to the circuits.
Main Reading Section:
Source-Free RC and RL Circuits and Driven RL and RC Circuits
Here, we first introduce source-free RC circuits. These circuits consist of one resistor and one
capacitor element. Source-free circuit means that no source is connected to the circuit while we are
analyzing it. Source might have been connected to the circuit initially to charge the capacitor to a
certain voltage level, and then the source has been removed from the circuit. We study the effect
afterward. The mathematical representation of the circuit is given by a first-order differential
equation, and hence these circuits are termed first-order circuits. The differential equations are
homogeneous and linear in nature.

When the source is removed from the RC circuit, it is expected that the capacitor will start
discharging through the resistor. This circuit behavior depends on the nature of elements and the
type of interconnections. In this case, a charged capacitor has a discharging path through a resistor
without any source (or forcing function). Hence, it is known as a natural response of the circuit. It is
also a transient response, as the response dies down (or is below a significant level) after a while.
We find out that for the source-free RC circuit, the expression of voltage across a capacitor is given:

where τ (tau) is the time constant of the circuit. We observe that the decay is exponential in nature.
In the RC circuit, the value of τ is given by the product RC, i.e., the product of resistor and capacitor
values. The time constant value is an important indicator of the circuit as it describes the rapidity with
which the voltage decreases. The time constant of a circuit is the time required for the response to
decay by a factor of 1/e or 36.8 percent of its initial value. It can also be found that all the energy of
the capacitor is lost via the resistor in the form of heat.

Later in the lesson, we consider the application of the source on the RC or RL circuit. We will restrict
our attention to the step function for modeling this source—referring to the constant forcing function
applied to the circuit. In the circuit, the application and the removal of a source can be shown by
switching action. Here, we get the circuit representation by a first-order non-homogeneous
differential equation. The solution of this equation consists of two parts—one is the natural or
transient response that we have seen already, and other is the forced response. The forced
response is also sometimes termed steady-state response, as the circuit elements (capacitor and
inductors) may reach a final steady-state value of voltage across them or current through them. The
forced response resembles the forcing function. So, in the case of a constant forcing function, the
forced response would also be constant.

Important points to note in this topic are:

Practice Quiz: Driven RC and RL Circuit ​
​ econd-Order Circuits: Natural Response -
S
Part 1
Video 7

In this video, we'll be learning the second-order circuits and we'll be analyzing them for their natural
response. What do we mean by second-order circuits? In this particular circuits, we may observe
both of the energy storage elements being present, that is the capacitors as well as inductors. We
might have two inductors present in the circuit which cannot be directly combined in series or in
parallel. Similarly, we may have two capacitors present, which cannot be combined in a series of
parallel combination. By natural response, we mean, again that source is absent and the circuit is
behaving based on the type of elements and type of connections that they have.

Now let us look at this particular possibilities. We have shown different circuits over here. The
circuits either consist of both the type of elements that is inductor and capacitor. Both the circuits
which are shown on the left-hand side of the slide are of that particular type, or you may have the
circuit which has two inductors separated by resistor in-between. So these inductors are neither in
series or in parallel.

Similarly, you have two capacitors separated by a resistor in between.

Again, these capacitors are not in series or in parallel. These are certain examples of our
second-order circuit. We have shown that the source is connected over here. The source might be
connected for a certain time. There might be initial voltage across a capacitor and the current going
through the inductor and after that source would be removed so that we can study the natural
response of the circuit.

