MODULE 1

Introduction to the concept of cost effective construction

1.1 Different types of materials and their availability
The different types of building materials are
1. Stones
Stones are obtained from rocks. The building stones obtained from rocks are classified into
i) Igneous Rocks– These rocks are formed by the cooling of magma and this magma occasionally
tries come out to the earth‘s surface through crack or weak portions. Ex: Granite and basalt
ii) Sedimentary Rocks – These rocks are formed by the deposition of products of weathering on the
pre-existing rocks. All the products of weathering are carried from their place of origin by frost, rain,
wind, water etc. Ex: lime stone and sand stone
iii) Metamorphic Rocks – These rocks are formed by the change in character of the pre-existing rocks
by great heat and pressure. Ex: Gneiss and marble
The process of taking out stones from natural rock bed is known as quarrying.
Types of Building Stones
Some of the common building stones which are used for different purposes in India are as follows:
i. Granite
It is a deep-seated igneous rock, which is hard, durable and available in various colours. It has a
high value of crushing strength and is capable of bearing high weathering.

Granite is used for bridge components, retaining walls, stone columns, road metal, ballast for
railways, foundation, stone work and for coarse aggregates in concrete. These stones can also be cut
into slabs and polished to be used as floor slabs and stone facing slabs.
Granite is found in Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Assam, Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala.

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 ii. Basalt and Trap
They are originated from igneous rocks in the absence of pressure by the rapid cooling of the
magma.

They have the same uses as granite. Deccan trap is a popular stone of this group in South India.
iii. Limestone
It is a sedimentary rock formed by remnants of seaweeds and living organisms consolidated and
cemented together. It contains a high percentage of calcium carbonate.

Limestone is used for flooring, roofing, pavements and as a base material for cement. It is found in
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
iv. Sandstone
This stone is another form of sedimentary rock formed by the action of mechanical sediments. It
has a sandy structure which is low in strength and easy to dress.

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They are used for ornamental works, paving and as road metal. It is available in Madhya Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
v. Gneiss
It can be recognized by its elongated platy minerals usually mixed with mica and used in the same
way as granite.

They can be used for flooring, pavement and not for major purposes because of its weakness. It is
found in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Gujarat.
vi. Marble
It is a metamorphic rock which can be easily cut and carved into different shapes. It is used
for ornamental purposes, stone facing slabs, flooring, facing works etc.

It is found in Rajasthan, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh.

Vii. Slate
It is a metamorphic rock which can be split easily and available in black colour. It is used
for damp-proofing flooring and roofing.

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Viii. Quartzite
It is a metamorphic rock which is hard, brittle, crystalline and durable. It is difficult to work with
and used in the same way as granite but not recommended for ornamental works as it is brittle.

ix. Laterite
It is decomposed from igneous rocks; occur in soft and hard varieties. It contains a high
percentage of iron oxide and can be easily cut into blocks.

The soft variety is used for walls after curing while the hard blocks are used for paving the pathways.
Requirements/ characteristics/properties of stones
1. Crushing strength
For a good structure stone, the crushing strength should be greater than 100 N/mm2
2. Hardness
For a good building stone, the co-efficient of harness should be more than 17
3. Fracture
For a good building stone, the fracture should be sharp even and clear.
4. Percentage Wear
The percentage wear should be equal to or less than 3%
5. Resistance to Fire
Minerals composition of stone should be such that shape of stone is preserved when a fire occurs
6. Water Absorption
For a good stone percentage absorption by weight after 24hrs should not exceed 0.6.
7. Specific Gravity
A good building stone should have specific gravity more than 2.7

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8. Durability
A good building stone should possess higher resistance against the action of weathering agents.
Table 1.1: Compressive strength of various types of stones

Type PWD handbook As per

(MPa) IS: 7779:1996
(MPa)
Granite 140-265 65-228
Dolerite 95-175 70-180
Limestone - -
Sandstone 14-17 70-100
Basalt 40-50 80-160
Laterite 90-100 60-75
A comparison on compressive strength of stones states that the granite shows the highest strength
among all stones.
Metamorphic rock like gneiss, loading perpendicular to the grains/ foliation shows lower strength.
Sand stone and Basalt are less durable although they do not deteriorate in time spans of the order of a
couple of centuries
Hence, these stones may be considered alright for normal buildings where a life span of more than
200 years is not expected.
Uses of Building Stones
The stones used for various types of works are as follows
1. Fine-grained granite and gneiss stones are used for Heavy engineering works such as building
bridge piers, breakwaters, monuments, etc.
2. Granite, quartzite and compact sandstones are used for masonry works in industrial areas exposed
to smoke and fumes.
3. Marble, granite and sandstone are used for facing work of buildings.
4. Limestone and sandstone are used for general building works.
5. Fine-grained granite, marble, and soft sandstone are used for Carvings and ornamental works.
6. Compact limestone and sandstone are used for Fire-resistant masonry.
7. Granite, quartzite stones are used in foundations of building in places with the high groundwater
level.
8. Marble, slate, sandstone and granite stones are used for floor pavings.
2. Laterite Blocks
The laterite blocks are obtained from laterite or lateritic soil.
The process of laterization in soil occurs in the region where the atmospheric temperature varies with
very high annual rainfall during high temperature especially in coastal areas.

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 Fig 1.1: Laterite Blocks
Process of laterization: During heavy rainfall silica particles illuviates in to lower layers leaving
only iron and aluminum in the upper layer and this upper layer gives honey comb structure i.e.,
porous nature. The pore is the space where they removed silicon particles existed.
This degree of laterization is estimated by calculating the ratio of silicon to sesqui–oxides i.e., Si /
(Fe2O3 + Al2O3)
Laterite can be treated as a ―Weak Rock‖ for building purpose and when moist it can be easily cut in
to regular size blocks. However after exposure to atmosphere a lateritic block shows a hardening
behavior which is thought be due to the content and dehydration of iron oxides and arrangement of
components.
Manufacturing Process
Nowadays, laterite stone blocks are cut by using machines as shown in the image below.

Fig 1.2: Manufacturing of Laterite Blocks

The line is drawn on both the axis over the cutting ground & the string is tied as a boundary marker.
The machine moves over the railing Patti, cutting the laterite layer in a straight given line. Once the
stone is cut as per the required size on both axes, the stone blocks are pulled out by using a spade &
pickaxe.

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Standard sizes of Laterite Blocks as per IS: 3620-1979
Length Breadth Thickness
(mm) (mm) (mm)
390 190 190
490 190 190
590 290 290

Table 1.2: Physical properties (Characteristics) of Laterite Blocks as per IS: 3620-1979
Attributes Requirements
Water Absorption Not more than 12% by mass
Specific Gravity Not less than 2.5
Compressive strength Not less than 3.5 N/mm2
Advantages
1. They keep the building cool in the summer season as they are quarried natural stones.
2. Laterite stones have good thermal insulation properties.
3. The stone provides a rustic natural look to the building.
4. The stone hardens & gains strength as time progresses.
5. Due to its larger size, it is cost-effective by reducing labor & other material charges.
6. Plastering is not compulsory for laterite masonry works.
7. Environment friendly as they do not emit CO2 & greenhouse gases.
Disadvantages
1. The strength of the block is not uniform.
2. Laterite stone blocks are available in limited regions.
3. Stone dressing is needed before masonry work to match the sizes.
4. Laterite stones are avoided in multistory buildings due to their weight & chemical composition.
3. Burnt Bricks
The bricks are obtained by moulding clay in rectangular blocks of uniform size and then drying and
burning these blocks. As bricks are of uniform size, they can be properly arranged and further, as
they are light in weight, no lifting appliance is required for them. The bricks do not require any
dressing and the art of laying bricks is so simple that the brickwork can be carried out with the help
of unskilled labours. The brick is one of the oldest building material and it is extensively used at
present as a leading material of construction because of its durability, strength, reliability, low cost
easy availability etc.

