University of Groningen
The sound of high winds
van den Berg, G.P.
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2006
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van den Berg, G. P. (2006). The sound of high winds: The effect of atmospheric stability on wind turbine
sound and microphone noise. s.n.
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III BASIC FACTS: wind power and the
origins of modern wind turbine sound
III.1 Wind energy in the EU
Modern onshore wind turbines have peak electric power outputs up to 3
MW and tower heights of 80 to 100 meters. In 2003, 75% of the global
wind power peak electric output of 40 GW was installed in the European
Union. The original European target for 2010 was 40 GW, but the
European Wind Energy Association have already set a new target for 2010
of 75 GW, of which 10 GW is projected off-shore, while others have
forecasted a peak output of 120 GW for that year [EWEA 2004]. Whether
this growth will actually occur is uncertain; with the proportional increase
of wind energy in total electric power the difficulties and costs of
integrating large scale windpower with respect to grid capacity and
stability, reserve capacity and CO2 emission reductions are becoming more
prominent [see, e.g., E.On 2004, ESB 2004]). However, further expansion
of wind energy is to be expected, and as a result of this (predominantly on-
shore) growth an increasing number of people may face the prospect of
living near wind farms, and have reason to inquire and perhaps be worried
about their environmental impact. Visual intrusion, intermittent reflections
on the turbine blades, as well as intermittent shadows (caused when the
rotating blades pass between the viewer and the sun), and sound, are
usually considered potentially negative impacts.
III.2 Wind profiles and atmospheric stability
Atmospheric stability has a profound effect on the vertical wind profile and
on atmospherical turbulence strength. Stability is determined by the net
heat flux to the ground, which is a sum of incoming solar and outgoing
thermal radiation, and of latent and sensible heat exchanged with the air
and the subsoil. When incoming radiation dominates (clear summer days)
air is heated from below and rises: the atmosphere is unstable. Thus,
thermal turbulence implies vertical air movements, preventing large
27
variations in the vertical wind velocity gradient (i.e. the change in time
averaged wind velocity with height). When outgoing radiation dominates
(clear nights) air is cooled from below; air density will increase closer to
the ground, leading to a stable configuration where vertical movements are
damped. The ‘decoupling’ of horizontal layers of air allows a higher
vertical wind velocity gradient. A neutral state occurs when thermal effects
are less significant, which is under heavy clouding and/or in strong winds.
Wind velocity at altitude h2 can be deduced from wind velocity at altitude
h1 with a simple power law function:
Vh2/Vh1 = (h2/h1)m (III.1)
Equation III.1 is an engineering formula used to express the degree of
stability in a single number (the shear exponent m), but has no physical
basis. The relation is suitable where h is at least several times the
roughness height (a height related to the height of vegetation or obstacles
on the ground). Also, at high altitudes the wind profile will not follow
(III.1), as eventually a more or less constant wind velocity (the geostrophic
wind) will be attained. At higher altitudes in a stable atmosphere there may
be a decrease in wind velocity when a nocturnal ‘jet’ develops. The
maximum in this jet is caused by a transfer of kinetic energy from the near-
ground air that decouples from higher air masses as large, thermally
induced eddies vanish because of ground cooling. In fact, reversal of the
usual near-ground diurnal pattern of low wind velocities at night and
higher wind velocities in daytime is a common phenomenon at higher
altitudes over land in clear nights as will be shown further below (Chapter
VI). Over large bodies of water the phenomenon may be seasonal as
atmospheric stability occurs more often when the water is relatively cold
(winter, spring). This may also be accompanied by a maximum in wind
velocity at a higher altitude [Smedman et al 1996].
