Science Inquiry Skills: Topic Notes

In Psychology, inquiry is an integral part of the learning and understanding of concepts.

Students develop a better understanding of psychological concepts through research, design, and
application. Relevant data are obtained, and students represent and analyse these data. They apply
their knowledge and understanding to present and justify conclusions appropriate to the initial
question or hypothesis and may propose further research. Students may use the process of
deconstructing a problem and designing an investigation to enhance their understanding.
Science inquiry skills are fundamental to students investigating the social, ethical, and environmental
impacts and influences of the development of scientific understanding and the applications,
possibilities, and limitations of science. These skills enable students to critically consider the
evidence they obtain so that they can present and justify conclusions.

Science Understanding: Psychology uses a biopsychosocial approach to frame an understanding of

behaviour — that is, behaviour is analysed and described in terms of biological, psychological, and
sociocultural factors.

 Learning Objective: Explain how biological, psychological, and social factors could determine the
cause and expression of certain psychological phenomena.
 Learning Objective: Explain how biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors could influence
solutions to problematic psychological phenomena.

Biological component
- Genetic predisposition/inheritance. For example, the most predominant risk factor for
developing Schizophrenia (Sz) is having a first degree relative with the disease – the risk of
inheritance is 13% if 1 parent has it or 50% if both parents have it. Twin studies support
heritability if 1 parent has Sz, with identical twins having 40-50% risk and fraternal twins
having 13-15%.
- Neurochemistry/imbalance of neurotransmitters such as serotonin
(mood/aggression/impulsive behaviour), dopamine (reward pathway/complex movement),
acetylcholine (learning/memory/muscle contraction). For example, D2 dopamine receptors
are more prevalent in patients with addiction compared with the broader population.
- Traumatic experiences.
- Hormones. For example, cortisol is released in response to stress and can be linked to Selye’s
GAS model for long-term consequences of stress involving immunity and health.
Brain structure. Brain is divided into 4 lobes, each with a primary cortex (Frontal – motor;
Parietal – sensorimotor; Occipital – visual; Temporal – auditory). Damage to lobes can result
in changes to personality, language comprehension, sensory processing, and perception.
 The brain also has 3 divisions of the forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain. Each division has
structures responsible for functioning: Hindbrain – cerebellum, medulla, pons; Midbrain –
reticular formation; Forebrain – thalamus; hypothalamus; cerebral cortex
- Illness and disease
- Injury
- Age
- Gender
- Medications/drug use/tolerance to substance use
- Nutrition
- Physical fitness
- Sympathetic NS activation in fight-or-flight response

Psychological component
- Cognitive distortions in thinking
- Negative/pessimistic schemas
- Perceptions
- Attitudes
- Beliefs
- Psychological trauma/abuse
- Neglect
- Emotional responses
- Attention
- Memory
- Learning. For example, observational learning (ARRM factors); operant conditioning
(reinforcement & punishment); classical conditioning (learning via association).
- Coping strategies

Sociocultural component
- Family background/family unit/family harmony
- Social support
- Engagement in community services (eg. church, sporting clubs, volunteering)
 - Education
- Interpersonal relationships
- Cultural traditions
- Socioeconomic status
- Poverty
- Religion
- Social norms
- Peer pressure
- Stereotypes
- Stigma

Read p.420 of the textbook for an example extended response regarding addiction.
Read p.422 of the textbook for an example extended response regarding dementia.
Consolidate this objective p.415-424 of the textbook.
Science Understanding: Investigations in Psychology can be experimental, observational, or
qualitative.

Learning objective: Identify an investigation as experimental, observational, or qualitative.

Learning objective: Discuss advantages and disadvantages of each type of investigation.

1. Experimental Designs - the investigator examines behaviour by deliberately manipulating

the independent variable (IV).

1a) Independent Groups Design:

