energies

Review
Powering the Future: A Comprehensive Review of Battery
Energy Storage Systems
Sergi Obrador Rey *, Juan Alberto Romero, Lluis Trilla Romero, Àlber Filbà Martínez , Xavier Sanchez Roger,
Muhammad Attique Qamar , José Luis Domínguez-García and Levon Gevorkov

Power Systems Group, Catalonia Institute for Energy Research (IREC), 08930 Barcelona, Spain;
[email protected] (J.A.R.); [email protected] (L.T.R.); [email protected] (À.F.M.); [email protected] (X.S.R.);
[email protected] (M.A.Q.); [email protected] (J.L.D.-G.); [email protected] (L.G.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Global society is significantly speeding up the adoption of renewable energy sources and
their integration into the current existing grid in order to counteract growing environmental problems,
particularly the increased carbon dioxide emission of the last century. Renewable energy sources
have a tremendous potential to reduce carbon dioxide emissions because they practically never
produce any carbon dioxide or other pollutants. On the other hand, these energy sources are usually
influenced by geographical location, weather, and other factors that are of stochastic nature. The
battery energy storage system can be applied to store the energy produced by RESs and then utilized
regularly and within limits as necessary to lessen the impact of the intermittent nature of renewable
energy sources. The main purpose of the review paper is to present the current state of the art of
battery energy storage systems and identify their advantages and disadvantages. At the same time,
this helps researchers and engineers in the field to find out the most appropriate configuration for a
particular application. This study offers a thorough analysis of the battery energy storage system
with regard to battery chemistries, power electronics, and management approaches. This paper
also offers a detailed analysis of battery energy storage system applications and investigates the
shortcomings of the current best battery energy storage system architectures to pinpoint areas that
Citation: Rey, S.O.; Romero, J.A.; require further study.
Romero, L.T.; Martínez, À.F.; Roger,
X.S.; Qamar, M.A.; Domínguez- Keywords: battery energy storage system; DC-DC converters; battery management systems (BMSs);
García, J.L.; Gevorkov, L. Powering
energy management techniques; hybrid systems; batteries
the Future: A Comprehensive Review
of Battery Energy Storage Systems.
Energies 2023, 16, 6344. https://
doi.org/10.3390/en16176344
1. Introduction
Academic Editor: Carlos
One of the factors contributing to the exponential rise in socioeconomic issues, includ-
Miguel Costa
ing concerns over energy security, is the growing population of the world, particularly in
Received: 30 July 2023 heavily populated urban regions. The key issues are the rise in greenhouse gas emissions,
Revised: 17 August 2023 the rapid depletion of traditional fossil fuels, and the worldwide imbalance between rising
Accepted: 30 August 2023 demand and available resources. To change the current condition, all facets of contem-
Published: 1 September 2023 porary society must make major efforts [1]. Growth in the demand for electric energy
and power is projected as a result of the broad electrification that has been occurring in a
number of industries [2].
The power industry is expected to acquire a higher relevance in the system of future
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. energy supply as a result of increased electrification rates. Finally, the energy system should
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
be completely decarbonized. Due to the distributed nature of power production, the need
This article is an open access article
for self-sufficient microgrids (MG) to ensure reliability, the need to reduce CO2 emissions,
distributed under the terms and
and the ability to adapt hybrid energy resources to meet novel and unpredictable demands
conditions of the Creative Commons
for providing the steady power supply, the electrical power infrastructures are faced with
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
significant challenges. It is necessary to ensure appropriate installed generation capacitance,
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
transmission and distribution grid infrastructure capacitance, and an energy supply. Large

Energies 2023, 16, 6344. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16176344 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2023, 16, 6344 2 of 21

generators with heavy weights make up the majority of electrical generators, giving the
plant a lot of inertia [3,4].
In addition, the integration of multiple types of renewable energy sources has signifi-
cantly changed the grid architecture [5–7]. The energy that solar radiation helps to provide
to the Earth’s surface is one of the primary energy sources on the planet. Its accessibility,
environmental friendliness, and high efficacy are a few benefits. Moreover, it is currently
widely used in solar thermal and photovoltaic (PV) energy applications [8,9]. Increased
use of renewable energy sources in the conventional electrical power system has been
targeted as a way to reduce reliance on fossil fuels. The Kyoto Protocol states that the goal
of reducing greenhouse gas emissions through increased use of renewable energy sources
should be accomplished in the near future [10], and the majority of countries have adopted
that agreement.
Because traditional power systems were not designed to handle such a high level of
renewable energy sources’ integration, the integration of renewable energy systems causes
problems for them [11,12]. The volatility of power generation, which is brought on by
the stochastic nature of solar, wind, or other types of renewable energy sources, is one of
the drawbacks of using renewable energy sources (RESs) in connection with distribution
grids. For instance, cloudy weather may prevent the proper operation of solar panels,
calm weather may prevent the proper operation of wind turbines, and occasionally, too
much electricity may be produced by renewable energy sources, overloading the energy
distribution network. In addition, the integration of renewable energy sources may affect
the voltage characteristics and power flow of the distribution network, which could have
other disastrous effects [13–15].
Energy storage systems (ESSs) can become a good solution to these issues as well
as reduce power output variances, regulate frequency, provide voltage reliability, and
enhance the quality of the supply. There are various methods for storing power, including
battery energy storage systems, compressed air energy storage, and pumped hydro storage.
Energy storage systems are employed to store the energy produced by renewable energy
systems when there is an excess of generation capacity and release the stored energy to
meet peak load demands [16]. The ability of the electricity distribution system to include
additional RESs is another benefit of ESSs [17,18]. Among the other types of ESSs, battery
energy storage systems (BESSs) play an important role. For instance, BESSs paired with
renewable energy sources can be a cost-competitive solution in microgrid scenarios. The
Statista Research Department anticipates that 57 GW of BESSs will be installed only in
Europe by 2030 [19].
For battery energy storage systems, lithium-ion batteries have supplanted other tech-
nologies, especially for temporary storage. Technology advancements and reductions in
costs for lithium-ion cells, which seem to be currently the predominant existing technology
used mostly for new installations, are what is driving this growth in battery energy storage
systems. Although cell costs have decreased, batteries continue to be the main cost of
battery energy storage systems. Household battery energy storage systems are used to
boost, for example, the photovoltaic systems’ capacity for self-consumption, also known as
energy–time shift. According to trends, many household solar systems in places where they
are economically viable include battery energy storage systems. When a battery energy
storage system is charged during the day period with extra photovoltaic energy, some of
the evening’s electricity needs can be satisfied by discharging the battery. A greater range
of uses, including frequency regulation, starts after the blackout, voltage support, as well
as an increase in the self-consumption of renewable energy sources, are made possible by
the deployment of large-scale BESSs.
Battery systems typically have storage capacities ranging from 1 to 30 kWh for house-
hold applications to MWh for industrial battery systems [20]. At the same time, battery
degradation occurs during the charging and discharging processes, which limits the bat-
tery’s lifetime. Under various operating conditions, the battery degradation process leads
to a varied battery lifetime, performance deterioration, and financial losses. As a result, it is
Energies 2023, 16, 6344 3 of 21

necessary to evaluate the health prognostics in order to evaluate the battery performance. A
large number of review papers regarding various aspects of battery energy storage systems
are currently available.
In [21], the authors focus on the BESS application for electric propulsion drives in the
marine industry. This type of vessel propulsion is becoming increasingly prevalent, partic-
ularly in the segment of short-range vessels, as there are a rising number of battery/hybrid
engine vessels in service and on order. In this research, recent studies on electrification or
hybridization, various applications of the marine BESS, and types of hybrid propulsion
ships are reviewed. The authors also examine various battery and energy storage tech-
nologies employed in hybrid ship propulsion systems. The study also includes the most
recent innovations in hybrid/electric propulsion systems made available by top marine
industry suppliers.
Energy storage systems are crucial components of microgrids with significant penetra-
tion rates of renewable energy sources that provide dependability and stability. In [22], the
authors offer a thorough analysis of recent advancements in energy storage system man-
agement and control for microgrid applications. An overview of the microgrid topologies
and designs described in the recent literature is provided in the opening sections. For each
scenario, the primary contributions and intended uses of energy storage systems in micro-
grid applications are specified. The research analyzes the characteristics and constraints of
the solutions offered in the recent literature as several types of energy storage systems are
now being integrated for the dependable functioning of the microgrids. According to the
authors’ opinion, hybrid energy storage systems outperform applications that use simple
battery energy storage systems in terms of microgrid stability and reliability.
In [23], the authors examine a number of energy storage-related topics. They start by
outlining the main challenges and objectives related to energy storage systems. Second,
they go over several methods utilized for energy storage as well as the standards used to
choose the best technology. They then discuss contemporary problems and restrictions of
energy storage strategies. They also provide information on battery technologies, which are
the most widely applied in a variety of energy storage applications. Batteries’ market shares,
social and environmental impacts, as well as their uses and types, are all described. In
addition, a summary of current developments in battery state estimation and cell-balancing
techniques is provided.
It is essential for the high-efficiency operation of electrical vehicles (EV) and smart
grids for the battery management systems (BMSs) to monitor the terminal voltage, current,
and temperature in order to assess the condition of the Li-ion batteries and control the
operation of the cells in a battery pack. In [24], the primary goal of the research is to
give an overview of capacity estimation techniques for BMSs in EVs and RES, as well
as useful and workable recommendations for capacity estimation with onboard BMSs.
The mechanisms of Li-ion battery capacity deterioration are first examined, and then
the most recent methods for capacity estimation in BMSs, such as direct measurement,
analysis-based, state-of-charge (SoC)-based, and data-driven methods, are also discussed.
Following a thorough analysis and comparison, the authors propose an outlook for onboard
capacity estimation.
The rest of this paper will be structured as follows: in Section 2, a description of
various battery energy storage systems will be provided taking into account the different
chemistries and according to their application. Important improvements in battery storage
systems are revealed in this section. Section 3 reviews the known and currently widespread
types of power electronic converters that are used in combination with a wide range of
battery storage systems and particularly for microgrids and electric vehicle applications. In
Section 4, battery management systems are investigated according to the recent findings in
that field. Major trends and forecasted key development possibilities are presented along
with the identification of high-performance BMS topologies. Conclusions and research
gaps in the battery storage systems, as well as future perspectives and research directions,
are expressed in Section 5.
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 22