Now let us look at one such circuit. We call this circuit a series RLC because the components are
connected in series, and what are the components? You see one resistor, one inductor, and one
capacitor. Source is absent so this gives us the natural response study of the circuit. Since these
elements are in series, we will write the KVL. The equation comes as follows. We have v+ Ri+Ldi/dt,
v is the voltage across the capacitor, i is the current which is same through all the elements in this
particular circuit. Now we know that the current in the capacitor is given as i=Cdv/dt. We can
substitute that in double equation and can get the second-order differential equation here.
Now, we can simplify this particular equation and relate it with a simple general second-order
differential equation, which is given on the right-hand side over here. D^2(y)t by dt^2+2Alpha
dy(t)/dt+Omega_n squared y(t)=0. In this, we have brought in two different terms. One is Alpha,
another is Omega_n, 2Alpha is taken as equal to R by L. Or we can say Alpha is R by 2L. Alpha is
our damping coefficient. Omega_n is given as one by root LC. The Omega_n stands for the natural
undamped frequency for us. Now, these are the two variables which we can compare with the values
of the elements in the circuit. That is, Alpha is dependent on the values of R and L. Omega_n is
dependent on the value of inductor and the capacitor. We know that under the absence of the
source, we will have the charge of the capacitor or the current through the inductor decreasing in the
exponential manner. And so we can try the solution as y of t equal to Ae^st. That is the exponential
solution we can try over here. Putting that solution y(t)=Ae^st, in the second-order differential
equation, we get the equation as follows.

The equation is being repeated over here. Then we will have the differentiation to be done. Once we
do the differentiation, we get the equation as S^2 into Ae^st+2Alpha S into Ae^st plus Omega_n^2
into Ae^st=0. We know that Ae^st is a common term. Removing that term, we get the characteristic
equation of the second-order circuit. The equation S^2+2Alpha S+Omega_n^2=0 is known as the
characteristic equation of this second-order circuit. From this, we can find out the roots of this
characteristic equation or the quadratic equation. We'll get the roots as S_1 and S_2. Then we can
say the solution here, y(t) is nothing but A_1e^s_1t+A_2e^s_2t.

We know that the Alpha and Omega_n are dependent on the values of RLC elements so we may get
the conditions as follows. That is, Alpha may be greater than Omega_n, Alpha may be less than
Omega_n or Alpha is same as that of Omega_n. When we have Alpha to be greater than Omega_n,
we will have S_1 and S_2 roots, which are real but unequal. This type of circuit is known as the
overdamped circuit. We may have the condition where Alpha is less than Omega_n. Here we get the
S_1, S_2 as complex roots. In such a case we call the circuit to be underdamped circuit. In the third
case, we may have Alpha to be exactly equal to Omega_n. Here we get the roots S_1, S_2 as equal
and real. In this condition, we call the circuit as critically damped circuit. These are three different
possibilities that we will have.

Let us look at the parallel RLC circuit for the natural response. What we have here is that all the
three elements are in parallel and the source is absent. Here we will write the KCL. We do know that
v is the voltage across the capacitor and i is the current to the inductor. Voltage is same across all
the elements because they are in parallel so the equation is as follows.

V/R+i+Cdv/dt=0. We know that the voltage across the inductor is given as v is equal to Ldi/dt.
Substituting that in the equation, we get the second-order differential equation. Simplifying that gives
us the equation like this. We can compare it with the generic second-order differential equation again
to find out the values of Alpha and Omega_n. In this case, we have the Alpha as 1/2RC, that is
2Alpha=1/RC and the value of Omega_n is one by root LC itself. Here we have the different value of
Alpha to be noted down. Again, the cases of the circuit would remain the same as overdamped,
underdamped and critically damped circuit. We will have those cases dependent on the values of
Alpha and Omega and their relationship. In this video, we have looked at the second-order circuits
and we have analyzed them for their natural response. That is, we are looking at the second-order
circuit under the absence of a source. We have seen that we may get three different cases of
circuits, overdamped, underdamped, and critically damped. This cases are dependent on the
element values, that is R, L, and C that we have in the circuit
Practice Quiz: ​Second-Order Circuits:
Natural Response - Part 1
1. Consider a parallel RLC circuit with the parameters as R = 200 Ω, L = 50 mH, and C = 0.2
µF. Identify whether the system is overdamped, underdamped, undamped, or critically
damped.
Overdamped
Correct: Find and compare the values of α and ωn based on the given R, L, and C components.