- Participants are randomly allocated to an experimental group (exposed to the IV) or a
control group (not exposed to the IV).
- Purpose of the control group is to create baseline data to compare the impact of the IV on
the DV.
- Purpose of random allocation is to ensure everyone has an equal chance of being allocated
into either group in order to minimize participant bias.
- A single-blind procedure may be used, whereby participants are ‘blind’/unaware which
group they are in, to counter the placebo effect in which participant expectations can
influence results.
- Advantages: Order effects related to learning, practice, boredom or fatigue are not
problematic, since participants go through only one condition; Avoids the problem
of demand characteristics, which may bias an experiment, since participants are unlikely to
figure out the aim or hypothesis of the study when only exposed to 1 condition (Demand
characteristics are changing behaviour to please or confound researcher or hypothesis);
Allows for experimental and control groups to be tested/researched simultaneously, and
usually requires less testing time per participant.
- Disadvantages: The experimental groups and the control group may be affected by
different participant variables (These are a type of extraneous variable, which is
anything other than the IV(s) which may affect the DV such as individual differences, sleep
schedules, breakfast consumption); Requires more participants for a sufficient sample size
than other designs, since each participant yields only one bit of data.
 1b) Matched Pairs Design:
- Participants who are similar in characteristics relevant to the variables under study, such as
gender, age, IQ, musical ability etc are paired up
- One 'partner' is randomly assigned to the experimental group or the control group
- Aim is to keep the experimental and control groups as similar as possible, and in doing so,
minimise the effect of participant variables.
Twin studies are the most typical example of matched pair designs
- Advantage: Participant variables are controlled for; Avoids order effects because
participants are exposed to only one condition of the IV.
- Disadvantages: Time-consuming because of the challenge of matching participants in each
group according to predetermined characteristics; Risk of lost data because if one
participant drops out the paired participant's must also withdraw and therefore data cannot
be used.

- Note: Bandura’s Bobo Doll study matched children on aggression from scores provided by
their nursery teachers.

1c) Repeated Measures Design:

- The same group of participants are exposed to different experimental conditions.
- There may or may not be a control condition.
- Note: One variation of a repeated measures design is a longitudinal study, in which the same
tests are repeated over weeks/months/years.
- Advantages: The experimental and control groups are identical in terms of participant
variables, because the same individuals participate in all conditions- this removes many
extraneous variables from the data analysis later; This in turn reduces the 'noise' of
extraneous participant variables and makes it easier to detect the effect of the IV upon the
DV from a statistical viewpoint - essentially, repeated measures better isolates the apparent
effect of variables, as recorded in the experimental data.
Disadvantages: Participants may figure out the variables under study, so data may be
impacted by demand characteristics; Requires more time from each participant, since each
one goes through all conditions of the experiment; Participant data may be impacted
by order effects meaning the effect of participation in one condition of the experiment then
affects behaviour in later conditions of the experiment:
Practice (or learning) - participants perform experimental tasks better in later
conditions, because they have practiced or learned the tasks in the first
condition.
Fatigue (or boredom) - participants perform experimental tasks worse in later
conditions, because of tiredness or boredom.
Context - testing in the 1st condition may influence how participants interpret
experimental tasks in the 2nd condition, especially when participants begin to guess
the aim of the experiment.

- Note: Watson & Rayner (1920) used Little Albert in a repeated measures design before and
after the classical conditioning procedures

2. Observational Designs – the investigator examines behaviour based on a pre-existing IV

such as gender, age, drug use, location, workplace, sleeping habits, stress levels, violence.
Advantages: allows topics which are unethical, costly, impractical or impossible to
experiment with, to be studied.
Disadvantages: inability to randomly allocate participants as the groups already exist (eg.
employed vs unemployed; smokers vs non-smokers); lack of control in planning therefore
inability to control variables which limits causation between IV and DV. Correlation can be
determined based on a positive or negative relationship between variables being
established.
 2a) Naturalistic Observation:
- Observing and recording variables of interest in a natural setting without manipulation.
- Advantages: Greater ecological validity, as experimental methodology is adapted to realistic
contexts to gain a fuller understanding of human psychology beyond the laboratory.
- Disadvantages: Cannot control or change possible EVs; reliability of data may be questioned
and be subject to researcher bias upon interpretation; participants may exhibit demand
characteristics if they are aware of observations being made.

2b) Correlational Research:

- Correlations measure co-variables, not independent and dependent variables
- A statistical technique that establishes the mathematical likelihood of a significant
relationship between 2 variables; determines the 'strength' and direction of the
relationships. Positive correlations refer to variables that increase together. Negative
correlations occur when one variable decreases as the other increases.
- Correlations may be strong or weak, depending on how closely the variables 'follow' each
other. Indicated by a correlation coefficient ranging from -1.00 to +1.00. where:
-1.00 is a perfect negative correlation, +1.00 is a perfect positive correlation, 0 means no
relationship whatsoever.
The strongest correlations are indicated by coefficients closest to -1.00 or +1.00. A
coefficient of 0.91 would indicate a strong positive correlation, for example, while -0.65
might indicate a weak negative correlation.
- Advantages: Can investigate variables that are impossible, unethical, or impractical to study
otherwise; Quantitative responses enable statistical analysis; Predictive capabilities enable
prediction of future behaviours
- Disadvantages: Does not show differences between groups - only the extent to which two
factors are related; Cannot establish causation as variables are not manipulated at all- only
whether two factors are related; ‘Third variables' might explain the correlation; Little depth
of how/why in explaining findings.