are presented along with the identification of high-performance BMS topologies. Conclu-
Energies 2023, 16, 6344 4 of 21
sions and research gaps in the battery storage systems, as well as future perspectives and
research directions, are expressed in Section 5.

2. Batteries
2. Batteries
AsAs mentioned,
mentioned, thethe
battery energy
battery storage
energy storagesystems
systems consist
consistmainly
mainlyof of
batteries, control
batteries, control
electronics, power converter systems, and the rest of the plant. The rest
electronics, power converter systems, and the rest of the plant. The rest of the plant of the plant is is
designed to provide protection for the other
designed to provide protection for the other systems.systems.
Batteries
Batteriesareare
made
made of of
stacks of of
stacks cells where
cells where chemical
chemicalenergy
energyis converted
is converted to to
electrical
electrical
energy.
energy. Desired
Desiredproprieties
proprietiesarearechosen
chosenthrough
through different chemistries and
different chemistries andconnections
connectionsofofthe
thecells
cellsininseries
series and
and parallel.
parallel. Currently,
Currently, a huge
a huge amount
amount of investment
of investment andand research
research is
is being
being carried
carried outthis
out in in this
fieldfield
[25].[25]. The main
The main typestypes of battery
of battery chemistries
chemistries usedused in battery
in battery energy
energy
storagestorage systems
systems are shown
are shown in Figure
in Figure 1. 1.

Figure 1. General battery chemistries for BESSs.

Figure 1. General battery chemistries for BESSs.
2.1. Chemistries
The use of specific chemistry in an application is not a trivial decision. Each different
2.1. Chemistries
chemistry is more prompt to be advantageous in certain areas but has some disadvantages
The use of specific chemistry in an application is not a trivial decision. Each different
in other areas. This means the selection of the cell is a trade-off between the advantages
chemistry is more prompt to be advantageous in certain areas but has some disadvantages
and disadvantages of the different cell chemistries and morphologies.
in other areas. This means the selection of the cell is a trade-off between the advantages
The following comparison does not consider the different properties the cell package
and disadvantages of the different cell chemistries and morphologies.
gives in addition to the chemistry because the shape and morphology can affect ion trans-
The following comparison does not consider the different properties the cell package
portation and cracking. The analysis will be focused on the generalities of the chemistries.
gives in addition to the chemistry because the shape and morphology can affect ion trans-
portation and cracking. The analysis will be focused on the generalities of the chemistries.
2.1.1. Lithium
Lithium-ion batteries, also known as Li-ion, are the most used batteries nowadays.
2.1.1. Lithium
These batteries are great for commercial use because of their short charge time compared
to Lithium-ion
other batteries batteries,
normally also known
used. Even asthough
Li-ion, lithium
are the most usedhave
batteries batteries nowadays.
a reasonably large
These batteries
working are great
window, for commercial
for ageing purposes,use it isbecause of their short
recommended not tocharge time
reach its compared
maximum and
to minimum
other batteries
chargenormally used. Even though
states. Furthermore, exceeding lithium batteries
the Safe have aZone
Operation reasonably
can lead large
to the
working
risk of window, for ageing leading
fires and explosions purposes, it is recommended
to possible damages innot theto reach its
handler maximum
[26]. and in
The research
minimum
lithium batteries is focused on big battery packs such as the ones used in automationthe
charge states. Furthermore, exceeding the Safe Operation Zone can lead to [27].
risk of fires and explosions leading to possible damages in the handler [26]. The research
in NCA
lithium batteries is focused on big battery packs such as the ones used in automation
[27]. LiNiO2 is a cheaper battery than the Li-ion batteries containing LiCoO2 , even though
cobalt is still present but not as cheap and desired as nickel is presently, and it is an
NCAexpensive metal. The presence of aluminum reduces the volumetric change as the metal
eliminates
LiNiO2 isthe change battery
a cheaper in the crystalline structure.
than the Li-ion NCA
batteries batteriesLiCoO
containing have a2, long
evenlife which
though
makes
cobalt them
is still attractive
present but for
notautomation
as cheap and applications.
desired as NCA-based batteries
nickel is presently, perform
and it is anwell
ex- in
terms metal.
pensive of power Thedensity,
presencedensity, and lifetime
of aluminum [28]. the volumetric change as the metal
reduces
There
eliminates theare majorin
change concerns about NCA
the crystalline safety NCA
structure. as thebatteries
cathode is extremely
have a long unstable
life which and
susceptible to thermal runaway leading to big fires and possible explosions.
makes them attractive for automation applications. NCA-based batteries perform well in They degrade
at high
terms SoC levels
of power anddensity,
density, low SoCand levels.
lifetime [28].
NMC
Developed due to the safety concerns of the NCA batteries, NMC batteries formed
with LiNixCoyMnzO2 can be personalized to have the favorable characteristics of their
predecessors (LCO, LNO, LMO). The presence of Ni improves the cycle life and Mn
 susceptible to thermal runaway leading to big fires and possible explosions. They degrade
at high SoC levels and low SoC levels.

NMC
Energies 2023, 16, 6344 Developed due to the safety concerns of the NCA batteries, NMC batteries formed 5 of 21
with LiNixCoyMnzO2 can be personalized to have the favorable characteristics of their
predecessors (LCO, LNO, LMO). The presence of Ni improves the cycle life and Mn im-
provesimproves
the safetythe
ofsafety
the cell. NMC-based
of the batteriesbatteries
cell. NMC-based are likelyaretolikely
haveto
a high
have capacity, good good
a high capacity,
C-rateC-rate
capability, and similar performance in energy and power density as NCA batteries.
capability, and similar performance in energy and power density as NCA batteries.
The safety and cost
The safety of cost
and this chemistry is still a concern.
of this chemistry is still a The use ofThe
concern. BMSs is of
use stillBMSs
man-is still
datorymandatory
with a balancing system.
with a balancing system.

LFP LFP
LFP is LFPone is of one
the most
of therecently implemented
most recently implementedcathode materials
cathode and it is
materials andtheitcheapest.
is the cheapest.
LiFePO is more stable than NCA and NMC at higher temperatures.
LiFePO4 is more stable than NCA and NMC at higher temperatures. Its nominal
4 Its nominal voltage
voltage is
is lower thanthan
lower other chemistries.
other chemistries.It is observed
It is observedthat thatthe
theperformance
performanceof of the cells isishighly
the LFP cells
highlyrelated
relatedtotothe thetemperature,
temperature, at at lower
lower temperatures,
temperatures, thethe performance
performance is highly
is highly re- The
reduced.
duced.volumetric
The volumetric energyenergy
densitydensity
is lower is lower
than NMC, than NMC,
makingmaking it a drawback
it a drawback for EVs.for EVs.
However, its
However, its flat
flat SoC SoC function
function curve it
curve makes makes
ideal itforideal for supplying
motor motor supplying
even if even if it makes
it makes SoC reading
when cell
SoC reading when relaxation is carried
cell relaxation out more
is carried outdifficult.
more difficult.
Even though
Even though LFP batteries
LFP batteries are saferarethan
saferother
thanLi-ion
other Li-ion chemistries,
chemistries, safety issafety
still aiscon-
still a con-
cernthe
cern and and the unbalance
unbalance between
between cells cells is astill
is still a problem.
problem. TheThe
use use
of aofBMS
a BMS is still
is still manda-tory
manda-
(Figure2).2).
tory (Figure

Figure Figure 2. LIB chemistries’

2. LIB chemistries’ graphicgraphic qualitative
qualitative comparison.
comparison.
2.1.2. Nickel
2.1.2. Nickel
Nickel batteries are less energy efficient than Li-ion batteries under the same current
Nickel batteries
conditions. are less energy
However, in highefficient
currentthan Li-ion
rates, tablesbatteries under
turn, and the same
nickel current
batteries are more
conditions.
suitable [29,30]. In addition to the energy efficiency, nickel batteries tend to besuit-
However, in high current rates, tables turn, and nickel batteries are more safer and
able [29,30]. In addition
more robust to unbalance,
against the energy soefficiency, nickel batteries
control electronics tend
are far to be as
cheaper safer and
there is more
no need for
robustbalancing
against unbalance,
systems. so control electronics are far cheaper as there is no need for
balancing systems.
Metal Hydride
Metal HydrideNi-MH cells utilize hydrogen alloys as the negative electrode. Nowadays, the research
Ni-MH cellsonutilize
is focused hydrogen alloys
new intermetallic as the negative
compounds improvingelectrode. Nowadays,
the performance thechemistry.
of this re-
searchThese
is focused
are theonmost
newproduced
intermetallic compounds
in the improving
portable device the Nickel-metal
industry. performance hydride
of this cells
chemistry.
have These are the high
a reasonably mostenergy
produced in the
density portable
and high Cdevice industry. Nickel-metal
rates. NiMH-based hy-heavier
batteries are
dride cells have a reasonably
and bulkier than Li-ionhigh energy
based density
batteries and high
leading themCtorates. NiMH-based
be replaced batterieswhere
in application
energy density and power density is important [31].
The main advantage in front of Li-ion batteries is the no appearance of dendrite so
overheating and internal short-circuiting risks are minimized. Ni-MH batteries are mainly
used to replace lead acid batteries as the cells have better continuous discharge power
capability and service life.