2. Consider a parallel RLC circuit with the parameters as R = 400 Ω, L = 50mH, and C = 0.2 µF.
Identify whether the system is overdamped, underdamped, undamped, or critically damped.
Underdamped
Correct: Find and compare the values of α and ωn based on the given R, L, and C components.
Second-Order Circuits:​Natural Response -
Part 2
Video 8

In this video, we'll be looking at the details of the second-order circuit, and we're studying them for
their natural response. In the second-order circuit, we may observe both type of energy storage
elements, that is, inductor and capacitor. The source would be absent and hence the natural
response is being analyzed here. We may have different cases of the circuit in the second-order
type. We may have the circuit which is overdamped, underdamped, or critically damped. This
depend on the relationship of Alpha and Omega_n. If Alpha is greater than Omega_n, we have
overdamped circuit. If Alpha is less than Omega_n we have underdamped circuit, and when their
values are equal, we have critically damped circuit. The values of Alpha and Omega_n itself are
dependent on the values of R, L, and C in the circuit. In the series RLC circuit, we have the value of
Alpha as R by 2L, and in the parallel RLC circuit, we have the value of Alpha as one upon 2RC. The
value of Omega_n remains same in both the types and that is given as one upon root LC. We can
calculate value of Alpha and Omega_n from the values of the components that we have, and then
study the particular case of the circuit.

Let's look at the overdamped case, which is the simplest among the all. We have here Alpha greater
than Omega_n, so Alpha squared minus Omega_n squared is greater than zero, and we get the
roots which would be unequal but real roots. This solution over here would be y(t) = A_1 into
e^s_1t+A_2 into e^s_2t. This is the response of the circuit for the overdamped case. It is the
summation of two exponentials, and so we will have the response which is exponentially varying.
Let's look at the second case, which is the underdamped case. Here we have the Alpha to be less
than Omega_n, and we get the value of Alpha squared minus Omega_n squared to be less than
zero. We have the under root term which is negative, and for that we introduce another term called
as Omega_d, which is given as under root of minus Omega_n square minus Alpha squared. This
Omega_d is called as a damped natural frequency. From this, we'll get the roots s_1, s_2, which
would be complex in nature, and we can substitute them in the solution.

Exponential terms can be arranged in the form of cos and sine in order to arrive at the equation
here, which is y(t) = e^minus Alpha t B_1 cos of Omega_d t plus B_2 sine of Omega_d t. This
equation can be further simplified to be written in this manner, y(t) = B into e^minus Alpha t cos of
Omega_d t minus Theta. The value of B and Theta are given over here. This particular equation tells
us that it is nothing but the damped sinusoidal in nature. We have the cos Omega_d t minus Theta
function over here, which is being multiplied with the exponential function. We have a sinusoidal
function which is exponentially decaying, and so this is a typical response of the underdamped
circuit.
Let's look at the third case over here, which is a critically damped case. Here we have the value of
Alpha to be equal to Omega_n, and we can get the solution for the second-order differential equation
here by rearranging the terms and substituting d dt of y(t) plus Alpha y(t) = f(t) function.

Rearranging the terms with f(t), and then we can write the solution for this first-order differential
equation in a similar fashion of that of the first-order circuits. We can say f(t) would resemble to the
exponential nature, and this can be given as A_1 into e^minus Alpha t. Substituting it into the above
equation, multiplying both sides with e^Alpha t, we get this simplified equation here, that is d dt of
e^Alpha t y(t) = A_1.

Integrating this and then finding out the solution for y(t), we get y(t) as A_1t+A_2 into e^minus Alpha
t. This would be a typical response of a critically damped circuit. It would have the term A_1t+A_2
multiplied with the exponential term of e^minus Alpha t here.
Let's look at one example of a series RLC circuit, and let's try to solve this. We are given the values
of R, L, and C, which is five Ohm, one by two Henry and one by eight farad. These elements are
shown to be connected in series and the source is absent here. The current I is the same current
going through all the elements, and voltage V is the voltage across the capacitor. Initial values of
voltage and currents are given as four volts and two amperes respectively. We should find out the
voltage and the current value for t greater than equal to zero second.

