SCIENCE – 10

PRELIMINARY REVIEWER

Ray Diagram
Mirrors

Line of Sight
You can see an object when light from it travels to your eye along a line of sight. To see an image in a mirror, light from the object
reflects off the mirror and travels along the line of sight to your eye. Mirrors are reflective surfaces made of polished metal or
glass. They can be plane (flat) or curved.

Reflections on a Plane Mirror

When you look into a plane mirror, you see reflected images of yourself and nearby objects. In complete darkness, the image
disappears and only reappears when light is present.
The upright image that appears behind the mirror is called a virtual image. Figure 1 shows how light rays from a person reflect
off the mirror and reach the eye. The brain interprets the reflected rays as if they come from behind the mirror, creating the
virtual image.
• Plane Mirror Reflections
A plane mirror creates a laterally inverted image, meaning the right hand appears as the left hand, but the image stays
upright. For example, the word AMBULANCE is printed backward so it appears correct in a rearview mirror.

Characteristics of Plane Mirror Images

1. Distance: The image appears as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of it and is always virtual.
2. Orientation: The image is upright, maintaining the same vertical orientation as the object.
3. Size: The image is the same size as the object, also known as unmagnified.
4. Lateral Reversal: The image is reversed left-to-right.

Reflections on Spherical Mirrors

Unlike plane mirrors, spherical mirrors produce different types of images. These curved mirrors have the shape of a sphere.
Imagine a giant spherical shell sliced like a watermelon to create a curved reflecting surface.
• The convex mirror reflects light from the outer.
• The concave mirror reflects light from the inner surface.

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Key Concepts for Spherical Mirrors
Spherical mirrors maintain the same curvature as the sphere they originate from. This curvature determines how they reflect
light and form images. To understand this process, we use specific terms in ray diagrams for curved mirrors:
• Principal Axis: The main horizontal reference line where all distances are measured.

Concave Mirrors
➢ If a hollow sphere is cut into parts and the outer surface of the cut part is painted, then it becomes a mirror with its inner
surface as the reflecting surface. This type of mirror is known as a concave mirror.
1. Characteristics of Concave Mirrors
• Converging Mirror: Light converges at a point after reflecting from the concave mirror, making it a converging mirror.
• Magnified Virtual Image: When placed close to the object, the mirror forms a magnified and virtual image.
• Real Image: As the distance between the object and mirror increases, the image size reduces, and a real image is
formed.
• Image Variations: The image formed can be small or large, real or virtual, depending on the object's distance from
the mirror.
Steps for Drawing Ray
Diagrams for Concave
Mirrors Step 2: Step 3:
Step 1: • Draw an incident ray from • The point where the reflected ray lines intersect is
• Draw an incident ray the top of the object, the top of the reflected image.
from the top of the passing through the focal • If the reflected rays are diverging, extend them
object, parallel to the point, toward the surface backward using dashed lines until they intersect.
principal axis, toward of the mirror. • If the bottom of the object is on the principal axis,
the surface of the mirror. • Then, draw the reflected the bottom of the reflected image will also lie on
• Then, draw the reflected ray from the point where the principal axis.
ray from the point where the incident ray hits the • If the bottom of the object is not on the principal
the incident ray hits the mirror, traveling parallel to axis, repeat steps 1-3 to locate the bottom of the
mirror, passing through the principal axis. reflected image.
the focal point.

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Lens and Refraction of Light
In a previous lesson, we learned that light bends as it passes through transparent materials, depending on the indices of
refraction of those materials. This bending of light is called refraction and is governed by Snell’s Law, named after the Dutch
astronomer Willebrord Snell (1580-1626).