In flat terrain the shear exponent m has a value of 0.1 and more. For a
neutral atmosphere m has a value of approximately 1/7. In an unstable
atmosphere -occurring in daytime- thermal effects caused by ground
heating are dominant. Then m has a lower value, down to approximately
28
0.1. In a stable atmosphere vertical movements are damped because of
ground cooling and m has a higher value. One would eventually expect a
parabolic wind profile, as is found in laminar flow, corresponding to a
value of m of 0.7 = ¥½. Our measurements near the Rhede wind farm
yielded values of m up to 0.6. A sample (averages over 0:00–0:30 GMT of
each first night of the month in 1973) from data from a 200 m high tower
in flat, agricultural land [Van Ulden et al 1976] shows that the theoretical
value is indeed reached: in ten out of the twelve samples there was a
temperature inversion in the lower 120 m, indicating atmospheric stability.
In six samples the temperature increased with more than 1 °C from 10 to
120 m height and the exponent m (calculated from (III.1): m =
log(V80/V10)/log(8)) was 0.43, 0.44, 0.55, 0.58, 0.67 and 0.72. More data
from this site (Cabauw) and other areas will be presented in chapter VI.
A physical model to calculate wind velocity Vh at height h is ([Garrat
1992], p. 53):
Vh = (u*/ț)·[ln(h/zo) – Ȍ] (III.2)
where ț = 0.4 is von Karman’s constant, zo is roughness height and u* is
friction velocity, defined by u*2 = ¥(<uw>2 + <vw>2) = IJ/ȡ, where IJ equals
the momentum flux due to turbulent friction across a horizontal plane, ȡ is
air density and u, v and w are the time-varying components of in-wind,
cross-wind and vertical wind velocity, with <x> the time average of x. The
stability function Ȍ = Ȍ(ȗ) (with ȗ = h/L) corrects for atmospheric stability.
Here Monin-Obukhov length L is an important length scale for stability
and can be thought of as the height above which thermal turbulence
dominates over friction turbulence; the atmosphere at heights 0 < h < L (if
L is positive and not very large) is the stable boundary layer. The following
approximations for Ȍ, mentioned in many text books on atmospheric
physics (e.g. [Garrat 1992]), are used:
x in a stable atmosphere (L > 0) Ȍ(ȗ) = -5ȗ < 0.
x in a neutral atmosphere (|L| large ĺ 1/L § 0) Ȍ(0) = 0.
x in an unstable atmosphere (L < 0) Ȍ(ȗ) = 2·ln[(1+x)/2] + ln[(1+x2)/2]
– 2/tan(x) + ʌ/2 > 0, where x = (1-16·ȗ)1/4.
29
For Ȍ = 0 equation (III.2) reduces to Vh,log = (u*/ț)·ln(h/zo), the widely
used logarithmic wind profile. With this profile the ratio of wind velocities
at two heights can be written as:
Vh2,log/Vh1 = log(h2/zo)/log(h1/zo)G (III.3)
For a roughness length of zo = 2 cm (pasture) and m = 0,14, the wind
profiles according to equations III.1 and III.3 coincide within 2% for h <
100 m. In figure III.1
100 atmosphere
wind profiles are given stable
as measured by
80
Holtslag [1984], as well logarithmic profile:
atmosphere
as wind profiles unstable / neutral
according to formulae 60
height (m)
(III.1) and (III.3).
40
Formula III.3 is an
approximation of the
20
wind profile in the
turbulent boundary
0
layer of a neutral
0 2 4 6 8 10
atmosphere, when the wind speed (m/s)
air is mixed by
Figure III.1: wind profiles
turbulence resulting
from friction with the surface of the earth. In daytime thermal turbulence is
added, especially when there is strong insolation. At night time a neutral
atmosphere, characterized by the adiabatic temperature gradient of -1 ºC
per 100 m, occurs under heavy clouding and/or at relatively high wind
velocities. When there is some clear sky and in the absence of strong winds
the atmosphere becomes stable because of radiative cooling of the surface:
the wind profile changes and can no longer be adequately described by
(III.3). The effect of the change to a stable atmosphere is that, relative to a
given wind velocity at 10 m height in daytime, at night there is a higher
wind velocity at hub height and thus a higher turbine sound power level;
also there is a lower wind velocity below 10 m and thus less wind-induced
sound in vegetation.