Now let us try to find out what is the type of this circuit over here. We can find out the value of Alpha
and Omega_n from RLC element values which are given to us. We find out that Alpha is equal to
five and Omega_n equal to four. What is the type of the circuit that we have at hand? This is nothing
but the overdamped case. In this thing, we will be getting the S_1, S_2 as the unequal but real roots.
We get the values of them as -8 and -2 here. The solution for the voltage can be written in this form
as A_1 into e^-8t+A_2 into e^-2t. We need to get the values of these two constants, A_1 and A_2.
For this, we would take the help of two initial conditions. The first we know that by substituting t = 0
we can equate this with v(0), and we have that equation as A_1+A_2 = 4. For the second constant,
we should get the derivative of this equation. We get the d dt of v(t) over here, and then c dv by dt is
nothing but the initial current through the capacitor.
We can substitute that value of the current and write the second equation as follows. We have the
second equation as -A_1-1 by 4*A_2 = 2.

Now we have two equations for two unknowns. We can get the values of A_1 and A_2. We get the
value of A_1 as -4 and A_2 = 8. Substituting that in the equations, we get the voltage response as
follows, that is -4*e^-8t+8*e^-2t volts for t greater or equal to zero. We can substitute this equation in
the c dv by dt in order to get the response of the current. The response of the current is what is
shown here as 4 into e^-8t-2 into e^-2t amperes for t greater than or equal to zero. If we substitute
the value of t = 0, we will get the v(0) = 4 volts, and i(0) = 2 amperes as was the values given to us,
validating that these are the correct set of equations for the responses of the circuit. In this video, we
have seen three different cases of the second-order circuit in detail, and we have also seen the
example of the series RLC circuit, which was the overdamped case.
Practice Quiz: Second-Order Circuits:​
Natural Response - Part 2
Second-Order Circuits: Complete Response
Video 9

In this video, we'll be looking at the second order circuit and we'll be analyzing them for their
complete response. We will have the circuit where the forcing function or the source is present.
Because of this forcing function, we'll get the force response of the circuit. And we will also have the
natural response of the circuit which comes from the interconnection of the RLC elements. The
summation of force response and the natural response is what is called as a complete response of
the circuit. Let us look at one example of this particular circuits. We have shown over here, the three
elements, R, L and C, connected in parallel and we have the source that is a current source also
being present here. The current source is given as Iu(t), it means that from t = 0 onward, this source
has been applied to the circuit. Current i is the current through the inductor and the voltage v
notation is the voltage across the capacitor. Of course, this voltage is same across all the elements
since the elements are in parallel. We can write the equation of the KCL for this particular circuit, that
is C dv/dt + V/R + i = the current entering from the current source here. We can substitute V = L di/dt
in the above equation to get the second order equation. Here, the RHS of the equation is a non zero
term. We get the RHS as I/LC into u(t). If we are considering the t > = 0, the term u(t) can be
dropped and we will get the equation as follows. Here, the right hand side term is I/LC. Because of
this particular term being present, we will have the complete response of the circuit which is given as
the summation of two terms, if(t) and in(t). If(t) is the notation we are using for the forced response
and in(t) is the term which you are using for the natural response of the circuit.

So the complete response is the summation of these two terms. Forcing function that we are using
here is a constant, so the fourth response will also be a constant in nature. And that can be obtained
by simply substituting constant K in the differential equation above. So we will have the equation
which is by substitution of the constant K. And as we can find out easily that the constant K is
nothing but the value of I, that is the current source value that we are connecting in this circuit.
 So we, again, can see that we have three different cases of the circuit. One is overdamped, other is
underdamped and the last one is a critically damped case. The response of the circuit overdamped
is i(t) = I + A1e raised to s1t + A2e raised into s2t. For the underdamped case, we have the solution
i(t) = I + e raised to alpha t (B1 cos Omega dt + B2 sin of Omega dt). So again, in the underdamped
case, we have the solution which will be constant plus damped sinezide in nature. For the critically
damped case, we have the solution i(t) = I + A1te raised into- alpha t + A2e raised into- alpha t.