2c) Longitudinal Designs:

- Uses repeated measures principle in that research is repeated over a period of time with the
same participants.
- Advantages: Less bias from participant variables as the same participants are used at each
interval; direct changes can be observed.
- Disadvantages: Time-consuming for researcher and participant (attrition rates/withdrawal
may be higher than other designs)

2d) Cross-sectional Studies:

- Often used in developmental psychology, an IV can be researched using a broad range of age
groups. For example, age and memory may be studied by using a group of 10, 20, 30, 40, 50-
year-olds
- Advantages: Data collected at a single session therefore results can be obtained
immediately so not time-consuming; low attrition/withdrawal rates
- Disadvantages: Participant and situational variables may confound results; causality cannot
be established

2e) Sequential Designs:

- Contain elements of both longitudinal and cross-sectional designs in that sequential research
follows participants over time and uses participants of different ages. Individuals of different
ages are enrolled into the study at various times to examine age-related change,
development within the same individual, and to account for cohort effects.

3. Qualitative Designs – often conducted prior to experimental or observational research,

these designs seek to generate new findings and questions for further research.

3a) Focus Groups

- Group interview technique which obtains data via discussion
Responses are generated using the following steps:
- 6 to 8 participants are encouraged to talk, question, and exchange perspectives/experiences
on a topic of interest
- The facilitator uses free-response/open-ended questions to prompt discussion and keep
participants focused on task at hand if conversation deviates away from topic. Key skills for a
facilitator include being respectful of viewpoints, ensuring contribution by all participants,
and preventing dominant personalities from taking over the discussion.
- The scribe records direct quotes, key points, and phrases as well as non-verbal indicators of
agreement such as body language. The use of contradictory statements should also be
noted.
- Advantages: richness of qualitative data allows for elaboration of responses; sessions are
easy to organize and inexpensive to conduct; participants may be illiterate but can still
vocalise their opinions; the group setting may be advantageous for those who get
uncomfortable in one-to-one interviews; group discussion enables inspiration or recollection
of memories when a point is shared; can be conducted via online platforms such as Zoom or
 Teams to enable participants to be located anywhere (cross-cultural perspectives may be
obtained in this manner).
- Disadvantages: dominant personalities may take over the group discussion and prevent
quieter participants from sharing; group setting may be uncomfortable for some; presence
of others in face-to-face setting reduces confidentiality.

3b) Delphi Technique

- Experts are used to answer questions on a topic of interest with the aim of achieving
consensus of opinion.
Responses generated using the following steps:
- Series of questionnaires are administered, the first of which is open ended and allows for
detailed responses to be provided.
- Subsequent questionnaires are sent out once responses from the first have been collated.
- Responses are collated by an expert panel who identify categories and themes within data,
and this is returned to participants for further feedback.
- This process of iteration continues until consensus is reached or sufficient information has
been obtained.
- Advantages: Cost effective as questionnaires can be administered electronically; very few
geographical limitations exist which allows for a global and cross-cultural perspective to be
obtained; successive rounds of questioning allow for consideration of alternative viewpoints;
participants less likely to be swayed by socially desirable responses as they construct their
responses in isolation.
- Disadvantages: Researcher may force consensus; agreed upon opinions may have been
weakened due to lack of discussion by participants.
-
Science Understanding: Many investigations involve the collaborative efforts of a team.

Learning Objective: Negotiate the role of each member with the other members of a team.
- Consideration of role of participants: providing accurate and honest responses; being
respectful of withdrawal rights without consequences
- Consideration of role of multiple researchers: possibility of inter-rater reliability increasing
with more than one researcher which may assist in overcoming researcher bias within
observational designs
- Consideration of role of facilitator and scribe in generating responses within a focus group
design
- Consideration of expert opinions within Delphi technique design

Science Understanding: Scientific methods enable systematic investigation to obtain measurable

evidence.

Learning objective: Devise a hypothesis or inquiry question

An inquiry question is a broad question reflecting a topic to be investigated and usually utilized in
qualitative research, and the research question may be formulated from further specific sub-
questions. For example, How would a 4-day working week affect mental health of Australian
employees?

