What is nutrition?

A process by which organisms obtain food and energy for the growth, repair and maintenance of the
body.
Processes:
-Ingestion (food taken into the body)
-Digestion ( Large food molecules are broken down into smaller, soluble molecules so that it can be
absorbed into the body cells)
-Adsorption (Nutrients move from small intestine into the bloodstream)
-Assimilation (Nutrients used by the cells to provide energy or make new cytoplasm for growth)
-Egestion (Undigested matter is removed from the body)
Order: Ingestion - digestion - adsorption - assimilation- egestion

The Human Digestive System

-Consist alimentary canal(gut) and the organs
(liver, gall bladder and pancreas) associated with it.
-Alimentary canal: large part of organ system for
digestion
and 9 metre long tube from the mouth to the anus
most of its
length is at the abdomen coiled.

The Mouth and the Buccal Cavity

Food enters the body via the mouth which leads to the buccal cavity. The buccal cavity is inside the
mouth and the beginning of the alimentary canal. Function of the mouth:
- Teeth that break large pieces of food into smaller pieces. This helps increase surface area of
the food so that enzymes can act on it more efficiently.
- Salivary glands that secrete saliva in the mouth.
- A tongue that mixes with food with the saliva and moves the food to the back of the mouth
during swallowing.

The Pharynx
Part of the alimentary canal that connects the buccal cavity to the oesophagus and the larynx (voice
box). The pharynx also leads to the trachea (windpipe).
The Oesophagus
A narrow, muscular tube. It passes through the thorax (chest) and joins the mouth to the stomach.
-The wall of oesophagus contains two layers of muscles. These muscles are present along the whole
gut from oesophagus to the rectum.
The two layers of muscles are:
- The longitudinal muscles on the outer of the gut wall
- The circular muscles on the inner side of the gut wall
Both sets of muscles produce long, slow contractions. These contractions move food along the gut
via peristalsis.
Peristalsis
Is the rhythmic, wave like muscular contractions in the wall of the alimentary canal.
Peristalsis enables food to be mixed with digestive juices and pushes or propels the food along the
gut.
When the circular muscles contract, they constrict the lumen. When the longitudinal muscles
contract, they shorten and widen the lumen. The circular muscles and the longitudinal muscles are
antagonistic muscles. This means that when one set of muscles contracts, the other set relaxes.
- When the circular muscles contract, the longitudinal muscles
relax. As a result, the gut becomes narrower and longer
(constricts). The food is squeezed or pushed forward.
- When the longitudinal muscles contract, the circler muscles
relax. The gut becomes wider and shorter (dilates), allowing food
to enter the lumen.
 Action of the antagonistic muscles of the gut wall resulting in peristalsis
The Stomach
• Lies beneath the diaphragm, to the left side of the abdomen, and is
partly covered by the liver
• Has numerous pits and gastric glands found in the stomach lining
• Has gastric glands which secrete gastric juice that play an important
part in digestion