Cadmium
Nickel-cadmium batteries consist of positive nickel hydroxide electrode Ni(OH)2 , a
mixture of Cd and Fe as the negative active material, and the electrolyte consists of OH-.
 overheating and internal short-circuiting risks are minimized. Ni-MH batteries are mainly
used to replace lead acid batteries as the cells have better continuous discharge power
capability and service life.

Energies 2023, 16, 6344 Cadmium 6 of 21

Nickel-cadmium batteries consist of positive nickel hydroxide electrode Ni(OH)2, a
mixture of Cd and Fe as the negative active material, and the electrolyte consists of OH-.
ThisThis
chemistry
chemistryis known
is knownfor for
its good safety
its good and
safety reliability.
and NiCd
reliability. NiCd batteries can
batteries deliver
can deliverup up to
to 8 8kA, but it has a nominal voltage of
kA, but it has a nominal voltage of 1.2 V. 1.2 V.
NiCd batteries
NiCd are are
batteries used in in
used sealed
sealedand maintenance-free
and maintenance-freecells cellswith
withaa long
long cycle life and
cycle life
and are
are stable
stable in
in front
front of
of cell
cell abuse,
abuse, making
making it it aa good
good alternative
alternative to to lead
leadbatteries
batteries[32].
[32].Ni-
Ni-Cd
Cd batteries
batterieshave
havelesslessenergy
energydensity
densityandand power
power density
densitythan
thanLi-ion
Li-ionbatteries but but
batteries support
support
calendar ageing
calendar better;
ageing Ni-Cd
better; batteries
Ni-Cd tendtend
batteries lose lose
capacity in a in
capacity reversible wayway
a reversible when stored
when stored
(Figure 3).
(Figure 3).

Figure 3. Ni3.chemistries’
Figure graphic
Ni chemistries’ qualitative
graphic comparison.
qualitative comparison.

2.1.3.2.1.3. Sodium
Sodium Batteries
Batteries
OneOne of biggest
of the the biggest
flawsflaws of BESS
of the the BESS is shortage
is the the shortage of active
of the the active materials,
materials, which
which is is
why sodium electrode batteries are interesting. As sodium is present
why sodium electrode batteries are interesting. As sodium is present in the earth crust in the earth crust water
water in relatively high concentrations compared to lithium, the extraction of it is cheaper[33].
in relatively high concentrations compared to lithium, the extraction of it is cheaper
[33].Solid
Solidstate
state electrolytes are used
electrolytes are used ininNaNabatteries;
batteries;this
this is why
is why they
they are are considered
considered nextnext
generation batteries expected to replace current technologies
generation batteries expected to replace current technologies [34]. [34].

Sodium-Ulfur
Sodium-Ulfur
Na-S batteries are a cost-effective solution but with a high operation temperature of
Na-S batteries are a cost-effective solution but with a high operation temperature of
around 300 ◦ C. This chemistry is prompt to produce violent fires when cathode and anode
around 300 °C.are
materials This chemistry
short is prompt
circuited to produce
at working violent These
temperatures. fires when cathode
batteries and anodeto be
are expected
materials
used inareload
short circuited
leveling, at working
emergency temperatures.
supplies, These batteriespower
and uninterruptible are expected
supplies. to be
There
usedhave
in load leveling, emergency supplies, and uninterruptible power supplies.
been significant research efforts in developing sodium–sulfur batteries able to work There
haveatbeen
room significant research
temperatures efforts
using in developing
a sulfur composite sodium–sulfur
as the cathode andbatteries
sodiumableastothe
workanode.
at room temperatures using a sulfur composite as the cathode and sodium
This technology is still not researched enough to extract reliable conclusions about itsas the anode.
Thisperformance
technology iscompared
still not researched enoughused
to commercially to extract reliablebatteries,
lithium-ion conclusions
but about its per- at
Na-S batteries
formance compared toare
room temperature commercially used ageing
promising against lithium-ion
issuesbatteries,
[35]. but Na-S batteries at
room temperature are promising against ageing issues [35].
2.1.4. Metal-Air
2.1.4. Metal-Air
Reduction batteries, also known as metal-air batteries, generate electricity through
aReduction batteries,
redox reaction also known
happening in theaspositive
metal-air batteries,
anode betweengenerate
oxygenelectricity
present through
in the aira and
redox reaction
metal. happening
The cells in to
are open thethe
positive anode between
air to facilitate oxygen
the reaction present
[36,37]. Thein the air and
structure is like a
fuel cell where the fuel is metal. Compared to the other chemistries, the metal–air batteries
have more thoracal energy density as the oxygen is not stored in the cell.

2.1.5. Chemistry Discussion

After reviewing the qualitative properties of the most popular and promising
chemistries, it can be confirmed that the best options for automotive and general con-
sumption energy storage systems are the lithium-ion batteries but in a not so far future this
chemistry should be replaced by solid-state batteries such as sodium anode batteries.
It has to be noted that in any case, the presence of a BMS is necessary as in most of
the cases; the cell work outside the safe operation zone can result in dangerous situations
which can lead to fires and explosions.
Energies 2023, 16, 6344 7 of 21

When operating battery energy storage systems irrespective of the type of chemistry
of the batteries, it is important to have a battery management system. Among the major
reasons are the following:
• Safety: To prevent overcharging, overheating, and other hazardous conditions that
could result in a fire or explosion, the battery management system continuously
measures the battery’s temperature, voltage, and current levels.
• Efficiency: To guarantee that the battery runs as efficiently as possible, the battery man-
agement system optimizes the battery’s charging and discharging. This contributes to
a longer battery life and lower maintenance costs.
• Performance: The battery management system makes sure that the battery provides
the necessary voltage and power output to fulfill the load’s demands. Additionally, it
aids in avoiding voltage drops and power oscillations that could harm equipment.
• Monitoring: The battery’s performance and health are continuously inspected by the
battery management system. As a result, operators can immediately identify and
address any problems, avoiding downtime and lowering repair costs.

2.2. Battery Models

Battery life span is hugely influenced by the physical proprieties and the way the
energy is drained from it during usage, i.e., the draining patterns, the current levels, and
the SoC states in which the battery is stored. Hence, the implementation of a battery
management system with an accurate model is important. The use of these strategies must
ensure the efficient use of the battery and predict the system behavior through the study
of the fundamental parameters collected by the BMS. For stationary storage applications,
powertrain electrification requirements, and experimental Li-ion battery quantification,
accurate models and results from simulations of improved Li-ion batteries and modules
are essential. There are numerous models with various levels of complexity.
These models range from the completely coupled electrochemical thermal model,
which uses Partial Differential Equations (PDEs) to describe the dynamics of the battery, to
Reduced Order Models (ROMs), which are simplified versions of PDE models, to Equivalent
Circuit Models (ECMs), which use phenomenology to describe electrical behavior using
ordinary differential equations.
There are three types of battery models and the use of each one is chosen considering
the complexity and the necessity of precision for the estimations [38]. The more complex
and precise the model, the more resources needed to run the model, and the more money
investment is needed to apply it. The more complex a model is at gathering data for the
parameter estimation, the more complex and expensive it is.

2.2.1. Electrochemical Models

Electrochemical models, also known as physical models, are focused on the study of
the chemical reactions having a place in the electrodes and the electrolyte. The mathematical
resources used are Non-Linear Differential Equations, Partial Differential Equations, and
ODE. If these equation systems are not simplified, the computational systems needed to run
these models are enormous. Normally the computers used are capable of Computational
Fluid Dynamics (CFD).
Since there are a lot of electrochemical models, studying the characteristics of the
system first to ensure the use of the most accurate model possible is recommended, as well
as deciding the profundity of the description of the system.