Now let us look at the series RLC circuit for the complete response. Here, we have the elements R,
L, and C connected in series with the voltage source being present. Again, the voltage source value
is shown as Vu(t). So the equation of the KVL here comes as follows. We have the equation as L
into di/dt + Ri + v = Vu(t). We substitute i = C into dv/dt over here to get the differential equation as
follows. Here again, we have the right hand side which is V/LC into u(t). If we write the equation
considering t >= 0, the right hand side term comes as V/LC.

And we can similarly follow as that of the parallel C circuit. Here also will get three cases, one as
overdamped, other as underdamped and last one is a critically damped case. All these responses
are the summation of two responses, that is the forced response and the natural response. The first
response is constant over here since we have the forcing function which is DC or the constant in
nature.
Let's look at the example of a series RLC where the source is also present. So we'll be finding out
the complete response in this circuit, that is the equation of v(t) and i(t). We are given the initial
values over here, i(0) is 4A and v(0) is 4 volts. From the element values of R, L and C, we can find
out that the value of alpha = 2.5 and value of Omega n = 2. So we get this particular case as the
overdamped case of the circuit. From here, we'll get the roots of the equation. The roots would be
unequal but real. We will have the value of S1 = -1 and the value of S2 = -4. We will be using the
solution of the overdamned case for the complete response here. That is v(t) will be V + A1e raised
into -t + A2e raised into -4t. We need to get the values of A1 and A2. We will be using the initial
conditions for getting this particular constant values. For that, let's substitute t = 0. In the equation,
we get the equation as 14 + A1 + A2 = 4, that is equal to the v(0).