Lenses and Refraction of Light

A lens is an optical device that uses refraction to produce images. A thin lens has a small thickness compared to its focal
length, radii of curvature, and object and image distances.
Lenses have two surfaces, which can be flat, concave, or convex. There are two types of lenses:
• Converging Lenses (or Convex Lenses): These lenses collect light after refraction. The middle of the lens is thicker
than the edges. A common example is the biconvex lens, used in magnifying glasses.
• Diverging Lenses (or Concave Lenses): These lenses spread light rays away from the principal axis. The middle is
thinner than the edges. They are used in telescopes, cameras, binoculars, and eyeglasses for nearsightedness.
Important Parts of a Lens
• Centre of Curvature: The center of the sphere from which the lens is formed. Concave and convex
lenses have two centers of curvature, often denoted as C1 or 2F1 and C2 or 2F2.
• Principal Focus: The point where parallel rays of light either converge (in concave lenses) or diverge from
(in convex lenses). Each lens has two foci, represented as F1 and F2.
• Principal Axis: The horizontal imaginary line passing through the centers of curvature of the lens.
• Optical Centre: The central point of the lens. A ray passing through the optical center does not deviate.
• Radius of Curvature: The distance between the optical center and the center of curvature, denoted as R.
• Focal Length: The distance between the optical center and the principal focus. It is half of the radius of
curvature.
Formation of Images through
Step 2: Concave Lenses
Lenses
• Draw a ray from Step 1:
The characteristics and Step 3:
the top of the • From the top of the object,
orientation of images formed by • From the top of the
object that draw a ray that is parallel
lenses depend on the object's object, draw a ray
passes through to the principal axis and
distance from the lens and the that passes straight
the lens vertex toward the lens.
type of lens used. Here’s a step- through the vertex
by-step method for drawing ray (the midpoint
(the center) of the
diagrams for lenses: of the lens).
concave lens.
Step 1: • This ray will
• This is Ray 2, and it
Convex: continue in the
will continue in the
• Draw a ray from the top of same direction
same direction after
the object, parallel to the after refracting
Step 2: passing through the
principal axis, toward the through the
• From the point where lens.
lens. lens. This is ray Note: The point where the rays
2. the first ray (Ray 1)
• After refraction, the ray intersect will be the location of
Note: The point where hits the concave
will pass through the F2 the image formed.
ray 1 and ray 2 lens, draw a diverging
(the focal point on the
line.
opposite side of the lens). intersect will be the
• This diverging ray
This is ray 1. location of the image
formed. should appear to
come from the focal
point F1 on the same
side of the lens as the
object. This is Ray 1.

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Lesson 2: Properties of Lenses Applied in Optical Devices

Most optical devices are made by combining lenses in specific arrangements. The function of these systems depends on the
focal lengths of the lenses and their relative positions. Some optical devices create light, while others detect or manipulate
light for various uses.

The Human Eye; One of the most complex optical systems is the human eye. It works like a camera:

• Cornea: Light enters through the transparent cornea, which has a refractive index of 1.376. Most of the light
refraction occurs here.
• Pupil and Iris: After passing through the cornea, light enters the pupil (the opening in the center of the iris).
The pupil changes size to regulate the amount of light entering the eye.
• Aqueous Humor and Lens: Light travels through the aqueous humor and then reaches the lens, which
focuses the light. Like a camera lens, the focal length of the eye’s lens changes based on the distance of the
light source.
• Retina: The light then reaches the retina, where the image is formed. The retina contains rods (which detect
brightness) and cones (which detect color).
• Optic Nerves: These photocells send the image to the brain via the optic nerves.

The human eye has a limited range, including the near point and far point. The ideal vision range is from 25 cm to infinity.
However, many people cannot accommodate this range due to eye defects. These defects can be corrected using lenses or
treated with laser eye surgery.

• Common Eye Defects and Their Corrections:

Eye Defect Description Correction/Treatment

Myopia Objects far away appear blurry, but close objects are Concave lenses (diverging lenses) or
(Nearsightedness) clear. laser surgery.
Hyperopia Close objects appear blurry, but distant objects are Convex lenses (converging lenses) or
(Farsightedness) clear. laser surgery.
Irregular curvature of the cornea or lens causes blurry
Astigmatism Cylindrical lenses or laser surgery.
vision at all distances.