2.2.2. Mathematical Models

Mathematical models are developed to predict the behavior of the system at a high
level. In general, they only evaluate the charge recovery effect and ignores all other factors.
The equation count is reduced as well as its precision; the accuracy is around 5% and 20%.
Mathematical models are normally used for specific functions.
 2.2.2. Mathematical Models
Mathematical models are developed to predict the behavior of the system at a high
level. In general, they only evaluate the charge recovery effect and ignores all other factors.
Energies 2023, 16, 6344 The equation count is reduced as well as its precision; the accuracy is around 5% and820%. of 21
Mathematical models are normally used for specific functions.
In [39], the authors extend the general Multiphysics (MP) Li-ion battery model with
the help of specialized
In [39], the authorssoftware
extend the COMSOL 3.5a to be able(MP)
general Multiphysics to describe the thermal
Li-ion battery modeleffects
with
taking
the helpplace during battery
of specialized operation.
software COMSOL To 3.5a
represent the material
to be able to describe balance for the effects
the thermal Li-ion
batteries
taking in an
place activebattery
during solid material,
operation.theToso-called
represent Fick’s
the second
materiallaw in spherical
balance for thecoordi-
Li-ion
batteries in an active
nates is applied. Thesolid material, the
mathematical so-called
model Fick’s secondLi-ion
of a commercial law in40spherical
A pouchcoordinates
cell is pre-
is applied.
sented The The
in [40]. mathematical
authors havemodel of a commercial
calculated the heat Li-ion 40 A pouch
generation data forcell is presented
a large format
in
pouch under both isoperibolic and adiabatic conditions for the first time. These pouch
[40]. The authors have calculated the heat generation data for a large format results
under both isoperibolic
were compared with totaland
heatadiabatic
data thatconditions
were computedfor theas first time.
the sum These
of heat results
that were
was meas-
compared
ured usingwith total heat data
potentiometric andthat were computed
irreversible as the sum ofapproaches,
current interruption heat that was measured
respectively.
using potentiometric and irreversible current interruption approaches, respectively.
2.2.3. Electric Circuit Equivalent Models
2.2.3. Electric Circuit Equivalent Models
The most cost-effective model in which to study a battery is based on RC groups. The
higherThethemost cost-effective
order, the highermodel in which
the number of to
RCstudy a battery
couples used.isEquivalent
based on RC groups.
Circuit The
Models
higher the order, the higher the number of RC couples used. Equivalent
(ECM) are among the most advanced models for BMSs available today, and can also be Circuit Models
(ECM)
utilizedareto among
extract the most advanced
experimental models
data from for BMSs
Li-ion available
batteries. An ECM today, andin
model can also be
regard to
utilized to extract experimental data from Li-ion batteries. An ECM model in regard
voltages, currents, resistances, and capacitances describes a battery’s pure electrical be-
to voltages, currents, resistances, and capacitances describes a battery’s pure electrical
havior. Considering the system parameter varies on temperature T and the state-of-charge
behavior. Considering the system parameter varies on temperature T and the state-of-
SOC, the resulting equations from the concept of passive electrical systems are a low-level
charge SOC, the resulting equations from the concept of passive electrical systems are
structure of regular differential equations that are generally non-linear. The Thevenin
a low-level structure of regular differential equations that are generally non-linear. The
model may generally be used to describe the majority of ECMs. Figure 4 depicts a
Thevenin model may generally be used to describe the majority of ECMs. Figure 4 depicts
Thevenin ECM’s overall structure.
a Thevenin ECM’s overall structure.

C1 Cn
+
R1 Rn R0

U1 Un
Vb

VOC

−
Figure 4. General
Figure 4. General ECM.
ECM.

It has two sources of voltage. The first one talks about the battery’s open-circuit voltage,
It has two sources of voltage. The first one talks about the battery’s open-circuit volt-
and the second one talks about parasitic voltages. Additionally, it has numerous parallel
age, and the second one talks about parasitic voltages. Additionally, it has numerous par-
capacitors and resistors that reflect polarizations such as concentration or electrochemical
allel capacitors and resistors that reflect polarizations such as concentration or electro-
polarized mechanisms in the battery. The battery’s ohmic resistance is described by resistor
chemical polarized mechanisms in the battery. The battery’s ohmic resistance is described
R0 . All parameters in this circuit are dependent on SOC and T. As a result, the SOC uses a
by resistor R0. All parameters in this circuit are dependent on SOC and T. As a result, the
temperature model in the manner of a standard differential equation. U1 and Un are the
SOC uses a temperature model in the manner of a standard differential equation. U1 and
voltages corresponding to voltage sources and Voc and Vb are the open-circuit and terminal
voltages, respectively.

dUi 1 1 1 1 1
= (− +( ( ( T − Ta ) + Q)))Ui + IL , (1)
dt Ri Ci CQ R T C T CT CL

dSOC 1
= IL , (2)
dt CQ
n
UL = UOC − IL R0 − ∑ Ui , (3)
i =1

where i from 1 to n indicates the corresponding capacitors, voltages, currents, and resistors,
and RC-branch. T and Ta stand for temperature and ambient temperature. Q stands for
 dSOC 1
= IL, (2)
dt CQ

n
U L = U OC − I L R 0 − U ,
i =1
i (3)
Energies 2023, 16, 6344 9 of 21
where i from 1 to n indicates the corresponding capacitors, voltages, currents, and resis-
tors, and RC-branch. T and Ta stand for temperature and ambient temperature. Q stands
for
thethe power
power lostlost within
within thethe cell,
cell, SOC
SOC forfor the
the battery’s
battery’s stateofofcharge,
state charge,and
andCCQfor forits
itsoverall
over-
Q
all charge. R 0 is the battery’s ohmic resistance, IL is the load current, and UL is the terminal
charge. R0 is the battery’s ohmic resistance, IL is the load current, and UL is the terminal
voltage.
voltage.Convection
Convectionresistance
resistanceandandheat
heatcapacity
capacityare
aredenoted
denotedby byRRT and
andCCT, respectively.
, respectively.
T T

3.3.Power
PowerElectronic
ElectronicConverters
Convertersfor forBESSs
BESSs
Power
Powerelectronics
electronics converters (PEC)(PEC) play
playaacrucial
crucialrole
roleinin battery
battery management
management sys-
systems
tems
and forandbattery
for battery
storagestorage
systems systems in general.
in general. They are They
usedare used toproper
to ensure ensure proper
power power
flow. Each
flow.
BESSEach BESS istorequired
is required topower
control its controlflow
its power flow and
and a power a power
balance balance
during duringAsopera-
operation. it was
previously
tion. As it was mentioned,
previously thementioned,
BESS generally provides
the BESS a power
generally balance
provides between
a power customers
balance be-
connected
tween to an connected
customers MG and renewable
to an MG energy sources energy
and renewable responsible
sourcesforresponsible
energy generation.
for en-
Another
ergy of BESS’s
generation. key functions
Another of BESS’siskey battery balancing,
functions which
is battery is used which
balancing, to make sure to
is used all
batteries are running at the same state-of-charge level. Balanced batteries
make sure all batteries are running at the same state-of-charge level. Balanced batteries can increase the
system’s
can overall
increase useful capacity
the system’s overallwhile
usefulalso enhancing
capacity whileitsalso
dependability.
enhancing its Under discharging
dependability.
operation,
Under the battery
discharging with thethe
operation, lowest SoC
battery in athe
with battery
lowestpack
SoCwith
in a series-connected
battery pack withbatteries
series-
will be entirely
connected discharged
batteries first. Therefore,
will be entirely discharged power
first.electronic
Therefore, devices
powerare responsible
electronic both
devices
forresponsible
are providing proper
both forpower flow and
providing balancing
proper poweroptions.
flow and The power electronic
balancing converter
options. The poweris
the BESS’sconverter
electronic primary ismeans of energy
the BESS’s processing.
primary means of Figure
energy5 represents
processing. typical
Figureapplications
5 representsof
PECs for battery energy storage systems.
typical applications of PECs for battery energy storage systems.

GRID

BATTERY
DC LINK INVERTER LOAD

BI-DIRECTIONAL DC-DC CONVERTER

Figure
Figure5.5.Typical
Typicalapplication
applicationof
ofPECs
PECsin
inBESS
BESSconfiguration.
configuration.