30
With regard to wind power some attention is being paid to stability effects
and thus to other wind profile models such as the diabatic wind velocity
model (III.2) [see, e.g., Archer et al 2003, Baidya Roy et al 2004, Pérez et
al 2004, Smedman et al 1996, Smith et al 2002]. In relation to wind
turbine sound, much less attention has been given to atmospheric stability
(see section II.3).
Stability can also be categorized in Pasquill classes that depend on
observations of wind velocity and cloud cover (see, e.g., [LLNL 2004]).
They are usually referred to as classes A (very unstable) through F (very
stable). In a German guideline [TA-Luft 1986] a closely related
classification is given (again closely related to the international Turner
classification [Kühner 1998]). An overview of stability classes with the
appropriate value of m is given in table III.1.
Table III.1: stability classes and shear exponent m
Pasquill name comparable stability m
class class [TA-Luft 1986]
A very unstable V 0.09
B moderately unstable IV 0.20
C neutral IV2 0.22
D slightly stable IV1 0.28
E moderately stable II 0.37
F (very) stable I 0.41
According to long-term data from Eelde and Leeuwarden [KNMI 1972],
two meteorological measurement sites of the KNMI (Royal Netherlands
Meteorological Institute) in the northern part of the Netherlands, a stable
atmosphere (Pasquill classes E and F) at night occurs for a considerable
proportion of night time: 34% and 32% respectively.
From formula (III.3) the ratio of wind velocities at hub height (98 m) and
reference height, over land with low vegetation (zo = 3 cm), is flog =
V98/V10 = 1.4. According to formula (III.1) and table III.1 this ratio would
31
be funstable = 1.2 = 0.85flog in a very unstable atmosphere and fstable = 2.5 =
1.8flog in a (very) stable atmosphere.
The shear exponent m can be determined from the measured ratio of wind
velocities at two heights (Vh2/Vh1) using equation III.1:
mh1,h2 = ln(Vh2/Vh1)/ln(h2/h1) (III.4)
III.3 Air flow on the blade
As is the case for aircraft wings, the air flow around a wind turbine blade
generates lift. An air foil performs best when lift is maximised and drag
(flow resistance) is minimised. Both are determined by the angle of attack:
the angle (Į) between the incoming flow and the blade chord (line between
front and rear edge; see figure III.2). The optimum angle of attack for
turbine blades is usually between 0 and 4º, depending on the blade profile.
Figure III.2: flow impinging on a turbine blade with flow angle ij,
blade pitch angle ș and angle of attack on blade Į = ij - ș
The local wind at the blade is not the unobstructed wind velocity. The rotor
extracts energy from the air at the cost of the kinetic energy of the wind.
The velocity of the air passing through the rotor is thus reduced to Vb =
(1 – a)Vh, where a is the induction factor. The highest efficiency of a wind
turbine is reached at the Betz limit: at this theoretical limit the induction
factor is 1/3 and the efficiency is 16/27 (§ 60%) [Hansen 2000]. The wind
velocity at the blade is thus:
Vb = Vh·2/3 (III.5)
32
III.4 Main sources of wind turbine sound
There are many publications on the nature and power of turbine sound:
original studies [e.g. Lowson 1985, Grosveld 1985] and reviews [e.g.
Hubbard et al 2004, Wagner et al 1996]. A short introduction on wind
aeroacoustics will be given to elucidate the most important sound
producing mechanisms.
If an air flow is smooth around a (streamlined) body, it will generate very
little sound. For high velocities and/or over longer lengths the flow in the
boundary layer between the body and the main flow becomes turbulent.
The rapid turbulent velocity changes at the surface cause sound with
frequencies related to the rate of the velocity changes. The turbulent
boundary layer at the downstream end of an airfoil produces trailing edge
sound, which is the dominant audible sound from modern turbines. When
the angle of attack increases from its optimal value the turbulent boundary
layer on the suction (low pressure) side grows in thickness, thereby
decreasing power performance and increasing sound level. For high angles
of attack this eventually leads to stall, that is: a dramatic increase of drag
on the blades. Apart from this turbulence inherent to an airfoil, the
atmosphere itself is turbulent over a wide range of frequencies and sizes.