Processes that take place in the stomach

- The presence of food in the stomach stimulates the gastric
glands to secrete gastric juice into the stomach cavity
- Peristalsis in the stomach wall churns and breaks up the food and also mixes the food well
with gastric juice.
- Gastric juice in the stomach contains hydrochloride acid (pH2), mucus and the enzyme
pepsin which is proteases.
- The dilute hydrochloric acid stops the action of salivary amylase by denaturing it, provides a
low pH environment within the stomach which is the optimum pH for the enzyme proteases
to digest proteins and kills off certain potentially harmful microorganisms in food.
- The proteases digest proteins into polypeptide.
- The mucus layer protects the stomach wall against being digested by the enzymes it
produces. The mucus also moistens the food to allow easy movement within the stomach.
- Food normally remains in the stomach for about three to four hours. The partly digested
food becomes liquefied, forming chyme.
- Chyme passes in the small amounts into the duodenum when the pyloric sphincter relaxes
and opens.
Food stays in the stomach for a few hours. Peristalsis in the stomach helps to churn the food
which is broken down both physically and chemically.
Small intestine
• Consists of a U-shaped duodenum and the much-coiled ileum
• Carries out most of the digestive processes
• Contains glands, in the wall lining, that secrete digestive enzymes
• Enzymes in the small intestine speed up the digestion of food
• Absorbs water and nutrients from food, which usually takes place in the ileum
Processes that take place in the small intestine
Chyme enters the duodenum. It stimulates:
- The pancreas to secrete pancreatic juice. The pancreatic juice passes through the pancreatic
duct into the duodenum. Pancreatic juice contains the enzymes pancreatic amylase,
protease and pancreatic lipase.
- The gall bladder to release bile. Bile passes through the bile duct into the duodenum. Bile
does not contain enzymes so it cannot digest food, but bile salt speeds up digestion of fats.
- The epithelial cells in the small intestine to produce the enzymes Maltase, proteases and
lipase.
Food now comes into contact wth pancreatic juice, bile, intestinal juice. All three fluids are
alkaline. The alkalis:
- Neutralise the acidic chyme
- Provide a suitable alkaline medium (pH 8) for the action of the pancreatic and intestinal
enzymes
How is the small intestine adapted for absorption
- The inner surface of the ileum is folded extensively and has
numerous minute finger like projections called villi (villus for
singular) [Adaption] to increase the surface area for
adsorption. [Function]
-The epithelium or wall of the villus is only one cell thick
[Adaption] to provide a short diffusion distance for nutrients to pass through.
[Function]
- The cells of the epithelium have many microvilli
[Adaption] to further increase the surface area of the
small intestine. [ function]
- Each villus has many blood capillaries [Adaption] that allow the blood to
transport the absorbed glucose and amino acids in order to maintain a diffusion
gradient. [Function]
-Each villus contains a lacteal [Adaption] to transport the absorbed fats away and
maintain a steep diffusion gradient. [Function]
- The epithelial cells contain many mitochondria [Adaption] to provide energy for
the active transport of nutrients into the villi.
How does the absorption take place in the intestines
 Glucose and amino acids are absorbed by diffusion into the blood
capillaries of the villi.
 Glucose and amino acids are also absorbed by the active transport. This
happens when there is a lower concentration of these digested food
substances in the lumen of the small intestine than in the blood
capillaries.
 Glycerol and fatty acids diffuse into the epithelium. Here they combine to
form minute fat globules that enter the lacteals.
 The Large Intestine
• Is shorter and broader than the small intestine. The small
intestine opens into the large intestine in the right side of the
abdominal cavity.
• Consists of the colon, rectum and anus
• Colon absorbs about 90% of remaining water and mineral salts
from undigested food
• Temporarily stores faeces in the rectum. When the rectum
contracts, the faeces are expelled through the anus. [Egestion]