Storagebatteries,
Storage batteries, converters,
converters, and a control
controlsystem
systemmake
makeup upthe
thebattery
battery energy
energysystem.
sys-
Energy can be stored and released using batteries. The real charging and discharging
tem. Energy can be stored and released using batteries. The real charging and discharging power
and response
power speed can
and response vary
speed candepending on the battery’s
vary depending power, capacity,
on the battery’s and changing
power, capacity, and
and discharging
changing characteristics.
and discharging Battery DC
characteristics. power
Battery DCcan be transformed
power into grid-connected
can be transformed into grid-
AC powerAC
connected with the use
power of the
with a converter. Bidirectional
use of a converter. AC/DC and
Bidirectional DC/AC
AC/DC andconverters
DC/AC con- are
needed for battery energy storage systems. Battery energy storage system
verters are needed for battery energy storage systems. Battery energy storage system con- converters
often use
verters oftentwo-level or three-level
use two-level topologies
or three-level in modern
topologies applications.
in modern For instance,
applications. in [41],
For instance,
the authors outline the creation of an inverter that stabilizes the electricity
in [41], the authors outline the creation of an inverter that stabilizes the electricity from from a winda
farm utilizing sodium–sulfur batteries. The authors described the largest
wind farm utilizing sodium–sulfur batteries. The authors described the largest energy energy storage
systemsystem
storage in the world, whichwhich
in the world, consists of 17 of
consists sets
17of power
sets conversion
of power systems
conversion systems(PCS) and
(PCS)
34 MW
and 34 MW NASNAS batteries for afor
batteries 51aMW
51 MWwind power
wind system.
power Through
system. a voltage
Through source
a voltage con-
source
verter (VSC), based on the control system of the fully-controlled power
converter (VSC), based on the control system of the fully-controlled power electric device,electric device,
PCS can achieve four-quadrant and decoupled control of grid-side active and reactive
power. According to a power generation planning system that considers the meteorological
conditions, charge/discharge power status, etc., this power conditioning system can control
the fluctuations in wind power with a power control precision of 2%. Consequently, the
wind power plant can provide electricity to the grid without being impacted by variations
in wind output. The field tests demonstrated good operating performance.
In [42], the authors describe the construction of utility-scale power conversion systems
for BESSs that are 500 kVA and 100 kVA in size. Power conversion systems are reported
to be effective across a large operating range because of adequate hardware and software
design. The inclusion of some crucial features—such as soft-start, anti-islanding, stand-
alone operation is intended to increase stability and dependability under a variety of
demanding dynamic operation circumstances. Developed PCSs are particularly adaptable
because they may be coupled to work in parallel with other PCS modules, taking into
Energies 2023, 16, 6344 10 of 21

consideration the rising battery storage capacities. Factory tests have shown their good
performance in the electrical, control, and thermal areas.
The modular multilevel cascade converter (MMCC) family is discussed in [43]. The
MMCC family is based on cascading multiple bidirectional chopper cells or single-phase
full-bridge cells. The author provides a classification of MMCCs. The single-star bridge cells
(SSBC), single-delta bridge cells (SDBC), double-star chopper cells (DSCC), and double-star
bridge cells (DSBC) are the four circuit configurations that make up the MMCC family.
Although there is a clear difference in application between the SSBC and DSCC, the SSBC
and DSCC are more practical than the other three members of the MMCC family in
terms of cost, performance, and market. In addition, the author provides examples of the
SSBC’s applications to battery energy storage systems, the SDBC’s applications to static
synchronous compensators (STATCOM) for negative-sequence reactive-power regulation,
and the DSCC’s applications to motor drives for fans and blowers, together with the results
of their experiments.
In [44], the authors briefly discuss a battery energy storage system based on a multi-
level cascade pulse-width-modulated (PWM) converter. To enable charging and discharg-
ing the battery units at various power levels while generating a three-phase balanced
line-to-line voltage, the active-power regulation of individual converter cells is described.
Due to this, even when the battery units’ power-handling capacities differ, the battery en-
ergy is utilized to the fullest extent possible. The effectiveness of the proposed active-power
control is confirmed by experimental data from a 200 V, 10 kW, and 3.6 kWh battery energy
storage system.
A technical review of battery energy storage systems is provided in [45]. The others
provide an overview of the difficulties in integrating solar power into the electrical grid,
and examples of various operational modes for battery energy storage systems in grid-tied
solar applications. For the power electronics converters, the ramp rate control, frequency
droop response, power factor correction, solar time shifting, and output leveling are some
of the real-time control techniques that are covered in the paper. It is shown that energy
storage control systems for PECs can be connected with energy markets in addition to these
applications that concentrate on system stability to increase the economics of solar energy.
In [46], a multi-input power converter for a hybrid system is proposed. It connects two
unidirectional ports for input power sources: a bidirectional port for a storage component,
and a port for an output load in a single, integrated structure. The two input ports are
used to simultaneously convert two distinct low-voltage input power sources to consistent
high-voltage output power. The suggested converter’s operational states can be split into
three states based on battery usage depending on various circumstances. The authors offer
a power management control strategy that regulates the bidirectional converter running
in boost mode in accordance with the operation state of the PV/wind, ensuring that the
system functions with high efficiency and enabling the battery to be charged or discharged.
A reliable and adaptable active balancing topology is proposed in [47]. It can help
to balance the state-of-charge level of the battery modules in a high-voltage pack, which
is a frequently ignored subject, as well as the charge imbalance within a module, or
intramodular equalization. When the lithium–ion battery (LIB) was both idle and under
load, experimental verification on parallel and series topologies of cells in BESS’s hardware
and genuinely sized modules proved the proposed concept. Without the use of additional
converters or auxiliary accumulators, the switching converter is capable of performing
intramodular architecture at the pack level.
In [48], the authors propose a fuzzy logic control (FLC)-based non-dissipative equaliza-
tion methodology to reduce the inconsistency of series-connected lithium-ion batteries. To
achieve cell-to-cell equalization, a bidirectional equalization circuit with energy-transferring
inductors is used. It is suggested to equalize cells on the basis of a state of charge, and a
temperature-dependent battery model is created for the state-of-charge estimation. The
flyback converter is suggested to cut down on energy usage and equalization time for
 modular architecture at the pack level.
In [48], the authors propose a fuzzy logic control (FLC)-based non-dissipative equal-
ization methodology to reduce the inconsistency of series-connected lithium-ion batteries.
To achieve cell-to-cell equalization, a bidirectional equalization circuit with energy-trans-
Energies 2023, 16, 6344 ferring inductors is used. It is suggested to equalize cells on the basis of a state of charge, 11 of 21
and a temperature-dependent battery model is created for the state-of-charge estimation.
The flyback converter is suggested to cut down on energy usage and equalization time for
efficient equalization.
efficient equalization. To Toverify
verify thethe benefits
benefits of of the
the proposed
proposed program,
program, aa comparison
comparison of of the
the
proposed flyback converter based on mean-difference
proposed flyback converter based on mean-difference math is performed. math is performed.
In [49],
In [49], the
the authors
authors suggest
suggest aa novelnovel architecture
architecture for for the
thepower
power electronics
electronics converter
converter
to shorten
to shorten the the equalization
equalization time, time, and
and simulation
simulation resultsresults are
are used
used to to confirm
confirm the the system’s
system’s
viability. The
viability. The issue
issue with
withthethetraditional
traditional inductor-based
inductor-based balancing
balancing methodmethod is is that
that because
because
the energy
the energy is is transferred
transferred cell cell byby cell,
cell, itit takes
takes aa long
long time
time toto equalize
equalize when when itit moves
moves from
from
the first to the final
the first to the final cell. cell. This issue is resolved by the suggested improved
issue resolved by the suggested improved topology which topology which
enhances the
enhances the balancing
balancing time time whenwhen compared
compared to to traditional
traditional ones.ones. TheThe middle
middle cells
cells will
will
equalizeusing
equalize usingthis thisstrategy
strategyjust justasas quickly
quickly as as
thethe
toptop
andand bottom
bottom ones.ones. In comparison
In comparison to
to the
the standard
standard topology,
topology, which which equalizes
equalizes four it
four cells, cells, it equalizes
equalizes eightfaster.
eight cells cells faster. The sim-
The simulation
ulationare
results results
usedare used to validate
to validate the system’s the system’s
viability.viability.
An
An established
established method method of of next-to-next
next-to-next balancingbalancing is is described
described in in [50].
[50]. Its
Its operational
operational
and design restrictions are
and design restrictions are examined. examined. The following section of this
this paper introduces aa
paper introduces
novel
novel method
method for for next-to-next
next-to-next balancing
balancing that that outperforms
outperforms the the traditional
traditional method
method while
while
being
being easier
easier to to use.
use. According
According to to experimental
experimental findings,findings, the the magnetic
magnetic coupler’s
coupler’s size
size was
was
significantly
significantlyreducedreducedwhile whileretaining
retainingananefficiency
efficiency ofof
more
more than
than 90%.
90%. The main
The main objective
objective of
the research
of the research work workwaswasto identify
to identify a better
a better topology
topology thatthat
cancan bestbest
address
addressapplications
applications of
BESSs
of BESSs such as electric
such automobiles
as electric automobiles in terms
in terms of integration,
of integration,performance,
performance, and affordability.
and afforda-
A real-world application has demonstrated the regularity
bility. A real-world application has demonstrated the regularity of the currents. of the currents. It is successful
It is suc-
at reducing
cessful the magnetic
at reducing coil using
the magnetic a fluxaadjustment
coil using flux adjustment strategy. The The
strategy. newnew equalization
equaliza-
converter’s
tion converter’s balancing process
balancing has been
process has beenexamined.
examined.
The
The available
availableliterature
literatureininsomesomecases cases is is
concentrated
concentrated ononisolated
isolatedtopologies
topologies for for
battery
bat-
energy
tery energy storage systems, namely dual-active bridges (DAB). The typical topology of aa
storage systems, namely dual-active bridges (DAB). The typical topology of
full-bridge
full-bridge FBDABFBDAB is is shown
shown in in Figure
Figure6. 6.