Fig 1.3: Clay Bricks

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Composition of good bricks
• Alumina
A good brick should contain about 20 to 30% of alumina which imparts plasticity to the brick so that
it can be moulded.
• Silica
A good brick should contain about 50% to 60% of silica. The presence of these constituents prevents
cracking shrinking and warping of raw bricks. It imports uniform shape to the brick.
• Lime
A small quantity of lime not exceeding 5% is desirable in good brick earth. It should be present in a
very finely powdered state because even small particles of the size of a pin head cause flaking of the
bricks.
• Oxides of Iron
A small quantity of oxide of iron to the extent of about 5 to 6 % is desirable in good brick earth. It
imports red color to the brick
• Magnesia
A small quantity of magnesia in brick earth imports yellow tint to the bricks and decrease shrinkage
but excess magnesia leads to the decay of bricks
Manufacturing process of bricks
Manufacturing of bricks constitutes four stages i.e., preparation of soil, moulding, drying and
burning.
1. Preparation of Soil
Removal of Top Soil: The removal of top soil involves the loose materials present at the top of the
soil for a depth of about 200 mm. These materials should be removed as they contain a lot
of impurities and are not used in the preparation of bricks.
Digging and Spreading: After digging the soil for about 200 mm, the soil is spread on the level
ground, and the heaps of clay are about 600 to 1200 mm.

Fig 1.4: Digging of Clay Soil

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Cleaning: After spreading the soil on the ground, it should be cleaned of stones, vegetable matter,
pebbles, etc. If excess non-clay materials are present, the clay should be washed and screened. This
whole process will become expensive and clumsy. The lumps in soil should be crushed into a powder
form.
Weathering: The soil is then exposed to the atmosphere for softening for a few weeks depending on
the nature of the soil, which imparts plasticity and strength to the soil.
Blending: To increase the quality of soil, additionally, sandy or calcareous clays may be added in
suitable proportions along with coal, ash, etc. and the whole mass is mixed uniformly with water.
Tempering: After adding the sufficient quantity of water, the soil is kneaded under the feet of men or
cattle to make it stiff and homogeneous. In general, for handmade bricks, the soft plastic clay could
be prepared by using about 25 to 30 per cent water. For making superior bricks on a large scale of
about 20,000, the earth is tempered in a pug mill.

Fig 1.4: Pug mill

2. Moulding of Bricks
Bricks are made in metric sizes called modular bricks, as prescribed by the Bureau of Indian
Standards. Nominal size of the bricks is 20cm X 10cm X 10cm, which include the thickness of the
mortar and the actual size of modular brick is 19cm X 9cm X 9cm.
A brick mould is a rectangular box of steel or wood, which is open at the top and bottom of the box
and inside dimensions of the mould are 20cm X 10cm X 10cm.
Moulding of bricks can be done using either hand or machine.
Hand Moulding
There are two types in hand moulding, i.e. ground moulding and table moulding. In this type, bricks
are moulded manually and preferred where only a small quantity of bricks is needed.
Ground Moulding: The process of moulding bricks on the ground manually by labour is called
ground moulding. On an average, a moulder can mould about 750 bricks per day. When the bricks
have dried sufficiently, they are moved to the drying shed and placed in an orderly manner.

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 Fig. 1.5: Ground Mould
Table Moulding: This moulding is done on a table of size 2m X 1m X 0.7m instead of on the ground.
This table moulding process is almost similar to ground moulding expect for some minor changes.

Fig. 1.6: Table Moulded

Machine Moulding
Moulding machines are used when a large scale of bricks are to be manufactured in less
time. These types of bricks are heavier and stronger than the hand moulded ones and possess a sharp
regular shape, a smoother surface and sharp edges. There are two types in machine moulding
Plastic Method: In this method, pugged earth is used, which is placed in the machine that contains a
rectangular shape of size equal to the length and width of the brick. A beam of the moulded earth
comes out of it and is cut into strips by wires fixed in the frames. These bricks are also called wire-
cut bricks.

Fig. 1.7: Machine Moulded

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Dry Method: In this method, the machine first converts the hard earth into a powder form and a small
quantity of water is added to the powder to make it a stiff plastic paste. This paste is placed in the
mould and pressed by the machine to form hard and correct-shaped bricks. These bricks are known as
pressed bricks, which do not require any drying and can be sent directly to the burning section.
3. Drying of Bricks
Moulded bricks cannot be burnt directly, as they may get damaged. So before burning they should
be dried either naturally or artificially for about two weeks.
Natural Drying: It is also called hack drying, which comprises placing moulded bricks in rows on
their edges, slightly above the ground called a hack. These bricks are air and sun-dried that is strong
enough to use for the construction of small structures.

Fig. 1.8: Natural drying

Artificial Drying: When bricks are needed to dry on a large scale, then this artificial drying is
preferred. They are dried in special dryers which receive heat from specially made furnaces for
artificial drying.
4. Burning of Bricks
After the process of moulding and drying, bricks are burnt in kilns to impart hardness, strength
and to increase the density of the brick. Some physical and chemical changes take place in the
burning of bricks. Heating brick to about 640°C produces only physical changes. If a brick is heated
up to 700-1000°C, it undergoes chemical changes. During this reaction, the materials present in brick
alumina and silica fuse together to make the brick strong and stable to prevent from cracking and
crumbling.
The types of Kilns used for burning purposes are
Clamp or Open Kiln: This is a temporary structure with some advantages like low initial cost, low
fuel cost and a few skilled labourers are sufficient to complete the process. The disadvantage is only a
small quantity of bricks is manufactured at a time and in that only 60% are good quality bricks.

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 Fig. 1.9: Clamp
Intermittent Kiln: When a large number of good quality bricks are needed, intermittent or continuous
kilns are preferred. In this kilns, the process of burning is discontinuous.

Fig. 1.10: Intermittent Kiln

Continuous Kilns: In this process, the burning is continuous and they are of three type‘s i.e., Bull's
Trench Kiln, tunnel Kiln and Hoffman's Kiln.
To get a good quality brick it has to be heated to the required temperature. The bricks begin to lose
their shape and materials get vitrified if heating of brick earth goes beyond 1300°C.

Fig. 1.11: Hoffman’s Kiln

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Classification of Bricks
The bricks can broadly be divided in to two categories:
1. Un burnt (or) Sun dried bricks
2. Burnt Bricks
 First class bricks
 Second class bricks
 Third class bricks
 Fourth class bricks
Characteristics/Properties/Requirements of Bricks
1. Dimension & Tolerance

2. Compressive Strength
The minimum compressive strength of brick not less than 3.5 N/mm2
3. Water Absorption
The average water absorption of brick is not more than 20% by weight.
4. Efflorescence
The efflorescence of brick shall be reported as NIL, SLIGHT, MODERATE, HEAVY &
SERIOUS.
5. Aesthetic appearance
Brick possesses the natural and pleasant colours of burnt clay. Its colour formation is achieved
through a complicate physical chemical reaction during the firing process.
6. Porosity
Porosity is an important characteristic of brick. In contrast to other moulded or pre-cast building
materials, the porosity of brick is attributed to its fine capillaries. By virtue of the capillary effect, the
rate of moisture transport in the brick is ten times faster than in other building materials.
7. Fire Resistance
Brick is inherent with excellent fire resistance. 100 mm brickwork with 12.5 mm normal
plastering will provide a fire-resistance of 2 hours and 200 mm non-plastered brickwork will give a
maximum rating of 6 hours for non-load bearing purposes. Brick can support considerable load even
when heated to 1000oC in contrast to concrete wall at only up to 450oC due to loss of water of
hydration.