The processes that take place in the mouth

1. Salivary glands are stimulated to secrete saliva.
2. Saliva mixes with the food and softens it.
3. The salivary amylase in saliva digests starch to maltose.
4. The optimum pH for salivary amylase is at pH 7.
5. The food is broken down into smaller pieces by chewing, which increases the surface area-to-
volume ratio for salivary amylase to work on.
6. The food is rolled into small round masses called boli.
7. The boli are swallowed and passed down into the oesophagus via the pharynx.
Organs and glands associated with the gut
The Liver and Gall bladder
 The liver is the largest gland in the body. Its upper surface touches the
diaphragm, and the lower surface is in contact with the stomach and the
small intestine. Attached to the lower surface of the liver
are three blood vessels, the hepatic portal vein, the hepatic
vein and the hepatic artery.
 The liver produces and secrete bile ( contains bile salt ).
Bile does not contain any enzymes so it cannot chemically
digest food but it aids in physical digestion of fats.
 Bile is stored temporarily in the gall bladder. The gall
bladder is attracted to the liver. when the gall bladder
contracts, the bile flows into the duodenum via the bile
duct.
Functions of the liver
 Production of bile
 Delaminating of amino acids
Excess amino acids are transported to the liver. Their amino groups are
removed and converted into urea. This is called deamination (process
where amino groups are removed from amino acids and converted in urea)
Urea is removed from the body in the urine. The remains of the
delaminated amino acids are converted into
glucose in the liver. Any excess glucose
formed in this way is converted into
glycogen.
 Regulation of blood glucose
concentration
Liver plays a key role in carbohydrate
metabolism by keeping the amount of
glucose in the blood constant, especially
after a heavy meal or during fasting. The
pancreases contain a special groups of cells
known as islets which secrete the hormones
insulin and the glucagon into the
bloodstream. Both insulin and glucagon together help to regulate the level
of glucose in the blood.
 Breakdown of hormones
After they have served their purpose are broken down in the liver.
Hormones are:
 • A chemical substance produced in very small quantities by an endocrine
gland. It is transported in the bloodstream to target organ(s) where it
exerts its effect(s).
• Can influence the growth, development and activity of an organism.
• Are chemical messengers that help the various parts of the body to
respond, develop and work together smoothly.
 Detoxification
Harmful substances may be absorbed into the blood from the gut. These
substances are made harmless by the liver cells. The process of
converting harmful substances into harmless substances us known as
detoxification.
Alcohol is a harmful substance broken down by the liver. Alcohol can cause
damage to the digestive system and slow down brain function. Liver cells
contain an enzyme which breaks down alcohol compounds that are used in
respiration, providing energy for cell activities.
The Pancreas
 A gland lying in the loop of the duodenum. It is connected to the
duodenum by the pancreatic duct. The bile duct joins the practice duct
just before the pancreatic duct opens into the duodenum.
 Produces pancreatic juice which contains digestive enzymes, amylase,
lipase and protease.
 Secrete the hormones insulin and glucagon which plays an important role
in the control of blood sugar level in the body.
Digestion involves two processes: Physical and chemical digestion
o Physical digestion involves the mechanical break up of food into small
particles. This occurs:
-Chewing of food
-In the stomach where the continual contractions and relaxations of the
muscles in the stomach wall will cause a churning action. This breaks up
the food particles and mixes them with digestive enzymes.
-In the small intestine, where fats are broken up into small fat molecules
by bile salts.
o Chemical digestion is the breaking down of the large molecule of food
such as proteins, starch and fats, into small double molecules that can be
absorbed.
Digestion of Different Foods
Carbohydrate Digestion
The food we consume may contain carbohydrates such as starch, sucrose and
cellulose. Carbohydrates are digested by carbohydrases such as amylase and

maltase.
1) Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth. Salivary amylase in the mouth
digests starch into maltose. Only a little starch can be digested because food
does not remain long in mouth.
2) No digestion of carbohydrates occurs in the stomach as there is no
carbohydrases here.
3) When carbohydrates enter the small intestine, they are fully digested into
simple sugars. For example, starch is digested by pancreatic amylase into
maltose which is then further digested by maltose into glucose.
4) The end products of carbohydrate digestion are simple sugars which can be
absorbed into the bloodstream. Cellulose cannot be digested.
Protein Digestion
Proteins are digested by proteases.
1) Some proteins digestion begins in the stomach where the stomach protease
digest proteins to polypeptide.
2) The undigested proteins that enter the small intestine are digested by
pancreatic juice to polypeptides.
3) The polypeptides produced are further digested to amino acids by intestinal
proteases.
4) The end products of protein digestion are amino acids which can be absorbed.
Fat Digestion

1) Bile produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder is released into the
duodenum.
2) In the small intestine, bile salts emulsify fats. They lower the surface tension
of the fats which they reduce the attractive forces between the fat molecules.
This causes fats to break into tiny fat droplets suspended in water, forming an
emulsion. Take note: This is a physical break up, no chemical digestion of fat
molecules has occurred. Emulsification increases the surface area to volume
ratio of fats speeding up their digestion by lipase.
Emulsification is the breaking up of fats into tiny fat droplets