Q1 Q3 Q5
Q7
D1 D3 D5 D7
L0

LOAD
VBATTERY

C0
Tr n:1
Q2 Q4 Q6 Q8
D2 D4 D6
D8

Figure 6.
Figure 6. Typical
TypicalFBDAB
FBDABconfiguration.
configuration.

By adjusting
By adjusting the
the on/off
on/off status of the semiconductor switches on the converters’ pri-
mary and
mary and secondary
secondary sides,
sides, several
several control
control strategies
strategies can
can be
beapplied.
applied. Among
Among the
the control
control
strategiesare
strategies arethe
theso-called
so-called single-phase-shift
single-phase-shift (SPS)
(SPS) strategy
strategy which
which is most
is the the most common
common type
of control method now in use is conventional DABs. The second method is the extended-
phase-shift (EPS) strategy which is an additional switching technique. The zero-voltage
switching (ZVS) range widens with this modulation. In addition, there are dual-phase-shift
(DPS) and triple-phase-shift (TPS) control techniques, that can be used for full-bridge DAB
circuits [51,52].
Another typical topology for the battery storage systems is neutral point connected
(NPC)-based DAB. In [53], a bidirectional DC/DC converter is designed with a dual-active
bridge and a single-phase three-level neutral point connected construction on the high-
voltage side. This architecture decreases the isolation transformer’s turn ratio and the
voltage stress on the switches. Additionally, all switches in full bridge and NPC with
bidirectional power flow have zero-voltage switching. The grid side inverter with current
hysteresis control is NPC based. The authors show that the whole set-up is appropriate for
utility applications thanks to its increased reliability and low maintenance requirements.
 Another typical topology for the battery storage systems is neutral point connected
(NPC)-based DAB. In [53], a bidirectional DC/DC converter is designed with a dual-active
(NPC)-based DAB. In [53], a bidirectional DC/DC converter is designed with a dual-active
bridge and a single-phase three-level neutral point connected construction on the high-
bridge and a single-phase three-level neutral point connected construction on the high-
voltage side. This architecture decreases the isolation transformer’s turn ratio and the volt-
voltage side. This architecture decreases the isolation transformer’s turn ratio and the volt-
age stress on the switches. Additionally, all switches in full bridge and NPC with bidirec-
age stress on the switches. Additionally, all switches in full bridge and NPC with bidirec-
Energies 2023, 16, 6344 tional power flow have zero-voltage switching. The grid side inverter with current 12 hyste-
of 21
tional power flow have zero-voltage switching. The grid side inverter with current hyste-
resis control is NPC based. The authors show that the whole set-up is appropriate for
resis control is NPC based. The authors show that the whole set-up is appropriate for
utility applications thanks to its increased reliability and low maintenance requirements.
utility applications thanks to its increased reliability and low maintenance requirements.
For the
For the balancing ofof the cells
cells in battery
battery storage systems,
systems, various topologies are pro-
For the balancing
balancing of the
the cells in
in battery storage
storage systems, various topologies are pro-
posed.
posed. Among them are capacitor-based, inductor-based,
andand transformer-based topolo-
posed.Among
Amongthem themarearecapacitor-based,
capacitor-based, inductor-based,
inductor-based, transformer-based
and topologies,
transformer-based topolo-
gies,
as as
shown shown
in in
FigureFigure
7. 7.
gies, as shown in Figure 7.

Cell
Cell balancing
balancing

Capacitor Inductor Transformer

Capacitor Inductor Transformer
based based based
based based based
Figure 7.
7. Common types
types of cell
cell balancing.
Figure 7. Common
Figure Common types of
of cell balancing.
balancing.

In [54],
In [54], the authors
authors proposedto to connectcapacitors
capacitors betweenadjacent
adjacent cells.The
The capac-
In [54], the
the authors proposed
proposed to connect
connect capacitorsbetween
between adjacentcells.
cells. Thecapaci-
capac-
itorsare
tors are constantlychanging
changing theircharge.
charge. The capacitor
capacitor is charged
charged by one
one cell and
and then
itors areconstantly
constantly changingtheir their charge. TheThe capacitor isis charged by
by one cell
cell and then
then
discharged through
discharged through the neighboring
neighboring cell, transferring
transferring surplus charge
charge between thethe two ifif
discharged through the the neighboring cell,
cell, transferring surplus
surplus charge between
between the twotwo if
the charge
the charge states of of the two
two cells differ.
differ. Since every
every cell is
is interconnected, the
the entire pack
pack
the charge states
states of the
the two cells
cells differ. Since
Since every cell
cell is interconnected,
interconnected, the entire
entire pack
finally becomes
finally becomes balanced
balanced (Figure
(Figure8).
8).
finally becomes balanced (Figure 8).
C1 C2
C1 C2

Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6

VBAT1 VBAT2 VBAT3

VBAT1 VBAT2 VBAT3
Figure 8. Cell
Figure 8. Cell equalization
equalization circuit
circuit based
based on
on switched
switchedcapacitors.
capacitors.
Figure 8. Cell equalization circuit based on switched capacitors.
The
The serious drawback is
serious drawback is the
the poor
poorbalancing
balancingspeed;
speed;ininthe
theworst
worstcase,
case,thethe first
first cell
cell in
in theThe serious
string will drawback
be out of is the poor
balance balancing
compared to speed;
the in with
string the worst
the case,
last theInfirst
cell. thiscell in
case,
the string will be out of balance compared to the string with the last cell. In this case, the
the
the string
imbalancewill be out
could of
onlybalance compared to the string with the last cell. In this case, the
imbalance could only be be corrected
corrected byby passing
passing theextra
the extracharge
chargethrough
throughall all of
of the
the cells.
cells.
imbalance becomes
Scalability could only be corrected
a challenge dueby to passing
this issuethe extramade
being charge through
worse by the allbattery
of the pack
cells.
Scalability becomes a challenge due to this issue being made worse by the battery pack
Scalability
having becomes
additional a challenge
cells as shown due to this issue being made worse by the battery pack
in [55].
having additional cells as shown in [55].
having additional
In [56], cells propose
the authors as shown in [55].
a novel bidirectional buck–boost + Cuk converter for series-
In [56], the authors propose a novel bidirectional buck–boost + Cuk converter for se-
In [56],
connected the authors
battery propose
cells. In the past,a novel
eitherbidirectional
the buck–boost buck–boost
converter + or
Cuktheconverter for se-
Cuk converter
ries-connected battery cells. In the past, either the buck–boost converter or the Cuk con-
ries-connected battery cells. In the past, either the buck–boost converter
required (2n − 1) switches to balance a string of n battery cells. The proposed buck–boost or the Cuk con-
verter required (2n − 1) switches to balance a string of n battery cells. The proposed buck–
verter required (2n − 1) switches to balance a string of n battery cells.
+ Cuk converter, however, only needs n switches because it skillfully combines the The proposed buck–
boost + Cuk converter, however, only needs n switches because it skillfully combines the
boost converter
boost + Cuk converter,
and thehowever, only needs
Cuk converter. n switches
Unlike many otherbecause it skillfully
existing combines the
one-switch-per-cell
topologies, it reduces the switch count by almost half without sacrificing the modularization
benefit or the device voltage stress. The buck–boost battery charge equalizer’s best feature,
simple pulse width modulation, with a 50% duty cycle, is still present.
The application of multiport converters plays an important role for BESSs. In [57],
the authors describe various types of multiport converters and their characteristics. A
comprehensive examination of the key features of multiport converters, including their
topologies, types according to different characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages,
and areas of application are presented. The presentation includes a thorough analysis of
the criteria for choosing multiport converters for various applications. It is shown that
three main types of multiport converters have the own advantages for specific power range
applications. For instance, non-isolated topologies are more suitable for low-power BESS
application, and isolated, partially isolated topologies are more suitable for high-power
BESS applications.
Energies 2023, 16, 6344 13 of 21

Table 1 contains some of the research results regarding the implementation of various
cell equalization topologies.

Table 1. Application of different cell equalization topologies for BESSs.

Balancing Type Main Results

For series-connected lithium-ion batteries, an innovative
Inductor based non-dissipative two-stage equalization circuit architecture based [58]
on the classic buck–boost circuit is developed.
A flyback-based cell-balancing circuit for a string of lithium-ion
Inductor based [59]
batteries is suggested.
An innovative switched capacitor equalizer that combines the
Capacitor based benefits of double-tiered switched capacitors and switched [60]
capacitors with chain structures is proposed.
The dual transformer-based asymmetrical triple port active
Transformer based bridge (DT-operating ATAB) multiport converter with a [61]
closed-loop controller is offered.
The modular balancer-based balancing topology, consisting of an
outer-module balancer based on a switched capacitor converter
Transformer based [62]
and an intra-module balancer based on a multi-winding
transformer circuit is proposed.

Taking into account employing cutting edge power devices such as GaN semicon-
ductors, and enhanced control algorithms, it is possible to improve current solutions. The
charging circuitry can share resources and reduce costs by integrating modern power
electronics technologies. At the same time, providing a fully flexible battery pack that can
be adjusted for various voltage and current requirements is quite promising from a research
point of view.