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8. Wear resistance
The wear resistance of a substance depends on its particulate bonds. Bricks show high wear
resistance because of its extremely strong ceramic bonds formed by the effect of heat at high
temperature.
Advantages
1. Economical (Raw material is easily available)
2. Hard and durable
3. Compressive strength is good enough for ordinary construction
4. Different orientations and sizes give different surface textures
5. Very low maintenance cost is required
6. Demolishing of brick structures is very easy, less time consuming and hence economic
7. Reusable and Recyclable
8. Highly fire resistant
Disadvantages
1. Uneven shape
2. Labor intensive.
3. Inefficient Kilns Coal Fired -Pollution
4. Cutting of agricultural land and hills Pollution are against world food security.
5. Time consuming construction
6. Cannot be used in high seismic zones
7. since bricks absorb water easily, therefore, it causes fluorescence when not exposed to air
8. Very Less tensile strength
9. Rough surfaces of bricks may cause mold growth if not properly cleaned
10. Cleaning brick surfaces is a hard job
4. Concrete Blocks
A block which has solid material not less than 75 percent of the total volume of-the block calculated
from the overall dimensions.
Concrete blocks are nowadays replacing bricks in masonry construction, notably in many multi-
storeyed buildings. They are available in three types namely solid, hollow and cellular, widely used
for the construction of filler walls and boundary walls in RC framework.

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 Fig: 1.12: Concrete blocks
The hollow (open and closed cavity) concrete blocks shall conform to the following grades:
Grade A — These are used as load bearing units and shall have a minimum block density of 1500
kg/m3. These shall be manufactured for minimum average compressive strengths of 3.5, 4.5, 5.5, 7.0,
8.5, 10.0, 12.5 and 15.0 N/mm‘ respectively at 28 days
Grade B — These are also used as load bearing units and shall have a block density between 1100
kg/m3 and 1500 kg/m3. These shall be manufactured for minimum average compressive strengths of
3.5 and 5.0 N/mm2 respectively at 28 days.
Solid Concrete Block — Grade C
The solid concrete blocks are used as load bearing units and shall have a block density not less than
1800 kg/m3. These shall be manufactured for minimum average compressive strength of 4.0 and 5.0
N/mm2 respectively
Materials of concrete Blocks as per IS: 2185(part1)-2005

1. Cement
When cement conforming to IS 269 is used, replacement of cement by fly ash conforming to IS 3812
(Part 1) may be permitted up to a limit of 25 percent. However, it shall be ensured that blending of fly
ash with cement is as intimate as possible, to achieve maximum uniformity.
2. Aggregates
The aggregates used in the manufacture of blocks at the mixer or the mixing platform shall be clean
and free from deleterious matter and shall conform to the requirements of IS 383.
3. Water
The water used in the manufacture of concrete masonry units shall be free from matter harmful to
concrete or reinforcement, or matter likely to cause efflorescence in the units and shall conform to the
requirements of IS 456.
4. Additives or Admixtures
Additives or admixtures may be added either as additives to the cement during manufacture, or as
admixtures to the concrete mix. Additives or admixtures used in the manufacture of concrete masonry
units may be:
a) Accelerating, water reducing, air-entraining and super plasticizer conforming to IS 9103,

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b) Waterproofing agents conforming to IS 2645, and
c) Colouring pigments.
Manufacturing process of concrete blocks
1. Selection and proportion of ingredients: The main criteria for the selection of the ingredients
are the desired strength of the block.
2. Mixing: The blending of cement, aggregates and water should be done very carefully. The
mixing should be done preferably in a mechanical mixer.
3. Placing and Vibration: The mixed concrete material is fed in to the mould box upto the top level
and ensures that it is evenly filled. The vibration of concrete is done till it has uniformly settled in
the mould.
4. Curing: The blocks are watered after about one day of casting and it is continued for a minimum
of 7 days and preferably till 28 days. The longer the curing period, the better will be the block.
Physical properties (Characteristics) of Concrete Blocks as per IS: 2185 (Part 1): 2005
1. Dimension
The nominal dimensions of concrete block shall be as follows:
Length: 400, 500 or 600 mm
Height: 200 or 100 mm
Width: 50, 75, 100, 150,200, 250 or 300 mm.
2. Water Absorption
The average water absorption of block is not more than 10% by weight.
3. Compressive Strength
Table 1.3: Compressive strength of blocks

4. Drying shrinkage
The drying shrinkage of the units when unrestrained being the average of three units, shall not exceed
0.06 percent.

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5. Moisture Movement
The moisture movement of the dried blocks on immersion in water, being the average of three units,
shall not exceed 0.09 percent.
Advantages of Concrete Blocks
1. Rapid Execution of Work
Hollow concrete block are of uniform and regular size and it has less weight. This facilitates rapid
execution of work.
2. Increase in Floor Area
It is possible to construct thin walls using hollow blocks. Therefore it helps to save space and
increase floor area.
3. Reduces Construction Cost
Hollow block helps in saving construction materials and therefore use of hollow block reduces
construction cost.
Use of larger size concrete block reduces number of joints in work and hence helps in saving mortar.
4. Better Insulation Properties
Hollow concrete block have good insulating properties against sound, heat and dampness.
5. More Durable
Hollow concrete block masonry can safely withstand the atmospheric action and it requires no
protective covering.
6. Employment of Unskilled Labour
Unskilled labour can also be employed in the construction of hollow concrete block masonry.
7. Good Bonding of Mortar & Plaster
Presence of rough surface on concrete blocks provides good bonding of mortar and plaster
5. Stabilized Mud Blocks
Stabilization of soil is the alteration of one (or) more properties of soil by mechanical (or) chemical
means to create improved soil possessing the densed engineering properties.
Soil may be stabilized to increase strength and during (or) to prevent erosion
There are two methods of soil stabilization

i) Mechanical
ii) Chemical (or) Additives

The most common form of mechanical soil stabilization is compaction of soil.

The addition of cement, lime, bituminous (or) other agents is referrers to as chemical (or) additive
method of soil stabilization.

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The concept of stabilization

It is now well known that when soils are compacted using external agency the density of the
soil reaches a maximum value at a moisture content known as the optimum moisture content (OMC).
The value of OMC and the maximum density depends on energy input during compaction. It is also
easy to recognize that the comp strength of the soil, in the dry state depends on the density. Thus the
process of mechanical compaction can lead to densification and strengthening of the soil.

It now the soil can be stabilized against loss of strength during saturation. We can think of a
stabilized mud (soil) block when the stabilization is achieved by a combination of densification and
mixing of a stabilizing additive namely cement, lime and bitumen.

Raw Materials used for Manufacture of SMB

 Soil consisting of clay, silt and sand is the basic raw material
 It is preferred that clay should be non-expensive
 Generally soil contains 10 to 15% clay and 65 to 70% and are satisfactory for making SMB
 Cement is another raw material added to the tune of 6.0 to 8.0% by weight of the appropriate soil
for making cement stabilized mud blocks
 If soil has a high clay content, sand (or) a sandy additive like quarry dust may be added to correct
the grading of soil
 A combination of lime and cement can be used for non-expansive soil with clay content around
15% a cement proportion of 5% and lime proportion of 2% can be added for stabilization
 Lime has the advantage of combining with clay in the soil and enhancing the long term durability
and strength

Manufacturing Process
The manufacturing process of SMB involves following steps
a. Sieve the soil in a 4mm sieve to remove stones and limps of clay
b. Mix sand (or) quarry dust to correct the clay sand percentages in the soil
c. Add cement (or) cement and lime in the appropriation proportion and mix them thoroughly in the
dry condition.
d. Sprinkle moisture on to the mixture and further mix thoroughly till the mixture is homogeneous
e. Test for optimum moisture by trying to make a ball of soil in the hand. If a ball can be made
without the soil sticking to the hand the moisture content is right
f. Weight the correct amount of moist soil such that a fresh block density of 2.05 gm/cc can be
achieved. The weight depends on the volume of the finished block density of 2.05 gm/cc may not
be feasible density like 2.0 gm/cc (or) 1.95 gm/cc may be attempted

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g. The weighed soil is now poured in to a soil compaction press.
h. The block is now pressed by operating the toggle after closing the lid. The lid may then be opened
and to block ejected by again using the lever.
i. The ejected block is then stacked in a five (or) six block high stack for curing
j. Sprinkling of moisture may be pursued up to 21 days to complete the block making process.

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 Fig: 1.13: Step by step procedure for preparation of SMB block

Strength of SMB Blocks:

 The SMB technology is well suited to produce a range of block strengths at the site
 As a rule a minimum wet comp strength of 3.0 Mpa is desirable for 2 storey house construction
 A cement content of 6 to 7% and a sand content of 65% and a clay content of 15% is usually
sufficient to achieve a min strength of 3.0 Mpa
 Using high % of cement, wet camp strength in the range of 4.0 to 7.. Mpa can be easily achieved.