A hypothesis is a statement, or a testable prediction about the results, which should include the
direction of the interaction between the IV-DV, the population from which the sample will be drawn,
the IV being manipulated and DV being measured.
For example, a 4-day working week would be beneficial for the mental health of Australian
employees.

Learning objective: Identify types of variables

An independent variable (IV) is deliberately manipulated in an experimental design to determine its

effects on the dependent variable (DV). In an observational design, the IV is pre-existing and is
observed to determine its effects on the DV.

The dependent variable (DV) is measured as a result of the IV.

Both IV and DV can be operationalized for clear understanding of how they will be investigated.

Constant variables remain the same during an investigation in order to improve the causal
relationship between the IV and DV.

Extraneous variables are any other factors besides the IV which can change the DV and
consequently reduce causality between the IV and DV. They are referred to as confounding variables
if these EVs do have an effect on the DV. These can be further categorized into:
- Participant variables: gender, IQ, personality, motivation, emotional state, cultural
background. Attempt to be overcome via random allocation. The placebo effect is a
participant variable referring to improved wellbeing due to the belief that the treatment is
effective (responses are influenced by expectations rather than procedures used). Attempt
to overcome via single-blind procedure. Participants may exhibit demand characteristics
whereby they attempt to behave in a socially desirable manner to support the hypothesis or
please the experimenter (good-participant role) OR attempt to discern the hypothesis
(negative-participant role).

- Experimenter effects: gender, IQ, personality, mood, appearance, credibility, bias when
delivering instructions to groups. The latter point can be overcome via double-blind
procedures, where neither the participant nor the researcher knows who is in the treatment
or control group.

- Situational variables: any factors of the environment in which the testing occurs such as
noise, lighting, temperature, spacing. Attempt to overcome via standardization of
procedures and testing conditions.

Learning objective: Type and amount of data to be collected

Learning objective: Identify some advantages and disadvantages of using these types of data.

Sources of data can be described as primary if obtained via direct observation or research; it is
secondary if obtained via other people’s research, journals or publications.
1. Quantitative data

- Represented by numbers
- Advantages: comparisons can be easily made; can be statistically analysed and graphically
displayed.
- Disadvantages: little to no reasoning or elaboration regarding responses

2. Qualitative data

- Expressed in words to provide reasoning and justification for response

- Advantages: Unrestricted responses provide rich detail for research
- Disadvantages: Difficult to summarise; may be subjected to researcher bias when
interpreting findings

3. Objective data

- Typically, quantitative measures including:

a) Behavioural counts – stopwatch for reaction time, checklists for number of times a
behaviour occurs, number of correct responses on a test. Produces Objective
Quantitative data.
b) Physiological measures – heart rate monitors, blood pressure cuffs, brainwave activity or
structures using imaging techniques, polygraph/galvanic skin response to measure skin
conductivity. Produces Objective Quantitative data.
- Advantages: can be verified by other researcher to reduce bias and consequently increase
both reliability and validity of findings; easy to statistically analyse and graphically displayed
- Disadvantages: validity may be lowered if measurement tools are incorrectly calibrated;
reliability may be lowered if user is untrained in administering the equipment; external
factors may influence results such as pre-existing health issues/prior learning/other
extraneous variables.

4. Subjective data

a) Self-reports – close ended questions in a survey/questionnaire which produce numerical

results; Likert scales/rating scales which rate agreement with a statement from Strongly
Disagree to Strongly Agree. Produces Subjective Quantitative data.
b) Interviews – open ended questions elicit detailed responses in a structured (strict script
which is not deviated from), semi-structured (some consistent questions followed up
with detailed questions about points raised) or unstructured (general prompts to allow
flexible conversation) manner. Produces Qualitative data.

- Advantages: insight into responses can be obtained regarding strength of opinion;

interviews can allow people to feel comfortable in a one-to-one setting; interview questions
can be tailored to elicit responses; people who are illiterate can respond verbally to
interview questions; interviews can be conducted online therefore not restricted by location
for global and cross-cultural perspectives to be obtained.
- Disadvantages: may be subject to participant bias and interpretation; interviews can be
time-consuming; interviews may elicit researcher bias in questioning techniques or inability
to deviate as in a structured interview.
Science Understanding: Results of investigations are presented in a well-organised way to allow
them to be readily interpreted.