4. Battery Management System for BESSs

As highlighted in Section 1, the future role of lithium-ion batteries (LIB) in the energy
market is clearly defined. LIBs serve as potential allies in supporting distributed renewable
resources and facilitating the transition towards zero-carbon emissions in the mobility sector.
However, handling LIB products is a challenging task. This is due to the environmentally
hazardous raw materials used to build cells [63], capacity losses over the service life, as
well as the instability associated with certain electrode composites, which may hinder
safe operation. Consequently, three critical challenges for LIB technology to overcome are
system sustainability, performance, and safety [64]. To address these challenges, BMS plays
a crucial role in the evaluation of these factors.
On one hand, traditional BMS architecture (specifically for high-voltage applications)
at its highest level is primarily designed for managing power and energy during battery
charging and discharging, using a Battery Control Unit (BCU), which acts as the master
controller for the whole battery, measures pack insulation, and sample pack voltage/current
values [65]. Additionally, BCU determines battery status, calculating SoX predictions:
commonly SoC, state of health (SoH), state of power (SoP), and state of temperature (SoT)
are used to determine cell performance and remaining useful life (RUL), and track cell
safety status to ensure a reliable operation over the life cycle, in order to determine proper
battery end of life (EoL) and define second life possible applications [66,67].
SoH plays an important role because it is essential to maintain the LIBs’ operational
safety and enhance their output. A trustworthy BMS can deliver precise state-of-health
estimations and guarantee battery safety, which can enable the most effective operation
and energy management. There are various methods proposed to estimate SoH. In [68], the
authors use the weighted quantile regression (WQR) and light gradient-boosting machine
(LightGBM) methods to learn a non-linear mapping between the measurable attributes
and the SOH. The model is known as LightGBM-WQR. The suggested LightGBM-WQR
model estimates SOH with good accuracy, and the average absolute error (MAE) of all
Energies 2023, 16, 6344 14 of 21

cells is constrained to 1.57%. A thorough analysis of the many techniques used for SOH
estimate, including experimental methods, model-based techniques, and machine learning
algorithms is carried out and the benefits and drawbacks of each strategy are examined
critically and in depth in [69]. To estimate the battery’s SOH and SOC, the well-known
Kalman filter (KF) and relatively recent sliding innovation filter (SIF) are used in [70]; the
dual-KF-interacting multiple model (IMM) and dual-SIF-IMM are the resulting techniques,
respectively. Accurate Li-ion battery SoC and SoH model for online estimation is proposed
in [71]. The link between the SoH equation and the modification factor, which is a function
of SOC, is discovered to be linear.
On the other hand, each battery incorporates several Battery Management Units (BMU).
The primary function of the BMU is to optimize the overall battery module performance, by
measuring the voltage of individual cells, balancing, and equalizing module cell branches,
as it is shown in Figure 6. Moreover, BMU also samples temperature and other important
values such as cell strain, in order to prevent cell malfunctioning, or hazardous situations
such as thermal runaway [72].
Subsequently, all the measures gathered by BMU are packaged into different data
frames and sent to BCU. Once BCU receives cell measurement information, it can esti-
mate cell SoX and determine the optimal strategy to distribute the energy among the pack
depending on the battery pack’s instantaneous input/output current, and consequently
predict the next step cell voltage, temperature, and pressure, accordingly, to adapt BMU
balancing and protection systems in a closed-control loop. Moreover, BCU-BMU interoper-
ability can find synergies with other auxiliary control systems, such as the Battery Thermal
Management System (BTMS), which is responsible for maintaining the cells within allowed
temperature ranges.
To perform SoX calculations, BCU uses battery models [73]; nowadays, in LIB industry,
ECM is widely adopted in BMSs due to successful results in its practical implementation
and its relatively inherent simplicity. However, the ECM working principle is fully based
on experimental cell data parameterized with representative electric components. Thus,
the ECM lack of physical insight restricts the precision of SoX estimates and their ability
to accurately adapt to the electrochemical processes driven by lithium-ion diffusion and
transport that govern the real LIB system response. To address this discrepancy, the
industry is mainly focused on developing better methods and techniques to enhance ECM
capabilities, to update cell states adaptatively according to the stochastic variations that
cells experience during a cycle.
Significant advancements have been made in the improvement of adaptive filter-based
methodologies for adjusting SoC estimations based on measured voltage, temperature
values, as well as noise covariances. However, as the cell approaches its EoL, these models
gradually lose precision due to SoC deviations [74]. This precision loss poses challenges to
BMS decision making and EoL definition, resulting in the underutilization of battery cell
energy and consequently LIB sustainability reduction.
To address this issue, it is crucial to complement filter-based methods with alternative
approaches that can adapt model parameters to battery capacity fades. Many studies advo-
cate for the implementation of data-driven techniques as the optimal solution [75]. These
approaches use huge experimental datasets and combine them with genetic algorithms,
neural networks, or particle swarm optimization techniques, to effectively adapt SoC and
ECM parameters to battery nominal capacity changes [76]; these methods contribute to
establishing better SoH predictions, and as a result, pack/cell overall SoX estimations are
also enhanced [77].
However, these advanced models require significant provisions in terms of computa-
tional requirements and data storage to effectively be run. Therefore, considering the rapid
progress and the expected future widespread implementation of 5G technologies, research
is focused on migrating modeling BCU capabilities and functions to cloud-based BMS
architectures. The structure shown in Figure 7 represents how these advancements will
 tribute to establishing better SoH predictions, and as a result, pack/cell overall SoX esti-
mations are also enhanced [77].
However, these advanced models require significant provisions in terms of compu-
tational requirements and data storage to effectively be run. Therefore, considering the
rapid progress and the expected future widespread implementation of 5G technologies,
Energies 2023, 16, 6344 research is focused on migrating modeling BCU capabilities and functions to cloud-based 15 of 21
BMS architectures. The structure shown in Figure 7 represents how these advancements
will change the BMS ecosystem, paving the way for the materialization of the LIB Digital-
Twin
change (DT)
theconcept, all in anpaving
BMS ecosystem, effort to provide
the way formore efficient and sustainable
the materialization battery sys-
of the LIB Digital-Twin
tems [78].
(DT) concept, all in an effort to provide more efficient and sustainable battery systems [78].
Nevertheless,
Nevertheless,asascan canbebeintuited
intuitedfrom
fromFigure
Figure 9, DT architectures
9, DT architecturesstillstill
require a simpli-
require a sim-
fied version
plified of BCU
version of BCU(Battery Control
(Battery Unit)
Control integrated
Unit) within
integrated the battery
within pack.pack.
the battery TheseThese
sys-
tems are expected
systems to optimize
are expected to optimizeBMUBMU energy distribution
energy and serve
distribution as data
and serve as clusters to con-
data clusters to
nect the entire
connect battery
the entire to the
battery cloud.
to the Additionally,
cloud. Additionally, aside from
aside fromthe
thecloud
cloudmodel,
model,BCU BCUalso
also
should
shoulduse useananoffline
offlinemodel
modelto todetermine
determineshort-term
short-termcontrol
controlstrategies
strategiesand
andact actasasaabackup
backup
model
modelin incase
caseof
ofcloud
cloudloss
lossconnection,
connection, fails,
fails, or
or crashes.
crashes.

Figure
Figure9.9.BMS-DT
BMS-DTecosystem
ecosystemconcept.
concept.

Therefore,
Therefore, BCU
BCU should
should have
have implemented
implementedaa ReducedReduced OrderOrder Model
Model (ROM)
(ROM) which
which
should be updated periodically every time the cloud Full Order Model
should be updated periodically every time the cloud Full Order Model (FOM) performs (FOM) performs
an
aniteration
iterationtotoestimate
estimateSoX.
SoX.The
Thevalues
values calculated
calculated from
from thethe
cloud cancan
cloud be be
used for for
used BCU to
BCU
estimate the error due to ROM parametrization deviances. Consequently,
to estimate the error due to ROM parametrization deviances. Consequently, the ROM the ROM pa-
rameters
parameterscancan
be adaptively
be adaptivelyupdated between
updated between FOMFOMiterations.
iterations.
Moreover,
Moreover,with
withthe
theadvancement
advancementin incomputational
computationalcapabilities,
capabilities,the
theBMS-DT
BMS-DTconcept
concept
can
canexplore
explore emerging
emergingLIB LIB modeling
modelingfields,
fields,such
suchasas the
the Pseudo-Two-Dimensional
Pseudo-Two-Dimensional(P2D) (P2D)
approach
approachforforthe
themacroscopic
macroscopicrepresentation
representationof ofphysics-based
physics-basedmodels.
models.P2DP2Dmore
morecomplex
complex
variants,
variants,such
suchasasthe
theDoyle–Fuller–Newman
Doyle–Fuller–Newman (DFN)
(DFN) model,
model, offer a competitive
offer alternative
a competitive alterna-
tive
to to data-driven
data-driven approaches.
approaches. Since Since
they arethey are based
based on PDE ongoverning
PDE governing electrochemical
electrochemical equa-
equations
tions and precise
and precise cell cell constructive
constructive andand electrochemical
electrochemical parameterization,LIB
parameterization, LIBbehavior
behavior
anddegradation
and degradationmechanisms
mechanismscan can
bebe accurately
accurately captured,
captured, without
without the the need
need for exten-
for extensive
sive databases
databases [79]. Furthermore,
[79]. Furthermore, simplified
simplified versions versions
such assuch as the Particle
the Single Single Particle Model
Model (SPM)
(SPM) can provide more accurate estimations for pack/cell control systems
can provide more accurate estimations for pack/cell control systems compared to tradi- compared to
traditional ECM approaches, enhancing efficiency and
tional ECM approaches, enhancing efficiency and overall LIB safety. overall LIB safety.
Artificial intelligence (AI)-based energy management solutions are advancing the
sophistication and intelligence of BMS systems. Real-time battery data analysis and perfor-
mance forecasting can be carried out using artificial intelligence techniques. This makes it
possible to better optimize battery use, extending its life and increasing its effectiveness.
Additionally, AI algorithms can be employed to spot irregularities in the battery’s operation
and notify the user or maintenance staff of potential problems. This can lower maintenance
costs and help prevent safety issues.
Overall, BMS systems are becoming more intelligent, secure, and efficient thanks to
energy management solutions utilizing AI. When it comes to sifting through enormous
volumes of observational data for patterns and insights, machine learning is quickly
becoming a crucial tool. As a result, the future seems promising for the creation of a
cloud-based BMS that has been upgraded by AI. By fusing the advantages of physical
Energies 2023, 16, 6344 16 of 21