Influence of cement content on comp strength

Composition: sand – 65%, silt 18%, clay 17%

Specimen: 76mm x 76mm x 76mm

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 Cement content by Dry Density Comp strength Wet strength /
weight (%) gm/cc Dry Wet Dry strength
2.5 1.87 4.54 0.77 0.17
5.0 1.89 9.20 2.91 0.32
7.5 1.88 11.6 4.63 0.40
100 1.91 15.0 5.82 0.39
Advantages
Independence and availability: An important factor in favor of the mud is their independence and
abundance, availability and use of raw materials for community participation and use by unskilled
labor.
Shipping cost: Suitable soils are often available at or near the construction site. Adobe and SMB are
of similar weight, but distance from a source supply gives SMB an advantage. Also, SMB can be
made available in places where adobe manufacturing operations are non-existent.
Uniformity: SMB can be manufactured to a predictable size and has true flat sides and 90-degree
angle edges. This makes design and costing easier. This also provides the contractor the option of
making the exteriors look like conventional stucco houses.
Presses allow blocks to be consistently made of uniform size, while also obtaining strengths that
exceed the ASTM standard for concrete blocks (1900 psi).
Non-toxic: materials are completely natural, non-toxic, and do not out-gas
Sound resistant: an important feature in high-density neighborhoods, residential areas adjacent to
industrial zones
Fire resistant: earthen walls do not burn
Insect resistant: Insects are discouraged because the walls are solid and very dense, and have no food
value
In India, SMB's with cement stabilization have shown to be very beneficial. The observed
compressive strength, flexural strength at 28 days of aging with 9% cement stabilization has been
observed to be 3.2 MPa and 1 MPa respectively.
Disadvantages
Buildings that incorporate the use of clay are particularly vulnerable to deterioration and deserving of
care and maintenance. This of course depends greatly on the degree of stabilization and compaction
of the material used and its original conditions. In walls of compressed earth and these weaknesses
are minimal while the maximum rise buildings using traditional adobe or not stabilized.
Another weakness is so far down the popularity it enjoys in the field of mechanization of industrial
building systems due to its excessive dependence on manual labor (―work intensive"), which tends to
make the services of its professional production.

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6. Lime Pozzolana Cement
It is a mixture of lime and pozzolana.

Raw materials for Lime Pozzolana Cement

1. Lime stone
 The basic raw materials for all the lime based mortars in lime stone. Lime stone is essentially
calcium carbonates in nature. Calcium being one of the fairly abundant metals on earth. Natural
lime stone is one of the purer forms of calcium carbonates occurring in nature.
 Calcium carbonates is mildly soluble in water and can sometimes be leached out of water and
ultimately deposited with clay as an impurity in the form of ‗Kankar‘ lime stone. There is also an
organic source of lime stone in the form of shell lime which is usually available in coastal areas.

Manufacturing process of lime

Fig 1.14: Lime Kiln

 The burning of lime stone to produce quick lime (CaO) is generally carried out in vertical kiln
using either fire wood or coal or fuel.
 Temperature of 9000 - 10000C are needed to release CO2 from lime stone.
 This 100kg of lime stone will yield 56kg of CaO.
 Again when quick lime is staked, 56kg of CaO will give rise to 74kg Ca (OH) 2.

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 Thus 1 tone of lime stone, when burnt will give 740kg Ca (OH) 2 if there are no impurities. The
proportion will be less if there are impurities.
 This lime kiln is designed for small scale rural applications.
 The height and diameter of kiln can be adjusted to burn 0.5 to 1.0 ton of limestone.
 500kg kiln will need about 45% of fire wood by weight while, 1 ton of kiln will need about 35%
of fire wood by weight.
 The figure shows the manner in which firewood and limestone are stacked in alternative layers.
 The process of burning is started by igniting the lower most layer of fire mood from below.
 When the fire wood catches fire, the openings at the base are to be closed leaving 2.05cm dia
holes for air entry.
 The half-ton plant will have 3 holes and 1 ton plant will have 4 holes. These holes will control the
rate of wood burning and also will prevent entry of excess air.
 The kiln must have steel rings from bottom to the top to prevent cracking of the kiln due to heat.
 After the completion of burning process the quick lime (CaO) can be discharged by opening the
temporary closed holes at the base.
 The quick lime may now be slaked and the slaked lime is stored in suitable containers (or) bags
Burning of lime stone
CaCo3CaO+CO2
Slaking of quick lime, CaO+H2OCa (OH) 2+heat
Setting of fat lime, Ca (OH)2+CO2CaCO3+H2O

2. Pozzolona
Pozzolona is a material which consists of essentially of amorphous silica (or) a mixture of
amorphous silica and alumina. This is not cementitious by itself, but forms cementitious compound
when it combines with Ca (OH) 2 at ambient temperature in the presence of moisture.
A mixture if finely ground Ca (OH) 2 and pozzolona is known as lime pozzolona cement.
The following sources of pozzolona are commonly used
1. Powered burnt clay (commonly known as surkhi)
2. Fly ash
3. Rice husk ash
1. Powdered burnt clay
 This can be made either by artificially burning clay in a kiln (or) by wastes of burnt clay
materials like brick, tiles and pottery.
 When clay is burnt in a kiln for the purpose of making pozzolona, it is desirable to select a soil
with a high proportion of clay.

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 If the clay occurs with large amount of sand, the sand may be removed by sieving to obtain high
clay soil. This is necessary since sand is a diluent and does not react with lime in the manner in
which the pozzolona does.
 The high clay soil may now be made in to thin briquettes. The wet clay may be spread on level
ground to a thickness of 2.5cm and these sliced into the cakes of 10cmx10cmx2.5cm. Cakes are
dried and then charged into the kiln with alternative layers of firewood.
 The amount of fire wood used could be around 10% of the weight of the clay with a temperature
of about 700C
 The burnt clay now be pulverized to about 90µ size particles ball mills are used for this purpose.

2. Fly ash
 This is obtained from the thermal power plant which and pulverized coal as fuel.
 The exceedingly fine particles of burnt coal which are collect in electrostatic precipitation are
known as fly ash.
 Fly ash contains significant amount of amorphous silica and alumina.
 Thermal power plant produces significant amount of coal ash in the form of pond ash and
bottom ash. These types of ashes are generally not good Pozzolana.
 Fly ash is a waste product and can be considered as zero thermal energy.
3. Rice Husk Ask
 Rice husk ash is a natural source of silica
 It contains 20% silica and rest of its combustible material. This silica is amorphous and if the
husk is burnt under controlled condition a high pozzolana can be produced.
 The technique developed by yoganand et.al, burn rice husk is an annular honey comb brick as
shown in fig. 3.2. Brick structure is created and closely spaced mesh is placed at a height of
20cm above the ground alternative layers of rice husk and clay were placed in a kiln such that
husk is about 30 to 40% by weight of clay. The width of clay layer should be about 15cm less
than width of rice husk to permit easy air movement through the bed of husk.
 The stack is now set fire from below. The entire mass burns over one or two days. The end
product is mixture of burnt clay and rice husk ash. This may be ground in ball mill to obtain fine
pozzolona.