Emulsified fats are digested by lipase (pancreatic and intestinal lipases) to fatty
acids and glycerol. Thus, the end of products of fat ingestion are fatty acids and
glycerol.
How are fats transported and utilised.
• Fats are absorbed into the lymphatic capillaries, which join to form larger
lymphatic vessels. These discharge fats into the bloodstream.
• Blood carries the fats to all parts of the body, especially the liver.
The fats are converted into forms that can either be broken down or
stored.
• When there is enough glucose, fats are not broken down and are used to build
protoplasm like cell membranes.
• When glucose is in short supply, fats are broken down to provide the energy
needed for vital activities in the body.
• Excess fat is stored in adipose tissues beneath the skin and around the heart
and kidneys. Adipose tissues protect organs by acting as shock absorbers.
How are glucose and amino acids transported and utilised
After absorption, the blood in the villi is now rich in nutrients. The blood
capillaries unite to form larger blood vessels, which in turn unite to form a large
vein, the hepatic portal vein. The hepatic portal vein transports the nutrients
from the small intestine to the liver.
Glucose assimilation :
 In the liver, most of the absorbed sugars are converted into glycogen and
stored for future use. Some glucose is transported by the blood leaving
the liver and distribute around the body to be used for energy during cell
respiration.
 All cells use glucose as a source of energy. Glucose is assimilated and
then broken down during tissue respiration to release energy for the vital
activities of the cells.
 Excess glucose is returned to the liver and stored as glycogen. A hormone
called insulin, which is produced by the islets of Langerhans in the
pancreas, stimulates the liver cells to convert excess glucose into
glycogen. When the body needs energy, the liver converts the stored
glycogen back into glucose. The glucose is then transported by the blood
to the cells.
Amino acids assimilation :
 Amino acids that enter the cells are converted into new cytoplasm that is
used for growth and repair of worn-out parts of the body.
  • Amino acids are also used to form enzymes and hormones.
 • In the liver, excess amino acids have their amino groups are removed
and converted into urea. This is known as deamination.
 • Urea is removed from the body in the urine. The remains of the
deaminated amino acids are converted into glucose in the liver.
Overall digestion of food

Summary of chemical digestion that takes place in the digestive system

Harmful effects of alcohol consumption on the digestive system

• Alcohol stimulates acid secretion in the stomach.
• Excess stomach acid increases the risk of gastric ulcers.
• Too much alcohol may lead to cirrhosis of the liver
• Cirrhosis is a disease in which the liver cells are destroyed and replaced with
fibrous tissue, making the liver less able to function.
• Alcoholic cirrhosis may lead to haemorrhage in the liver, liver failure and
subsequently, death.
Impact on the nervous system
Depressant
• Alcohol slows down some brain functions. Its effects vary from one person to
another.
Reduced Self-control
• A person becomes carefree as alcohol takes away their self-control. They may
do things.
that they may regret after the effects of alcohol have worn off.
Effect on Reaction Time
• Slurred speech, blurred vision and poor muscular coordination may occur.
People may be unable to move steadily.
• Their judgement deteriorates and they tend to underestimate speed.
• They may drive faster and with less caution, and their reactions become
slower. Drunk drivers have a higher tendency to be involved in traffic accidents.
Long term effect of alcohol consumption on the brain
Wet brain:
• A type of dementia caused by brain damage.
• Alcohol interferes with the absorption of vitamin B1 (thiamine) in the small
intestine.
• Vitamin B1 is part of an enzyme needed to break down sugar to release energy
for brain activities, e.g. in the conduction of nerve impulses.
Shrinkage of brain volume:
• The brain becomes smaller (shown by the red portion) than normal, especially
the region associated with memory and reasoning.
Heavy consumption of alcohol during pregnancy may interfere with the
development of the foetus’ brain, which may lead to lifelong physical, mental
and behavioural problems.
Social implications
• Some people may become addicted to alcohol and be unable to stop drinking
until they are drunk, as their bodies become dependent on alcohol.
• Alcoholics may,
- end up neglecting their work and families.
- exhibit violent behaviour, especially towards family members. o be at a
higher risk of committing crimes.