Learning objective: Present results of investigations in appropriate ways, such as appropriately

labelled tables and graphs.
Learning objective: Analyse data, including discussion of trends, patterns, and correlations;
descriptive statistics (means, medians, standard deviations); calculations of means and medians
for quantitative data sets; interpreting standard deviations.

Statistics including mean, median and mode for measures of central tendency, and standard
deviation and range for dispersion may be calculated in data summaries.

How to calculate measures of centre:

1. Mean – add all values in data set together and divide by number of values in the data set.
Note: This is not representative when outliers exist, as results will be skewed. Better option is
to use the median in this instance.
2. Mode – the most frequently occurring value in the data set.
3. Median – order the data values from smallest to largest and locate the middle value within
the set.

How to interpret measures of dispersion:

1. Standard Deviation – a small SD indicates little dispersion within the data set and therefore
the mean is more reliable. 68% of values fall within 1 SD either side of the mean; 95.44%
within 2 SD; 99.7% within 3 SD.
2. Range – the spread of scores within a data set calculated by subtracting the lowest score
from the highest score in the distribution.

Results should be presented to 2 significant figures in a data table.

IV should be graphed on x-axis; DV graphed on the y-axis.

Visual representations of Quantitative Data:

a) Histograms: continuous intervals represented by bars touching; distribution of non-

discrete variables/ quantitative data

b) Bar graphs (presented horizontally)/Column graphs (presented vertically): useful for

comparing different experimental groups or categorical data; comparison of discrete
variables

c) Line graphs: show relationship between IV and DV when both are numerical; useful
when data is sorted from smallest to largest

d) Pie Chart: shows data as a proportion of the total

e) Scatterplot: trendline indicates strength and direction of relationship between co-

variables

Visual representations of Qualitative Data:

a) Content analysis: used to organize responses in a focus group

 Steps include:
1. Researcher organizes the data by reading and re-reading responses to become familiar
with what was produced
2. Identify core themes which are groups of similar comments
3. Code themes via a name to identify each theme
4. Keep track of themes by noting reoccurrences and whether they were the first response
or based off another comment; look at levels of agreeance or contradictions
5. Summarise analysis via construction of a frequency table.

Science Understanding: Critical evaluation of procedures and data can determine the
meaningfulness of the results.

Learning Objective: Evaluate the reliability and validity of data.

Reliability
- Measure of consistency in results over time.
- Test-retest reliability is when the same participant is assessed on 2 occasions and the extent
to which they produce the same responses (eg. standardized testing; personality
inventories)
- Inter-rater reliability is the extent to which 2 or more observers/researchers agree on scores
of the same participant.
Validity
- The extent to which something measures what it intends to measure.
- Internal validity can be lowered if an extraneous variable interferes with the results; this
implies the IV is not causing the DV but something else is instead. Internal validity also
compromised if no effect is found when an effect does exist.
- External validity is the extent to which the research can be generalized to a population based
on sharing characteristics of the sample used. Sample bias or small size leads to lowered
population validity, as the sample is not representative of the broader population. When
conducted under highly controlled or artificial conditions, ecological validity is lowered,
which is the extent to which findings can be generalized to naturalistic situations such as
clinical practice or real-life applications.

Note: In Psychology, meta-analysis may be used whereby results from all published studies about a
topic of interest are combined to increase validity of conclusions as a wide range of sources are
utilized however, research designs can vary so results are not truly comparable.

Learning Objective: Discuss how sample size and representativeness could affect the data
obtained in an investigation:

Sample size – larger samples are likely to reflect the population as the overcome bias in terms of
gender, age, SES, culture, and other factors which may be present in small samples.
Representativeness – if the sample is biased based on a factor mentioned above, it cannot represent
the population of interest and consequently lacks internal validity as it is not testing thy hypothesis
appropriately (when the population is operationalized in the wording of the hypothesis).

Science Understanding: Conclusions can be formed, and justified, that relate to the hypothesis or
inquiry question, but limitations may exist.

A conclusion must determine whether the hypothesis was supported or rejected based on
significance of results to determine that the IV did produce a change in the DV.

Findings can be generalized to the research population when:

- Appropriate research design and sampling techniques were used
- Sample size was sufficient and representative of the population
- Extraneous variables were successfully controlled and confounding variables did not occur
- Measures were appropriate and produced results that were both reliable and valid
- Data was accurately presented and interpreted without bias
- Ethical considerations were upheld
- Results were significant

A null hypothesis may be concluded when there is no relationship between the variables being
studied, and the results are due to chance.