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 Fig 1.15: Honeycomb Kiln for combination pozzolana

Lime Pozzolana cement

An intimate mixture of lime and Pozzolana well set in presence of water forming calcium silicate and
calcium aluminate compounds.
The efficiency of the lime Pozzolana cement depends on the intimacy of the mixing of lime and
Pozzolana experiments conducted by researchers showed that by integrating lime and Pozzolana
power for an hour, the strength of lime Pozzolana sand mortar can be increased to double the value.
Two alternative techniques have been explored at the department of civil engineering IISC Bangalore
they are,
1. Dry blending of lime and Pozzolana
2. Wet blending of lime and Pozzolana
Manufacture process

1. Dry blending
 The slaked lime and Pozzolana should be separated processed as dry powders.
 The Pozzolana may be dried and ground to fineness of 90µ.
 The two powders may now be blend in a ball mill for a duration of about 1hr.
 In this technique, the size reduction of lime and Pozzolana is carried out first and then the mixing
of two is carried out subsequently.
 This mixture is then added to sand and after through dry mixing water is added to complete the
preparation of mortar.
 This procedure also means that the dry mixture of lime and Pozzolana have to be stored in bags.
 It was found that lime and Pozzolana mixture will lose strength rapidly on storage.
 Storage in gunny bags or woven LDPE bags is especially bad for shelf life.
 When stored in such bags the 21 days strength shows a 60% reduction after 45 days of storage
wherever when stored in impervious plastics (or) paper bags the strength fall is about 35% after
45 days of store.

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 The residual moisture present in the lime (or) Pozzolana will initiate reaction b/w the two even
when stored in dry condition.
 It is important to note that the blending dry mixture of lime and Pozzolana should not be stored
for more than 14 days if the strength reduction is to be less than 10%.
2. Wet blending
 The Pozzolana has to be produced and ground to 90µ fineness and stored in gunny (or) woven
LDPE bags.
 The Pozzolana can be stored in definitely.
 Slaked lime and freshly produced by slaking quick lime at the site.
 The slaked lime and freshly produced by slaking quick lime at the site.
 The slaked lime and well ground Pozzolana may now be mixed in a simple drum (or) hand
operated concrete mixer in the presence of water.
 After blending the two for 80 min the lime-Pozzolana slurry may be poured over sand mixed
thoroughly to get the lime Pozzolana mortar.

7. Gypsum Board
Gypsum Board is one of the widely used construction materials mainly in interior design works. The
Gypsum board consists of a core of set gypsum surfaced with specifically manufactured paper firmly
bonded to the core.The basis of all gypsum board products is gypsum, but the surface can be wrapped
in various materials, including paper and fiberglass matting
Gypsum wall board, also known as drywall, or plasterboard is a plaster-based wall finish that is
available in a variety of standard sizes; 4 ft wide by 8 ft high is the most common.
Gypsum is a soft sulphate mineral composed of calcium sulphate dehydrate with the chemical
formulae CaSO4. 2H2O. colourless to white in colour
Properties of Gypsum Board
1. Gypsum is Fire-Resistant
Gypsum boards are fire resistant and safeguard the structure from fire threats by preventing the fire
from spreading further. Due to chemically bound water in the gypsum, it possesses a fire-resistant
quality. When gypsum boards are exposed to fire, the water contained within the gypsum evaporates,
forming a protective layer.
2. Thermal Properties of Gypsum
Gypsum can regulate variables such as humidity and temperature in the home. The insulating
characteristics of gypsum plasterboard or formwork used in buildings are improved.

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3. Acoustic Property of Gypsum
Sound isolation is prioritized in the design of gypsum materials. Other methods, such as masonry,
would work well, as it is commonly used in a thicker thickness and is no less demanding than
gypsum. Gypsum plasterboard is designed to absorb sound and reduce reverberation.
4. Non-combustible Property of Gypsum
The heating of gypsum products causes the water crystals in the gypsum material to heat up.
Calcinations is the process of dehydrating gypsum with heat. Calcinations creates a protective layer
over the components, preventing them from combusting and allowing the materials around them to
retain a lower, safer temperature.
Manufacturing process of gypsum board

Fig 1.16: Manufacturing process of gypsum board

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Types of Gypsum Board
1. Fire Resistant Gypsum Boards
2. Water Resistant Gypsum Boards
3. Backing Gypsum Board.
4. Dry wall Gypsum Board.
Advantages of Gypsum Board
 Gypsum is also used in plaster to provide a smooth, crack-free surface. Gypsum boards give a
smooth, continuous surface to which you can apply paint directly.
 Gypsum has the property of balancing the building‘s indoor temperature and humidity. Gypsum
is a low-emission building material that provides excellent thermal and acoustic insulation.
 The use of gypsum goods within the budget boosts the creativity of architects. It offers a wide
range of attractive design options.
 The gypsum products are simple to install and do not necessitate the use of trained staff. The
installation is simple, clean, and quick.

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8. Fibre Reinforced Cement Composites
Definition

Fibre reinforced cement composite is a two-phase material consisting of a matrix which is

reinforced with randomly oriented small diameter fibre to improve the mechanical properties of
the matrix.

Materials
1. Matrix or Concrete
The matrix can be any of the following;
(i) Cement
(ii) Cement with additives such as soil, fly ash or condensed silica fume.
(iii) Coarse and fine aggregate
(iv) Water
(v) Admixtures
 Water is added to the concrete mix for hydration of cement for moulding of the concrete to the
desired shape. It is very well established that the compressive strength of the concrete depends on
the water-cement ratio in the mix.
 Even though water-cement ratio of 0.28 is sufficient for the hydration process, to obtain a plastic
workable mixture, a minimum water-cement ratio of 0.6 is needed.
 Addition of fibre to the concrete reduced its workability. In order to keep the water-cement ratio
within reasonable limits of not affecting the compressive strength but to still achieve workability,
water reducing admixtures have become an integral part of fibre reinforced composites.
 In addition to water reducing mixtures, mineral admixtures like fly ash and silica fume are also
added to the matrix.
 Fly ash is used to improve the workability, reduce the heat of hydration, to improve economy and
enhance permeability characteristics of the matrix.
 Silica fume is added mainly to achieve high strength matrix. Shotcrete application such as tunnel
lining, addition of silica fume is found to reduce rebound.

2. Reinforced Material
The reinforcement is in the form of short fibres of small diameter distributed throughout the matrix.
The fibres can be broadly classified as;
1. Metallic fibres
2. Polymeric fibres
3. Mineral fibres
4. Natural fibres

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5. Carbon fibres
1. Metallic Fibres
 Metallic fibres are either made out of carbon steel or stainless steel.
 The tensile strength ranges from 345MPa to 1380MPa.
 The modulus of elasticity is 200MPa.
 The fibre cross section may be circular, rectangular, scent-shaped or irregular.
 Most common steel fibres are round in cross-section with a diameter ranging from 0.4mm to
0.8mm and a length ranging from 25mm to 60mm.
 Their aspect ratio of length to diameter or equivalent diameter is generally less than 100 with a
common range of 40 to 80.
 Round and straight steel fibres are produced by cutting into small piece thin wires. In order to
improve the bond, the fibres have been indented, crimped, hooked at the end and enlarged at the
ends. Fibres with crimped or hooked ends are also available in collated form.

Fig 1.17: Shapes of fibres

2. Polymeric fibres
 Polymeric fibres are by-products of petro chemical and textile industries.
 The fibres types that have been explored for use of cement-based matrices are acrylic, aramid,
nylon, polyester, polyethylene and polypropylene. Even through these fibres have reasonably
high tensile strength; the modulus of elasticity of most of them is quite low (except for aramid).
 Fibre that contains least 85% by weight of ucrylonitrile is classified as acrylic fibres.
 Nylon was the one of the first of the polymer fibres to be included in cement based matrices.
However when used in small volumes (<1% volume fraction of composite) it has been found to
reduce the flexural strength of the composite.
 Compared with other polymeric fibre, aramid fibres have higher tensile strength and modulus of
elasticity and hence they are enhancing the mechanical properties like tensile and bending
strength of the composite.
 The primary limitation for their concrete is their high cost compared to other fibres.