Natural Selection
• Darwin and the Voyage of The Beagle Darwin's Observations on the HMS Beagle
• Darwin’s ideas on evolution and natural selection came from
• Evolution refers to the gradual change of organisms over
his observations during the HMS Beagle voyage (1831-1836).
time, with modern organisms descending from ancient • He studied plants and animals in South America, Australia,
ones. Over time, modern species replace older ones to fill and Africa.
ecological niches and maintain balance in the • On the Galápagos Islands, he found similar species of
environment. finches on nearby islands, each adapted to its environment.
• Charles Darwin is regarded as the father of modern • Finches with large beaks ate seeds, while those with thin,
sharp beaks ate insects.
evolution. Through years of observation and research,
• The Galápagos animals were similar to those on the Ecuador
he developed the theory of evolution. In the 1850s, mainland, but different from those in other parts of the world.
Darwin published his groundbreaking and controversial • Species, in which he proposed that species evolve through
book On the Origin of Species, in which he proposed that "descent with modification." He argued that all living
species evolve through "descent with modification." He organisms trace their ancestry to a common ancestor.
argued that all living organisms trace their ancestry to a Page. 5
common ancestor.
Lamarck’s Theory
• Jean-Baptiste Lamarck was a pioneering French biologist known for his idea of
Evidences of the Evolution
Lamarckism, which suggests that acquired traits are inherited. This idea is
of Biodiversity
contradicted by modern genetics and evolutionary theory.
1. Fossils
• Lamarck vs. Darwin:
Fossils show that organisms
o Both believed lifeforms evolved from simple organisms into more complex
from the past are different
ones.
from those today and reveal
o Lamarck thought changes in organisms occurred based on their needs.
the progression of evolution.
o Darwin, on the other hand, argued that an organism’s survival depends on
They help scientists track
adaptations of traits that are passed down through generations.
when species lived and
evolved over millions of
1. Lamarck’s View on Giraffes:
years.
• Lamarck believed giraffes originally had short-necked ancestors.
2. Embryology
• Due to the need to reach tall trees, giraffes kept stretching their necks.
Embryos of different species
• This stretching caused their necks to become progressively longer over
generations. often look similar in early
2. Darwin’s View on Giraffes: stages, indicating a common
• Darwin thought giraffes had neck length variations. ancestor. As they develop,
• Short-necked giraffes couldn't reach the food and died, while long-necked differences become more
giraffes survived. apparent. This similarity in
• Natural selection favored long necks, and this trait was passed on to future early development supports
generations, leading to longer necks in the population. the theory of evolution.
3. Analogous Structures
Natural Selection and Biodiversity: These are body parts that
• The theory of evolution by natural selection is widely accepted by biologists due to strong perform similar functions but
evidence, such as fossils. don’t come from a common
• Charles Darwin is the most well-known scientist to propose this theory, explaining how ancestor. For example, the
species evolve through natural selection. wings of a butterfly and a bird
• The term "Survival of the Fittest" was coined by Herbert Spencer, although Darwin is often serve the same function but
associated with the concept.
evolved separately.
4. Homologous Structures
Darwin's Concept of Natural Selection:
1. Variation
These structures are similar
o Offspring exhibit variation in heritable traits, meaning each generation has slight because they come from a
differences in traits. These variations are passed down, such as differences in common ancestor. For
hair color, size, and the number of offspring. example, the wings of birds
2. Overproduction and the forelimbs of humans
o As the production of offspring increases, there are more chances for share a similar bone
survival. Overproduction suggests that the parents have sufficient food structure, showing a common
resources and shelter for reproduction and survival. evolutionary origin.
3. Adaptation 5. Vestigial Structures
oSuccessful organisms survive longer and reproduce more when they can These are body parts that
adapt to changing environments. There are three categories of adaptations: have lost their original
▪ Morphological/Structural: Physical traits like fur, claws, and eye function over time. An
positioning. example is the pelvic bone in
▪ Behavioral: Actions like fleeing from predators, migration, and whales, which is a remnant of
courtship rituals. an ancestral structure.
▪ Physiological: Internal processes like hibernation or estivation
4. Descent for Modification
o Traits are passed down through generations as long as the environment is
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suitable for survival and reproduction. Over time, these traits may gradually
change or evolve to better suit the environment..
After Drawing a Ray Diagram for a Concave Mirror
You can determine the following characteristics of the image:
1. Configuration: This refers to the location where the image is
formed
2. Magnification: This is the size of the image relative to the object:
o Reduced: If the image is smaller than the object.
o Magnified: If the image is larger than the object.
3. Orientation: This describes the position of the image:
o Upright: If the image is formed above the principal axis.
o Inverted: If the image is formed below the principal axis.
4. Types of Images:
o Real Image: (Normal lines)
o Virtual Image: (Broken lines)

Convex Mirrors
➢ If the cut part of the hollow sphere is painted from inside, then its outer surface becomes the reflecting surface. This kind of
mirror is known as a convex mirror.
1. Characteristics of Convex Mirrors
• Diverging Mirror: A convex mirror is also known as a diverging mirror because it spreads light rays when they strike its
reflecting surface.
• Image Formation: Convex mirrors always form virtual, upright, and reduced images, regardless of the object's
distance from the mirror.
• Uses of Convex Mirrors; Inside buildings, Vehicle mirrors, Security purposes, Magnifying glass

Rules for Drawing Ray Diagrams for

Convex Mirrors Rule 2:
Rule 1: Incident rays directed at the focal point will
Incident rays that are parallel to the principal reflect off the convex mirror and travel
axis will reflect off the mirror and appear to parallel to the principal axis. (This is the
diverge from the focal point behind the reverse of Rule 1.)
mirror.

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