Figure III.3: 15 m blades for Altamont Pass, Ca (photo: Alex Haag)
Turbulence can be defined as changes over time and space in wind velocity
and direction, resulting in velocity components normal to the airfoil
varying with the turbulence frequency causing in-flow turbulent sound.
Atmospheric turbulence energy has a maximum at a frequency that
depends on altitude and on atmospheric stability. For wind turbine altitudes
33
this peak frequency is of an order of magnitude of once per minute (0.017
Hz). The associated eddy (whirl) scale is of the order of magnitude of
several hundreds of meters [Petersen et al 1998] in an unstable atmosphere,
less in a stable atmosphere. Eddy size and turbulence strength decrease at
higher frequency, and vanish due to viscous friction when the eddies have
reached a size of approximately one millimetre.1
A third sound producing mechanism is the response of the blade to the
change in lift when it passes the tower. The wind is slowed down by the
tower which changes the angle of attack on the blade; as a result the lift
and drag forces on the blade suddenly change. The resulting sideways
movement of the blade causes thickness sound at the blade passing
frequency and its harmonics.2 Thickness sound is also mentioned as sound
originating from the (free) rotating blade pushing the air sideways.
However, the associated air movement is relatively smooth and is not a
relevant source of sound.
A more thorough review of these three sound production mechanisms is
given in appendix B, where frequency ranges and sound levels are
quantified in so far as relevant for this book.
Sound originating from the generator or the transmission gear has
decreased in level in the past decades and has become all but irrelevant if
considering annoyance for residents.
To summarize, a modern wind turbine sound spectrum can be divided in
(overlapping) regions corresponding to the three mechanisms mentioned:
1
for more information on atmospheric turbulence: see chapter VIII
2
a thickness sound pulse has a length tpulse with an order of magnitude of (tower
diameter/tip speed §) 0,1 s, so its spectrum has a maximum at 1/tpulse § 10 Hz. The
spectrum of a periodic series of Dirac pulses (unit energy 'spikes' with, here, a period of
Tblade) is a series of spikes at frequencies n/Tblade (n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ....). When periodic
thickness sound is considered as a convolution of the single sound pulse with a series of
Dirac pulses, the Fourier transform is the product of the transforms of both, that is: the
product of the sound pulse spectrum centered at 1/tpulse and spikes at n/Tblade. The result is
a series of spikes with the single sound pulse spectrum as an envelope, determining each
spike level. In practice 1/Tpulse usually has a value of 4 to 8 Hz (see e.g. [Wagner 1996])
and the harmonic closest to this frequency carries most energy.
34
x High frequency: trailing edge (TE) sound is noise with a maximum
level at 500–1000 Hz for the central octave band, decreasing with 11
dB for neighbouring octave bands and more for further octave bands.
x Low frequency: in-flow turbulent sound is broad band noise with a
maximum level of approximately 10 Hz and a slope of 3–6 dB per
octave.
x Infrasound frequency (f < 30 Hz): the thickness sound is tonal, the
spectrum containing peaks at the blade passing frequency fB and its
harmonics.
As thickness sound is not relevant for direct perception, turbulent flow is
the dominant cause of (audible) sound for modern wind turbines. It is
broad band noise with no tonal components and only a little variation,
known as blade swish. Trailing edge sound level is proportional to
50·logM (see equation B.4 in appendix B), where M is the Mach number of
the air impinging on the blade. TE sound level, the dominant audible sound
source in a modern turbine, therefore increases steeply with blade speed
and is highest at the high velocity blade tips. Writing Mach number at the
blade tip as M = Vtip/c, wind turbine sound level strongly depends on blade
tip speed Vtip:
LTE ~ 50·log(Vtip/c) (III.6)
Figure III.1: an
‘acoustic photograph’
showing the high
speed tips of a wind
turbine radiate most
sound; colors from
centre to outside
contour indicate an
decreasing sound level
(photo: Acoustic
Camera, GFaI, Berlin)
35
Swish, which is the variation in TE sound, thus also originates
predominantly at the tips.