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3. Mineral Fibres
 Glass fibre is the predominately used mineral fibre.
 Glass fibres are silica based glass compounds that contain several metal oxides, which can be
tailored to manufacture different types of glass.
 It has very high tensile strength of 1020 to 4080 Mpa.
 These fibres have relatively high tensile strength and modulus of elasticity compared to polymeric
fibres. They are quit economical and hence are the most commonly used fibres are structural
applications.
 In the initial stages borosilicate glass fibres (E-glass) and soda-lime-silica glass fibres (A-glass)
were employed to reinforce cement based composites.
 Since both E-glass and A-glass fibres were found to loose their strength property in the alkaline
environment of cement based composites (pH≥12.5), the need for alkali resistant fibres resulted in
the development of alkaline-resistant glass (AR-glass) fibres.
4. Natural fibres:
 Since in many parts of the world man-made fibres like steel or polymeric fibres are not available,
attempts have been made to incomplete naturally occurring fibres extracted from plants in cement
based composites.
 A unique aspect of these fibres is the low energy needed for their extraction.
 A major problem in the use of these fibres in cement/concrete matrix is that they distegrate in the
alkaline environmental and hence durability of the composite is a matter of concern.
 Since these fibres are economical, attempts have been made to overcome the problem of
durablitiy either by use of admixture in concrete to reduce its alkalinity or by protecting fibres by
some special treatment.
 Some of the natural fibres used in Portland cement composite are akwara, bamboo, coconut
(coir), jute, sisal, sugarcane bagasse, and wood and elephant grass.
 Even though these fibres are sufficiently strong in tension their modulus of elasticity is quite low.
 Akwara fibre is extracted from a vegetable plant stem, which is grown in large quantities in
Nigeria.
 They are found to be durable in the alkaline environmental and dimensionally stable under
alternate wetting and drying condition. Bamboo fibres have a tendency to absorb water which
adversely affected the bonding between fibre and the matrix during the cutting stage.
 Fibres extracted from coconut are called as coir. Coir fibres are short in length and are found to be
sensitive to moisture changes.

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 Elephant grass fibres are extracted from elephant grass stems which grown up to be height of 3m.
The stems are packed with tough sharp fibres bonded together with lignin. Extraction of the fibres
is difficult but they are stable under varying moisture conditions and alkali resistant.
 Wood fibres constitute a major portion of natural fibre used in concrete. These fibres have tensile
high strength and young‘s modulus and the process of extraction is very well developed.
 The process of extracting fibres from wood is called pulping and the process can be mechanical,
chemical or semi chemical. The primary constituents of wood are cellulose, hemicelluiose and
ligmin.
 The quality if fibres in terms of been of its strength depend on the extent to which lignin has been
removed from wood, as lignin has adverse effect on the strength of the fibres.
 Totally delignified fibres has reported to have tensile strength as high as 200mpa, wheras the
strength of fibres in which lignin has not been removed at all is about 500Mpa.
 Removal of lignin reduces the amount of fibre extracted and hence lignin free fibres are
expensive.
5. Carbon fibres
 Carbon fibres are the most expensive of all the fibres discussed till now.
 This is due to the increased cost of their manufacturing process as well as the increased cost of
increased cost of raw materials required for their manufacture.
 Carbon fibres have high strength and modulus comparable to that of steel fibres.
 They are relatively inert to alkaline environment and their specific gravity is about 1.9
 Hence they are used to make special products requiring high tensile and flexural strength and
light in weight.
 Current manufacturing technologies use polacylonotrile (PAN), rayon (regenerated cellulose) and
pitch as starting materials.
 PAN based carbon fibres have good properties but are high in cost.
 Pitch based carbon fibres are more economical but their mechanical properties are poorer than
PAN based carbon fibres but still higher than polymeric and natural fibres.
 PAN based carbon fibres have a modulus and tensile strength of 300Gpa and 5200Mpa
respectively, whereas pitch based carbon fibres have a modulus and strength of 160 Gpa and 1400
Mpa respectively.

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Table 1.4: Physical properties of different types of fibres

Application

 Application of FRC can be broadly divided into two categories as those involving site produced
concrete and those concerned with precast products.
 Under site produced concrete FRC has been used in highway and airfield pavement, industrial
flooring, blast resistance structure, hydraulic structures such as slice ways and spillway which
have to resist cavitation, erosion and impact damage and tunnel lining.
 Steel fibre reinforced concrete has also been used resist shear in RCC beams particularly to
decongest to conventional steel reinforcement in beam column joints.
 Under precast application, steel fibre reinforced concrete has been used for producing manhole
covers, precast slabs for structural application, pipes and refractories to resist thermal and
mechanical shocks.
 FRC with polymeric fibres has been used in precast cladding panels for buildings.

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9. Fibre Reinforced Polymer Composites

Introduction
 The need for materials that are strong, lightweight, corrosion and chemical resistant and
permeable to electromagnetic radiations has led to the advent of fibre Reinforced (FRP)
composites.
 In the initial years FRP composites where predominantly used in aerospace applications, but in
the last two decades civil or structural engineers and architects have realize the potential of FRP
composites in building industry.
 In view of good flow characteristics of the polymer, it is used as matrix enables incorporation of
large volume (up to 70%) of Reinforcing fibres in the composite.
This has resulted in the development of a large member of products using FRP composites.
Definition
The fibre-reinforced polymer composite is a two phase material consisting of polymer matrix
reinforced with small diameters fibres, which are either continuous or discontinuous and oriented
unidirectional or randomly.
Materials

1. Matrix

Polymer is a matrix used in a composite which performs the following functions.

i. It glues the bundles of fibres together and helps in distributing the external load to all the fibres.
ii. It protects the fibres from adverse environmental effects and prevents the buckling of fibres
under compressive forces and
iii. It protects the fibres from mechanical abrasion. Polymers, also called as resins are employed as
matrix in FRP composites.
The polymers are classified into two types viz. thermo set polymers and thermoplastic polymers.
Polymers (in Greek: poly+ meros meaning many parts) are large organic compounds formed by the
joining together of many small molecules to form a large molecule by a process called as
polymerization. The simple compounds from which polymers are made are called as monomers. Both
thermo set and thermoplastic polymers are long chained molecules.
The polymers in which their long molecules chains are interconnected with chemical bond or
cross link forming a rigid three-dimensional structure are called as thermo set polymers.
In the case of thermoplastic polymers their long molecules chains are not chemically
interconnected and are held in place by weak secondary bonds like vander walls bonds.
Thermoplastics are solids, which have to be melted by heating, molded to the desired shape and
cooled.

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Thermosets are generally liquid resins, which are heat activates (or cured) to achieve cross-linking of
the molecular chains.
The polymer matrix used are
Polyester Resins
Vinyl Ester Resins
Epoxy resins.
Filler and other additives
Fillers are added to t polymeric matrices for one or more of the fallowing reasons.
1. Reduce cost.
2. Increase stiffness (modulus).
3. Reduce mold shrinkage.
4. Control viscosity.
5. Produce smoother surface.
2. Reinforcing Fibres
Reinforcements in the form of fibres, particles or whiskers are used with resin systems to improve the
mechanical properties of the resins and to produce usable products.
By far the most important fibre used with polyester and epoxy resins is glass fibre which is available
in a variety of forms like rovings, woven rovings, cloths and random chopped fibre mats.
In recent years high strength carbon fibre and polyaramid fibres have found increasing use in the
manufacture of composite materials for a variety of applications.
Natural fibres such as jute and sisal have also been used to reinforce thermosetting resin.
Manufacturing Process

The mechanical properties of the FRP composite depend on the following:

1. Method of manufacture.
2. Type of fibre used.
3. Relative properties of polymer and fibre.
4. Orientation of the fibre in the composite.
There are a number of techniques for the manufacture of FRP composites. These techniques can
be grouped into two categories namely manual methods and automated methods. Composites
processed using manual methods will have lower values of strength and stiffness than the ones
processed by automated methods. All the manufacturing processes of a composite can be divided into
fallowing stages or operations;
1. Mixing of resin and activator.
2. Dispensing the resin into mould.
3. Curing.
4. Positioning of the reinforcement in the mould.

