SEASSIFICATION Saal Casifitaten! ages == — ee ‘Closifitaien’ 1 d = Ma pi—Aes\__Ashleck (101) Maan AGr049 fenton (saat aoe Nol of a toxanemicel hier chy ( oa Tmpociants af ihe _Prisioaica Classification t Y Classificats italia Adontiticoti Y Asap om — eae Aho -Celotion stip an ie Y = a jos ‘ f BO Qwolubonany Spouses Scanned with CamScannert 1 thereon __Sevon_basie © aon aiall Called ay tax. ST aS aig —hieraxe achat ang Upjimum com ee $stits with of ith olen Spouer. = oe SSE tof ous ie otsgn Class? St is S_froup of volated odeve. The L2onds, birds and Cattle Reptilia « ii do Clay Classes with Similan Io, gr leader, ano Scanned with CamScannerand yaaa ae 4 LA _ life —g OP on dl Naat 7 stots 72 Kingdon Tha—piyla one grouped vio 9431 aden. Cabegas “ albed fingiom . King dom, Phqlam 2 a way What ) An eooy two to Semowber the (niegsom) roe cation levels + (6a) Sing Phitip “Come Over = Peon cons ; Fonsi) reat Spain e G) (Gears) (species) Scanned with CamScanner22 Types of Classification System There are different types of classification I. Artificial classification system : This system based the organisms on the basis of morphological characteristics like floral structure, root modification, leaf venetation.This is based upon habits and habitats of the organism. This is an arbitrary systems Classification. from Avistolle, Linnoaus + Il. Natural classification system : It is based on natural affinities based on homology and comparative study. This is mainly for angiosperm. Numerical or quantitative classification system or phenetics : This is the numerical methods for the evalution of the similarities and the differences between the species. s : This is based upon evolutionary I. IV. Phylogenetic classification system or cladistic: relationship and morphological characteristics This system uses the chromosomal information like choromosome V. Karyotaxonomy : number, shape, size and behavior. Chemotaxonomy : This is based on the information of the production of secondary VI. metabolites VII. Experimental taxonomy : This is based on the information of :genetics and breeding experiments VIII. Biochemical taxonomy : This is based on the information of the production of es, various chemical like hormones and pheromon the correlation between evaltutionary IX. New systematic : This system based on relationship and parameters like cytology, genetics, molecular biology and biochemistry etc Scanned with CamScanner“ Animal 2.— AOL, 4 Protiste * - Precise + f Aoimal 2 oi: fn2 & Foe § SSogdem oe : — > fae. Kingdom ; an tigate ‘wte__Sin ingen: 5 Bdomoim 2 6° Aingasens chificchan = Es 2 Renan as — jee Cort. untse closifi 7 . 7 , Gockecia » ~> Mingle Excacksia 3 Uniaiulay ond age i v { Scanned with CamScanner* Doman Archaea. , fh ~Kig elem Archaea. 2 Unfeatalay ayy Pronavyalic.cahiew pepo qycon gee : : © Romata. 8 Kingdom." elisa. A Wingdam. Puna) ~Wergd on. Plantae, |-—Unicaitulay. | icteeop a | Heterobroph | np ay mfp even oof ef Mathanabaclais| Amecba. Apt. 6+ CawvtSisd Mose, fet | Spams , Payameesiun | Flewonn gy} Mov, loves Pleat Fick Hamad Scanned with CamScannerUitte) Iroc id EES Animalia Nucleus No Yes Yes Yes Yes Cell Unicellular Unicellular | Unicellular and | Multicellular Multicellular organisation (mostly) (mostly) multicellular (mostly) (mostly) Yes Yes Gell wall | (peptidoglycan) | Sometimes (chitin) (cellulose) No Nutritional | Autotroph Autotrophic; , Heterotrophi Autotrophi Heterotroph class heterotrophic heterotrophic sterolropn’s eer rerouopne Mode of Absorption Absorption: Absorption Absorption Ingestion nutrition Ingestion (mostly) (mostly) Yeasts; Mosses; Insects; Archaea; Protozoa; sae esses nseels Example Gibocteris ‘hicne Moulds: Fems; birds; 9 Mushrooms Flowers fish Scanned with CamScanner- * Complexity of cell Organisms can be classified as unicellular (consisting of a single cell; including bacteria) or multicellular (including plants and animals) 2.7. Unicellular : A unicellular organism, also known as a single-celled organism, is at consists of only one cell (Figure 2.3). an organism thi e Unicellular organisms fall into two general categories: prokaryotic organisms and eukaryotic organisms. Prokaryotes include bacteria and archaea. Many eukaryotes are multi cellular, but the group includes the protozoa, unicellular algae, and unicellular fungi. Prokaryotes live in colonies, they are not specialised into cells with differing functions. These organisms live together, and each cell must carry out all life processes to