And we get the first equation for the constant here as A1 + A2 = -10. Taking the derivative of the v(t)
and relating it with C dv.dt, substituting t = 0 for the initial value of the current, we will get the
equation as -1/4A1- A2 = 4. Now, we have two equations at hand with two unknowns. We can find
out the value of the unknowns, that is A1 = -8 here and A2 = -2. Substitute that in the equation of a
voltage and the equation of a current. We will get the responses as v(t) and i(t) here, for t >= 0.
Again, substituting the value of t = 0 in these equations, we'll find out that the v(0) is nothing but
equal to 4 volts and i(0) is nothing but equal to 4A. So this satisfies our conditions which has been
given as initial conditions in the circuit. In this video, we have seen how to analyze the second order
circuits to find the complete response. Complete response is a summation of force response with
natural response. Force response is based on the forcing function and natural response is based on
the type of components and their interconnection. In these cases of the circuit, we got the force
response to be constant in nature because our forcing function were also constant in nature.
Series and Parallel RLC Circuits
Reading Objective:
In this reading, you will learn about the series RLC and parallel RLC circuits. You will know about the
second-order circuit response. You will be able to identify the type of the circuit as an underdamped,
overdamped, or critically damped circuit. You will also learn about the driven RLC circuits and
understand the behavior of these circuits.
Main Reading Section:
Series and Parallel RLC Circuits
First, we consider source-free RLC circuits. A source-free circuit is analyzed to get the natural
response of the circuit. Note that we will also be having two initial conditions to begin with, as the
capacitor and inductor may have zero or finite initial stored energy. The mathematical representation
of these circuits leads us to the second-order differential equation. In these differential equations, we
get two important parameters, i.e., α and ωn. Here, α represents the exponential damping
coefficient, whereas ωn represents the resonant frequency of the circuit. These element values are
dependent upon values of R, L, and C components. Based on the comparison of these elements, we
classify the circuit as underdamped, overdamped, or critically damped circuits. From the
characteristic equation of the circuit, we can find the roots of the equation as well.
Practice Quiz: Second-Order Circuits:
Complete Response
Reading List: Time Domain Analysis of Circuits
Lesson 1: Analyze Source-Free RL/RC Circuits and Driven RL/RC Circuits
Topic 1: Introduction to Energy Storage Element
Title: Essential Reading Material – Introducing Capacitor and Inductor
Brief: In this reading, you will learn about two more circuit elements known as Capacitor and
Inductor. A Capacitor consists of two conductor plates separated by an insulator or a dielectric
material. In contrast, an Inductor consists of a wire wound in the form of a coil around a supporting
core material. We will learn about the voltage-current relationship of these two elements. Also, we
will understand the calculation of power and energy for these elements.
Book: William, H. Hayt, Jr., Jack E. Kemmerly, and Steven M. Durbin. Engineering Circuit Analysis,
Eighth Edition. Chapter-7, Section 7.1 - The Capacitor, Section 7.2 - The Inductor
Duration: 15 min
Topic: Equivalent Capacitance and Inductance
Title: Essential Reading Material – Inductance and Capacitance Combination
Brief: In this reading, you will learn about inductance and capacitance combination. You will gain an
understanding of an electrical circuit consisting of multiple capacitors and multiple inductors. These
elements might be in series or parallel connections. You will learn to simplify these connections and
represent the circuit in the simplified form.
Book: William, H. Hayt, Jr., Jack E. Kemmerly, and Steven M. Durbin. Engineering Circuit Analysis.
Eighth Edition, Chapter-7, Section 7.3 – Inductance and Capacitance Combination
Duration: 10 min
Topics: Source-Free RC and RL Circuits, Examples and Driven RL and RC Circuit
Title: Essential Reading Material – Basic RL and RC Circuits
Brief: This reading introduces you to the source-free RC and RL Circuits. The source-free RC
circuits consist of one resistor and one capacitor element. A source-free circuit means no source
connected to the circuit while you analyze it. The source might be connected to the circuit initially to
charge the capacitor to a certain voltage level, and then the source is removed from the circuit. You
will then analyze the effects afterward. A first-order differential equation gives the mathematical
representation of the circuit; hence, these circuits are termed first-order circuits.
Further, you will learn about the source-free RL circuits. These circuits consist of one resistor and
one inductor element. Source might be connected to the circuit initially to store certain initial energy
in the inductor, and then the source is removed from the circuit. You will then analyze the effects
afterward.
Finally, you will gain insights into the driven RC and RL circuits. Here, the source is connected to RC
or RL circuits, and the effect of the source is observed through the response of the circuit to the
source.
Book: William, H. Hayt, Jr., Jack E. Kemmerly, and Steven M. Durbin. Engineering Circuit Analysis,
Eighth Edition. Chapter-8, Section 8.1 – The source-free RL circuit, Section 8.2 – Properties of
exponential response, Section 8.3 – The source-free RC circuit, Section 8.4 – A more general
perspective, Section 8.5 – The unit step function, Section 8.6 – Driven RL circuit, Section 8.7 –
Natural and forced response, Section 8.8 – Driven RC circuit
Duration: 120 min
Lesson 2: Analyze Series and Parallel RLC Circuits
Topics: Second-Order Circuits: Natural and Complete Response
Title: Essential Reading Material – Series and Parallel RLC Circuits
Brief: In this reading, you will learn about both types of energy storage elements into the circuit.
Having DC circuits consisting of both inductor and capacitor elements, forming a second-order
circuit, you will learn how these elements might be connected in various ways, including purely
series and parallel connections. You will explore how second-order circuits may also consist of two
similar types of elements in such a way that the combination of elements is not possible.
You will gain insights into the response of second-order circuits that can be overdamped,
underdamped, or critically damped. If the source is absent, the response of the circuit is known as a
natural response of the circuit. You will learn that when the source is connected, the response of the
circuit consists of two parts: one, a natural response that depends on the nature of elements and
their interconnection, and two, a forced response that depends upon and resembles the type of
forcing function. You will also learn that a complete response of the circuit is a summation of the
natural and forced responses.
Book: William, H. Hayt, Jr., Jack E. Kemmerly, and Steven M. Durbin. Engineering Circuit Analysis,
Eighth Edition. Chapter-9, Chapter 9 – The RLC Circuit, Sections 9.1 to 9.6.
Duration: 120 min