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5. Impregnating the reinforcement with the resin.
The different methods employed in the manufacture of FRP composites are briefly described below:
Hand Lay-up

Fig 1.18: Hand lay-up

 This is the simplest composite fabrication method.
 It involves in placing fibre- reinforcing mats in the open mould of desired shape and applying the
resin to the reinforcement by pouring, brushing or spraying.
 At times reinforcement mats pre-impregnated with the resin may also be used.
 A ribbed metal roller is used to consolidate the laminate and fully impregnate the reinforcement.
 This method involves a lot of manual labor with minimum investment on equipment and has low
rate of production.
 Due to the presence of entrapped air between the layers, which cannot be completely avoided, the
composite manufactured by this method will have variability in the mechanical properties.
Spray-up

Fig 1.19: Spray up

 In this method reinforcement bundles called as roving‘s are fed through a chopper, which cuts the
fibres into smaller pieces.
 The chopped fibres along with the resin systems are sprayed directly on to an open mould.
 Spray up is a highly productive process, but control of fibre distribution and thickness of the

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Filament Winding

Fig 1.20: Filament Winding

 In this method continuous strands or roving‘s of reinforcement are passed through a bath of
activated resin and then wound on to a rotating mandrel as shown in fig.
 The roving delivery system called the feed eye reciprocates along the length of mandrel and its
speed of movement can be controlled relative to the rotation of the mandrel to give the required
fibre orientation in the composite.
 After appropriate layers are applied, the composite wound round the mandrel.

Pultrusion

Fig 1.21: Pultrusion

 This is a continuous method for moulding composites with prismatic cross section.
 In this method continuous roving are passed through a resin bath and then draw through a heated
die.
 The die controls the cross sectional shape of the composite.
 This process yield continuous length of material with unidirectional strength as well as high
reinforcement to resin ratio.
Table 1.5: Typical mechanical properties of glass fibre composites manufactured by different
methods

Method of Tensile Tensile Flexural Flexural

Manufacture strength Modulus strength Modulus
(MPa) (GPa) (MPa) (GPa)
Hand lay-up 62-344 4-31 110-550 6-28
Spray up 35-124 6-12 83-90 5-9
Filament Winding 550-1380 30-50 690-1725 34-48
Pultrusion 275-1240 21-41 517-1448 21-41

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Application

 FRP composites have found application in various branches of engineering and technology.
 During the initial years it was predominantly used in aerospace structure due its light weight and
high strength where cost was not the governing factors.
 With the passage of lime its application spread to other areas of engineering like mechanical,
automobile, chemical, marine and civil engineering.
 Due to its corrosion resistant property it is used in chemical industries.
 It is also used in making sports equipment like tennis racket, fishing and pole-vaulting rods and
baseball bats.
 It is also used in biomedical engineering for making prosthesis.
 Pultruded FRP rods have been used as reinforced in concrete.
 FRP sheet have also been used for repair and retrofit of concrete structures.
 FRP composites will find newer application in future in all spheres of life.
10.Bamboo
Bamboo belongs to grass family and has been associated with various names such as ―poor man‘s
timber‖, ―Green Gold‖, ―Cradle to Coffin‖ because of its various documented applications. Bamboo
is widely recognized as highly renewable, fast growing, economic raw material. Products from
bamboo are grouped into industrial use, food products, construction and structural application, wood
substitutes and composites, and cottage and handicraft industry.
Bamboo is most abundant in India. India has the huge potential for bamboo with 14 million hectares
of bamboo forest area. India is the second largest country in terms of bamboo resources. The yield
per hectare of bamboo in India is very low compared to China, Taiwan and Japan which contribute
about 80% to the world‘s bamboo market.
Technology advancement and initiatives taken up by the central and state government has helped in
the development of bamboo in construction and structural applications

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Bamboo and its Characteristics
 Bamboo is one of the oldest and traditional construction material used in different construction
activities.
 The bamboos strength it is more as compared to other construction material. Bamboo as
a building material has greater compressive strength and it is lightweight so that it is widely
used as a construction material.
 The demand for timber is increasing day by day all over the world. But due to short supply of
timber, the bamboo is suitably used as a replacement of the construction material. Bamboo is also
recently started using different types of designer homes.
 Bamboo is widely used in the construction industry for various purposes such as scaffolding
construction of bridges and structures etc.
 Bamboo defines as a tall tropical plant with hard and hollow stems. Bamboo is a natural product
which is widely used in the construction of partition walls floorings and ceiling panels and for
roofing.
 Bamboo is one of the fastest-growing plants in all over the world. Bamboo is a renewable
resource which can be cultivated in different types of soil.
 Bamboo has referred mostly in the earthquake-prone regions due to its elastic properties.
 Bamboo is widely used for the construction of partition walls and beams which are the
main structural elements of any structure.
 Bamboo is the best option for the roofing material and widely used by the people in
the construction of structures especially where bamboo is in abundance.
 The bamboo roof is very popular and widely used in the construction of homes which gives
aesthetical look to the roof of the home.
 Bamboo has a natural surface which is smooth and clean and very attractive and does not require
painting. That‘s why it is very cost-effective to use bamboo as a construction material.
 Structural bamboo is used for the construction of various structural elements such as beam and
columns etc. Bamboo has a high load-bearing capacity so that it is widely used in
different structural elements.
 Bamboo is ancient construction material and widely used in different countries for the
construction because of its high compressive strength and tensile strength.
 Because of the circular and hollow section of the bamboo it is the very lightweight construction
material which is very easy to handle and transport.
 Bamboo can be used for both permanent as well as temporary construction of different types of
structures.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Bamboo
Advantages
1. It is light in weight and Environmental friendly.
2. It is very cheap and easily available.
3. It is easy to cultivate and produce in the farm.
4. It is a strong and versatile material.
5. It is easily Accessible to the poor.
6. It grows fast.
7. It is highly productive.
Disadvantages
1. Bamboo requires preserving otherwise it will lose its strength
2. It is shaped by nature
3. Bamboo needs coating as it is attacked by fungi, insects etc.
4. Even with high strength its joints as always weak.
5. It needs advanced guidance with detailed study and codes.
6. They are not fire resistant.

1.2 Recycling of building materials

1. Bricks
Brick is one of the most environmentally friendly and efficient building materials currently
available. Although construction and demolition (C&D) waste tends to accumulate in many places
and accounts for about 24% of materials in landfills, it is no longer a huge problem as old, broken,
and used bricks are now sought after materials. Several countries enforce recycling of C&D waste by
law.
Recycling Process
As well as being reused, bricks can be recycled. When homes, buildings, roadways, bridges, and
other brick constructions are demolished, the resultant rubble can be collected and crushed and turned
into new aggregate materials. These materials can be used by the same company or sold to other
companies.
Brick is recycled by first crushing the material with a primary jaw crusher then further reducing the
crushed material with cone crushers. Then the material must be screened and, where required,
blended through the pugmill to obtain several recycled products. Unused bricks, as well as bricks that
do not pass the manufacturers‘ standards, can also be recycled using the same crushing process to
form brick chips.
Applications of Recycled Brick
Recycled bricks have as much use as the virgin material. The key uses are as follows:
 Recycled or reused bricks can be used in historical restoration projects.

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 Recycled bricks can be sold as aggregate, drainage media, and general fill
 Landscaping and decorative purposes around the garden
 Recycled bricks are ideal for a brick barbecue or fire pit
2. Concrete
Recycling of waste concrete is done to reuse the concrete rubble as aggregates in concrete
which is called as recycled aggregates. These recycled aggregates have less crushing strength, impact
resistance, specific gravity and more water absorption as compared to natural aggregates due to
adhered mortar.
Necessity of Concrete Recycling: Millions of tonnes of waste concrete are generated every year
around the world due to following reasons:
1. Demolition of old structure,
2. Destruction of buildings and structures during earthquakes and wars,
3. Removal of useless concrete from structures, buildings, road pavements etc.
4. Waste concrete generated due to concrete cube and cylinder testing, destructive methods of
testing of existing structures etc.
Advantages of Concrete Recycling: Usually demolished concrete were shipped to landfills for
disposal, but due to greater environmental awareness, the concrete is being recycled for reuse in
concrete works. There are a variety of benefits in recycling concrete rather than dumping it or
burying it in a landfill. Keeping concrete debris out of landfills saves space there.