This book deals with modern variable speed turbines where the angle of
attack is constant over a wide range of wind speeds. Keeping blade pitch
(the angle between the blade chord and the rotor plane) constant, the
rotational speed increases with wind speed usually up to a rated wind speed
of some 14 m/s. At higher wind speeds the pitch angle is decreased at
constant rotational speed to keep a constant angle of attack until for safety
reasons the rotor is stopped. The effect on sound production is that first the
sound power level increases up to the rated wind speed, then remains
almost constant at higher wind speeds.
In a constant speed turbine the rotational speed has a fixed value, though
usually a turbine then has two speeds to accommodate for low and high
wind speeds. Here the blade pitch is set to optimize the angle of attack up
to the rated power. Above rated power, a situation that will not occur very
often, the pitch angle is kept constant, so the angle of attack increases with
wind speed and the turbine becomes less efficient. The result is that the
sound power at low speed is almost constant, then increases sharply at the
change to the higher speed. After that it is again almost constant,
increasing again above the rated power when the angle of attack drifts
away from the optimum value.
Sound from downwind rotors, i.e. with the rotor downwind from the tower,
was considered problematic as it was perceived as a pulsating sound (see
appendix B). For modern upwind rotors this variation in sound level is
weaker. It is not thought to be relevant for annoyance and considered to
become less pronounced with increasing distance due to loss of the effect
of directivity, due to relatively high absorption at swish frequencies, and
because of the increased masking effect of background noise [ETSU
1996]. However, an increase in the level of the swishing sound related to
increasing atmospheric stability has not been taken into account as yet. In
this context the periodic change in angle of attack near the tower proves to
be important, not in relation to thickness sound but as a modulation period.
36
So, what's the sound like...?
(.....) Our experience is that mechanical noise is insignificant compared to the
aerodynamic noise, or 'blade thump' as we call it. At "our" windfarm the mechanical
noise is usually only audible when within about 100 metres of the turbine, but the blade
thump can be heard at distances of up to 1.5 Km away.
(.....)
Some residents describe this noise as an old boot in a tumble dryer, others as a
Whumph! Whumph! Whumph! Either way its not particularly loud at 1.5 km distance
but closer than that and it can be extremely irritating when exposed to it for any period
of time. Some residents have even resorted to stuffing chimney stacks with newspaper
as the sound reverberates down the stack.
Because it is generally rhythmic, it's not the kind of noise that you can shut out of your
mind, like, say, distant road noise - this is why we think the noise level stipulation on
the planning conditions of such a windfarm development is woefully inadequate for
protecting local residents from the noise effects of a windfarm.
All of us agree that the most disturbing aspect of the noise is the beat that we think is
caused by the blades passing the tower of the turbine. As the rotational speed of the 3
bladed turbines is about 28 rpm "on full song" this results in a sound of about 84 beats
per minute from each turbine.
The sound rises and falls in volume due to slight changes in wind direction but the end
result for those in the affected area is a feeling of anxiety, and sometimes nausea, as the
rate continually speeds and slows - we think that is maybe because this frequency of the
pulses is close to the human heart rate and some residents feel that their own pulse rate
is trying to match that of the turbines. (.....)
When does it strike?
The windfarm makes a noise all the time it is operating, however there are times when it
becomes less of a nuisance.
When the wind is very strong, the background noise created by the wind whistling
around trees etc. drowns out the noise of the turbines and the problem is reduced. (.....)
In this area we all agree that the worst conditions are when the wind is blowing lightly
and the background noise is minimal. Under these conditions residents up to 1 kilometre
have complained to the Environmental Health department about the drone from the
turbines. Unfortunately these are just the sort of weather conditions that you would wish
to be outside enjoying your garden. (.....)
During the summer nights it is not possible for some residents, even as far away as 1000
metres, to sleep with the window open due to the blade thump. (......)
Excerpts describing wind turbine sound and its effects, from a page of the website of
MAIWAG (consulted December 3, 2005), a group of residents in three villages in the
south of Cumbria (UK)
37
38