Learning objective: Identification of sociocultural considerations and how these may be addressed.

1. When evaluating research findings, cultural context should be considered.

Ethnocentrism is the tendency to use one’s own culture as the standard to judge and evaluate other
cultures, which also makes it difficult to see how our own cultural background influences our
behaviour.

This can be addressed via conducting cross-cultural research whereby each practice is viewed in its
own context and described relative to the cultural/ecological situation in which it occurs.

2. Minority groups can be subjected to ethnocentric bias when the researcher observes
participants.

a) Ethical Implications:
Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC) must approve and review any research involving
Indigenous people. If possible, consultation should be obtained from people who have networks and
knowledge of cultural practices.

Informed Consent
- Indigenous people may not be able to read or comprehend written documentation
regarding research processes/risks/aims etc.
- If an elder agrees to speak with the researcher, this should be considered absolute
consent.
 - Given potential for communication difficulties to arise, translators, interpreters and
advocates should be available.
- Community involvement in the design of the study, implementation, and presentation of
research may help to shift any potential power imbalances between the researcher &
participants, as well as trying to ensure the research methods are culturally sensitive.

b) Cultural Implications:
Psychological instruments are unlikely to have the same meaning cross-culturally therefore greater
risk of cultural bias.
Existing research is contaminated by Eurocentric prejudice which must be replaced with diversity
and removal of universal principles.
Culturally insensitive designs and methods which do not meet needs, customs and standards of
Indigenous communities can cause distress, compromise objectivity in recording, and reinforce
disempowerment when reporting of academic findings contrasts the needs to protect Indigenous
knowledge.

c) Social Implications:
Gap exists in health, service provisions, engagement, crime, and death during incarceration.
Research may reinforce stigma and marginalisation of Indigenous people.
Some felt their personal safety was compromised as a result of the research process. The researcher
should provide information about relevant services to seek for further support.

Science Understanding: Ethical practice is an integral aspect of psychology.

The APS code of ethics is built on 3 general principles: Respect for rights and dignity; Propriety of
responsibility; Integrity of character and conduct.

Learning objective: Ethics

Informed Consent
- participants must be informed of all aspects of the research such as aim, risks, and
procedures
- written consent is required; parental consent required if participant is a minor; legal
guardian consent required for participants with impaired cognitive/intellectual
functioning

Voluntary Participation and Withdrawal Rights

- participants must not be forced to participate and can withdraw at any time without
consequence; coercion may exhibited as pressure, payment, reward, or use of
relationship to promote obligation (eg. Doctor-patient relationship for clinical trial)

Confidentiality
- participant details should be anonymous; must be stored and disposed of appropriately;
confidential information can only be disclosed with permission or where there is a legal
obligation to do so

Harm
- wellbeing should be protected so minimal risk of physical or psychological harm should
be considered; ethic can be applied to animal research
Debriefing
- participant must be told of all procedures and findings at the conclusion of the research;
any questions must be answered and researcher must correct any mistaken
attitudes/beliefs toward the research; services available for follow-up support should be
advised to minimise distress which may arise
- necessary deception may be used if behaviour could be influenced by knowledge of
research aims/procedures; debriefing must occur to justify its use and minimise distress

Privacy
- participants should be told how data will be recorded and collected; how/when/where
information will be stored and who will have access to this; only collect information
relevant to investigation

Learning objective: Work ethically with others, taking into consideration their physical, cultural,
and emotional safety.

Cultural relativism is central to research involving diverse cultures and minority groups to avoid
ethnocentrism leading to invalid data and conclusions. This can be more prevalent when
observations of social interactions are interpreted.

Understanding differences in communication ensures maintenance of cultural safety

- Participant agreement should not be confused for consent eg. Indian & Indigenous nod in
agreement or answer ‘yes’ to questions they may not understand because they think this
is an appropriate response; others may say yes to a question in hopes of ending an
uncomfortable conversation rather than agreeing

- Knowledge of differences in non-verbal communication such as eye contact, greetings,

and hand gestures. For example, Indigenous people avoid eye contact as a gesture of
respect whereas it is deemed rude/disrespectful in Western society; in Eastern societies
direct eye contact can be interpreted as rude/aggressive.

- Direct questioning is preferred in Western societies whereas indirect questioning is

preferred in Indigenous cultures. Direct questioning may create misunderstandings,
discourage participation or make it difficult to obtain key information.

- Language should be free of colloquialisms based on the researcher’s culture to minimise

misunderstanding.