Fig 1.22: Waste Concrete Recycling

Quality of recycled aggregate and its concrete: The strength of recycled aggregate concrete is
about 10 to 15 percent less as compared to concrete with fresh aggregate. However suitable mix
designs may be made and reliable results obtained. The mix requires a slightly higher quantity of
cement or using admixtures to reduce water requirement. Recycled aggregate concrete can be safely
used as plain concrete. With proper corrections in mix design, it can be used for R.C.C. works also.

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3. Steel
Steel is one of the most utilized metals in the world, making up everything from the tallest
skyscrapers to your everyday kitchen utensils. Steel has driven technological growth and
advancement through the Industrial Age and continues to fuel innovation today, with over
1,950,500,000 tonnes produced in 2021 alone.
The Steel Recycling Process
While it is true that all forms of steel are recyclable, it‘s important to note that the recycling process
differs from many other products. This is due to the inherent value of steel—instead of being sent to a
landfill or traditional recycling center, steel products will be sold to a scrap yard for compensation.
There are three main sources of steel scrap that is sold to scrap yards: Home Scrap, Prompt or
Industrial Scrap, and Obsolete Scrap.
Home Scrap: Home scrap is steel waste that occurs in-house in steel mills through the production of
steel. This includes trimmings and rejects scraps of steel. This does not typically have to be collected
or purchased, as it is usually redirected back into the furnace.
Prompt (Industrial) Scrap: Prompt scrap is a result of product manufacturing in areas such as
automotive and appliances. Excess steel from these warehouses and factories are auctioned and sold
to scrap buyers, usually at a premium.
Obsolete Scrap: Obsolete scrap covers the rest of steel waste, stemming from areas such as
individual household appliances, old cars that are sent to a junkyard, office, and household waste.
This category can also extend to include old junked buildings or structures that are sent to a junkyard
and recovered for their steel elements.
After being collected by scrappers in person, at designated drop-offs, or at buy-back centers, steel
scrap is then sorted and sent out to mills or foundries.
The excess steel scrap is then melted down by a furnace that runs at a temperature of nearly 3000
degrees, and purified to rid the scrap of any contaminants. Then, the melted steel is solidified into
sheets and prepped for shipping.
The newly recycled metal is then ready to be sent out to various factories for use as raw material, and
the cycle begins again.
4. Plastics
Plastic recycling is the reprocessing of plastic waste into new products. When performed correctly,
this can reduce dependence on landfill, conserve resources and protect the environment from plastic
pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. Although recycling rates are increasing, they lag behind
those of other recoverable materials, such as aluminium, glass and paper. Since the beginning of
plastic production in the 20th century, until 2015, the world has produced some 6.3 billion tonnes of
plastic waste, only 9% of which has been recycled, and only ~1% has been recycled more than once.

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Additionally, 12% was incinerated and the remaining 79% disposed of to landfill or to the
environment including the sea.
Recycling is necessary because almost all plastic is non-biodegradable and thus builds-up in the
environment, where it can cause harm. For example, approximately 8 million tons of waste plastic
enter the Earth's oceans every year, causing damage to the aquatic ecosystem and forming
large ocean garbage patches.
Presently, almost all recycling is performed by remelting and reforming used plastic into new items;
so-called mechanical recycling. This can cause polymer degradation at a chemical level, and also
requires that waste be sorted by both colour and polymer type before being reprocessed, which is
complicated and expensive. Failures in this can lead to material with inconsistent properties,
rendering it unappealing to industry. In an alternative approach known as feedstock recycling, waste
plastic is converted back into its starting chemicals, which can then be reprocessed back into fresh
plastic. This offers the hope of greater recycling but suffers from higher energy and capital costs.
Waste plastic can also be burnt in place of fossil fuels as part of energy recovery. This is a
controversial practice, but is nonetheless performed on a large scale. In some countries, it is the
dominant form of plastic waste disposal, particularly where landfill diversion policies are in place.

Fig 1.23: 3R’S of Recycling

1.3 Environmental issues related to building materials

The production of building materials often leads to two types of environmental/health related
problems.
Firstly, particular building materials can lead to a local environmental impact either in the form of
pollution/health hazard (or) in the depletion of natural resources. Secondly, building materials
production using fossil fuel energies can cause global environmental problems like global warming.
Typical problems are discussed below:

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1. Stone
 Stone, especially granite is extensively used in building construction particularly, foundations and
walls.
 Crushed stone aggregate is widely used for concrete manufacture
 Considerable amount of fine granite dust is generated at the site of stone extraction
 The stone workers often inhale the fine dust and succumb to silicosis (or) tuberculosis after
several years of such work
 The entrepreneurs involved in stone processing seem to have no concern for the health of the
workers involved in such activities.
 There is need to educate the workers and employees about the dangers of stone dust and develop
suitable filters (face mask) such that inhalation of the fine dust avoided.
2. Brick
 The top soil is often used for brick making especially indogangetic plains.
 It is well known that the top soil is rich sources of nutrients for trees and crops and this nutrient
base is depleted by large scale brick manufacture.
 The landscape is also destroyed by unorganized creation of pits which can render the land useless
for agriculture and other non-agriculture uses.
 Careful planning by retaining the top soil while taking out the soil in the lower zone (or) by
creating natural water bodies, can largely mitigate this problem
 In south India the problem is less acute since there are large numbers of irrigation tanks which
contain enormous quantities of silt. A small fraction of this silt can provide all the bricks for
building construction.
3. Pollution by Marble Dust

Marble has been commonly used as a building material since the ancient time. The industry‘s
disposal of the marble powder material, consisting of very fine powder, today constitutes one of the
environment problems around the world. During the cutting process, about 25% of the original mass
is lost in the form of dust, and these dusts results in environment pollution and threatens both
agriculture and public health. The marble processing industry in Rajasthan produces large quality of
fine marble dust which can affect the usability of agricultural land. The State of Rajasthan has the
potential to use 7 million tonnes of marble sludge waste each and every year for production of
building materials alone.

The marble dust can be used as a resource in number of ways.

a. Additive to cement to make masonry cement
b. Source of calcium carbonate for lime/ cement industry
c. Building products like stabilizes mud blocks, marble dust + resin

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d. Use of marble sludge in optimized quantity in clay brick making improves the properties of the
fired product.
4. Mangalore Tile
Mangalore tile (also Mangalorean tile) is type of tile native to the city of mangalore, India. Since
1860, the industry has flourished in India with these red tiles, prepared from hard laterite clay, in
great demand throughout the country. They are popular form of roofing and are preferred over
concrete due to their good quality.
Preparation: First part is to collect enough clay and place it in a mould and is cut to exact
measurement. Then that rectangular piece of clay with exact length and thickness is placed on
another machine which puts the factory logo and shapes it into a tile. Then with hand any extra
clay is removed and sent to be carried for firing and later glazing. Once fired and glazed it is
ready and is stored for transport/shipping.
 Environmental issues concerned are extensive use of fire wood for making Mangalore tiles in
coastal India had led to deforestation in the coastal region.
 It is possible to use natural gas (or) coal for tile burning.
 Use of imported fossil fuels the only way to save the forest tracts in these parts.
5. Timber
 Good quality timber is in short supply in India hence it is imported from Malaysia and Australia
is used in building construction
 The CPWD have a tendency to ban the use of timber since excessive demand for timbers can lead
to massive deforestation
 Attempts were made to replace the timber by concrete (or) ferrocement. This is perhaps a good
short term strategy. However, in the long run this approach can be counterproductive.
 It is necessary to recognize that timber is a material which is totally based on solar energy while
cement materials depends on fossil fuels
 Cement based materials cause depletion of fossil fuels and excessive carbon emissions leads to
global warming
 Timber alleviates global warming since the carbon in timber stored for a longer period. Thus,
timber is a very environmental friendly material, provided it can be procured without disturbing
natural forest.
 The question before civil engineer is to examine the possibility of growing timber in non forest
lands in an ecologically sound manner
 There is a need to avoid ‗plantation‘ type of concepts where in single species is planted in
monoculture over large tracts of land

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 There is also need for concerted efforts by foresters and civil engineers to grow all the available
timber species. Time horizon for such programmes may range between 30 to 40 years. The
environmental benefits of such programmes can be immense.

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