process models with the adaptability of machine learning approaches, this will significantly
increase the predictive and modeling capability for long-range connections across multiple
timelines [80].
Predictive AI-based algorithms in BMSs can enhance the accessibility of test datasets
and reliable real-time data processing for electrical vehicle applications. According to
the analysis provided by the authors in [81], further research utilizing the Kalman filter
algorithm is required to enhance the current algorithms by incorporating both SoH and
SoC estimators to determine how old the battery is in terms of power management over
prolonged use. Additionally, from a theoretical and practical standpoint, machine learning
(ML) technologies play a significant role in battery SoH estimation.

5. Discussion
Various types of batteries described in Section 2 have their own advantages and
disadvantages depending on application area. Among one of the advantages of Li-ion
batteries is that they have one of the lowest energy–density ratios ever and can store quite
large amounts of energy. However, one of the drawbacks is undoubtedly lithium’s strong
reactivity. They may be directed to low-level stability in the event of excessive temperatures
or flames. It is therefore preferable to create a simple cell system that controls the battery
while it is not being used during the design phase. The comparatively expensive price of
the technology presents another barrier to its widespread adoption. As mentioned before,
the materials used to make the cathode and anode, and the solution of electrolyte in this
sort of battery might differ, defining various Li-ion battery technologies in this way.
LFP batteries possess effective electrochemical performance. They are safer than some
other type of Li-ion batteries and have strong thermal resistance. They can sustain complete
charges and discharges and have a decent cycle life. Among the disadvantages is that these
type of batteries have a little higher self-discharge compared to other types.
NMCs are the sort of batteries that have a decent life expectancy, high specific energy
values, good thermal resistance, and can power electric vehicles effectively. These factors
make the NMC battery packs the most popular in the electric vehicle industry. Among
the disadvantages are environmental concerns because the batteries contain cobalt and
relatively high cost of the technology.
For nickel-based batteries, there are also their fields of application. For instance,
NiCad batteries have a high discharge rate, which makes them appropriate for applications
requiring high power output. Among the disadvantages of NiCad batteries is that if
they are not properly disposed of, the poisonous cadmium they contain could harm the
environment. These type of batteries have the potential to experience a memory effect,
which over time lowers their capacity and performance. Compared to other battery types,
NiCad batteries have a lower energy density, requiring more space to store the same
amount of energy. Batteries made of nickel–metal hydride (NiMH) have some advantages
over NiCad batteries. NiMH batteries have higher energy density as compared to NiCad
batteries. NiMH batteries are safer for the environment than NiCad batteries because they
do not contain any poisonous components. NiMH batteries can survive hundreds of charge
and discharge cycles and have a long cycle life.
Sodium batteries are potentially more preferable for stationary usage, where battery
size and weight are less critical. For sodium-ion batteries to be produced at an industrial
scale, more intensive research is required as existing electrodes and electrolytes are still in
the early stages of development. On the other hand, the main advantages of the sodium-
ion batteries is the cost and availability of sodium, safety, and long lifespan. Among the
disadvantages are low-power density, limited charging cycles, and temperature sensitivity.
To ensure the battery pack’s continuous good health and capacity for as long as feasible,
the issue of cell balancing is essential. It was shown that when applying the switched
capacitor method, it is possible to achieve a relatively simple method of cell balancing.
The advantage of this balancing method is that it does not require a complicated control
and sensing system. It is easy to expand this architecture to accommodate larger battery
Energies 2023, 16, 6344 17 of 21

packs. The delay in balance rate is the biggest drawback. In the case of inductor-based
cell balancing instead of capacitors, inductors are used to store transitory energy and it is
possible to achieve good equalization results without a complex controller. Balancing can
happen throughout both charging and discharging cycles. Due to the cell-to-cell nature of
this approach, equalization speed is still a concern. Traditionally, inductors have cost more
and taken up more space than capacitors.
Application of flyback converters for the inductor-based balancing can improve the
balancing speed. Depending on bidirectional switching and control, there can be a cell
to pack, a pack to cell, and a cell to pack to cell, high efficiency and low current and
voltage stresses. The key disadvantages are the high cost, complexity of the control,
and the extensive volume. The transformer-based balancing topologies generally have
quick equalization speeds and are very effective. Both cell to pack or pack to cell are the
basic topologies. However, multi-cell to multi-cell can be achieved with a combination of
bidirectional switching and a more sophisticated controller.
At the same time, interfacing the BESS with renewable energy sources and the appli-
cation load of modern power electronic converters and particularly multiport ones can
decrease the overall cost and improve the reliability of the system. To increase the reliability,
it is necessary to apply fault-tolerant multiport converters with an advanced digital control
system (DCS) based on, for instance, an extended Kalman filter for detecting and generating
the reference phase and voltage signals.
As mentioned in Section 4, BMSs are designed for managing power and energy
during battery charging and discharging, providing safety, functionality, and performance
optimization of battery modules with the help of BCU and BMU. To precisely calculate
the SoC and SoH, various model techniques are used. Huge computational resources
are usually needed for the data-driven modeling techniques. Therefore, considering the
rapid progress and the expected future widespread implementation of fast mobile data
technologies, research is focused on migrating modeling BCU capabilities and functions
to cloud-based BMS architectures with the help of advanced AI-based algorithms and
machine learning approaches.

6. Conclusions
In this review of battery energy storage system technologies, the present state of
BESS development, research, and the utilization of conventional and novel approaches
are described. In order to help academics, developers, and application engineers better
grasp technical characteristics, operational principles, and a selection process for various
types of battery storage systems, this review paper includes information about each of the
main parts of a BESS including a review of different battery chemistries, power electronic
converters, and BMSs.
This study examined more than 80 scientific papers and journal publications that
were written about the operation and performance of battery energy storage systems and
published between 1997 and 2023. An explanation of the fundamental operating concepts,
classification, topologies, and perspective technologies for battery energy systems is given.
Battery energy storage systems are being utilized more and more to supply energy storage
at home or on the grid and to power electric vehicles. In addition, they are vital elements
of a system that helps to stabilize the output of renewable energy sources, thus making it
feasible to integrate RES in the industry and use it for household application.
The restrictions and challenges each type of BESS must overcome have been de-
termined. All battery storage technologies have specific disadvantages, but if certain
conditions are satisfied, they can be used effectively. For instance, NMC batteries currently
are more suitable for electric vehicle application while LFP batteries are more preferable for
a stationary applications. Therefore, it is necessary to take into account trade-off properties
when choosing a certain BESS for a particular application. It was shown that to improve
characteristics of a BESS it is important to apply proper BMSs. Application of Digital Twins,
AI, and ML can boost the performance and significantly extend battery life thanks to the
Energies 2023, 16, 6344 18 of 21

high accuracy models for SoC and SoH estimation. At the same time, predictive mainte-
nance provided by these technologies can reduce the downtime of a BESS. In addition, the
implementation of inductor or transformer-based cell-balancing strategies and modern
fault-tolerant multiport converter technologies can be a good solution for various BESSs in
a wide power range.
According to the provided review, the development of a completely versatile battery
pack based on the mixed battery chemistry which can be adjusted for various voltage and
current needs is among the prospective research directions.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.O.R. and J.A.R.; methodology, J.L.D.-G. and L.T.R.;
validation, L.G., M.A.Q. and X.S.R.; writing—original draft preparation, S.O.R. and J.A.R.; writing—
review and editing, S.O.R., J.A.R., X.S.R. and L.G.; visualization, À.F.M.; supervision, L.T.R.; project
administration, L.T.R. and L.G.; funding acquisition, L.T.R. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 and by the European
Union “NextGenerationEU”/PRTR”.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are openly available in the References
Section.
Acknowledgments: This publication is part of the project TED2021-132864A-I00, funded by MCIN/
AEI/10.13039/501100011033 and by the European Union “NextGenerationEU”/PRTR”.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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