survive. Some organisms are partially unicellular, like Dictyostelium discoideum. Additionally, unicellular organisms can be multinucleate, like Myxogastria and Plasmodium. PETE Figure 2.4 : Multi cellular Figure : 2.3. Unicellular 2.7.2 Multi cellular : Multi cellular organisms are organisms that consist of more than ‘one cell (Figure 2.4), © Allspecies of animals, land plants and most fungi are multi cellular, as are many algae, whereas a few organisms are partially uni- and partially multi cellular, like slime : molds and social amoebae such as the genus Dictyostelium. Multi cellular organisms arise in various ways, for example by cell division or by Aggregation of many single cells. * Colonial organisms are the result of many identical individuals joining together to form a colony, However, it can often be hard to separate colonial protists from true multi cellular organisms. Scanned with CamScannerTable 2.2 Differences between unicellular and multicellular organisms Characteristics Unicellular organisms — Multicellular organisms Cellnumber Single cell Large number of celis Function All functions are per- Different cells perform formed by single cell different specific eek, functions Division of Not performed Cells specified to perform labor ee different functions Reproduction Involves the same Specialized cells, germ single cell cells take part in reproduction Life span Short Long Scanned with CamScanner“Sa rt fr , there a and Archaea can be defined as prokaryotes. Apart from 7 Laird re are physiological and biochemical properties distinguishing the prokary. euka, Prok: aryotic cells (Fi Many . TY ote, e fundamentally different in their inte Prokaryotic cells have some characteristiog. 2.8.1 Prokaryotes organization from eul ‘otic cells © Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and membranous organelles. The genetic matey (DNA) is localized to a region called the nucleoid which has no surrounding membrane, © Most prokaryotic cells, particularly the bacterial cells, have a chemically complex cell envelope. The cell envelope consists of a tightly bound three layered structure ile, the outermost glycocalyx followed by the cell wall and then the plasma membrane. Although each layer of the envelope performs distinct function, they act together as Single protective unit. Glycocalyx differs in composition and thickness among differen, bacteria. It could be a loose sheath called the slime layer in some, while in others it may be thick and tough, called the capsule. © The cell wall determines the shape of the cell and provides a strong structural support to prevent the bacterium fom bursting or collapsing. The walls of bacteria consist of peptidoglycans. / © The plasma membrane is semi-permeable in nature and interacts with the outside. This membrane is similar structurally to that of the eukaryotes. © A special membranous structure is the mesosome which is formed by the extensions of plasma membrane into the cell, © The cell contains large numbers of 70S ribosomes that are used for protein synthesis. © Some bacteria have flagella which are used for locomotion and/or pili, which may be used to pull two cells in close contact, and Perhaps to facilitate the transfer of genetit material. Cytoplasm F-Pili Plasma Mesosome, Capsule membrane , Cell wall Mitochondrion Plasma memby / rane Fibres Nuclear membrane / Nucleus Plasmid Endoplasmi¢ : reticulum 70S Ribosomes inet Golgi Genetic materi ; IMclusions iolg! a in nucleoid separa Figure 2.5 st Tucture of Prokaryotic cell Figure 2.6 structure ot eukaryote | Scanned with CamScanner2.8.2 Eukaryotes : Eukaryotic cells have some characteristics Eukaryotes are organisms whose cells have a nucleus enclosed within membranes and also contain other membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria and the Golgi apparatus, Coufosome (in Core of animal), Plrstid (Plas . Eukaryotic cells contain 80S ribosomes. Some cells of plants and algae contain chloroplasts. Eukaryotes belong to the domain Eukaryota or Eukarya. Eukaryotes may also be multicellular and include organisms consisting of many cell types forming different kinds of tissue. Animals and plants are the most familiar eukaryotes. Eukaryotes can reproduce both asexually through mitosis and sexually through meiosis and gamete fusion. In mitosis, one cell divides to produce two genetically identical cells. In meiosis, DNA replication is followed by two rounds of cell division to produce four haploid daughter cells. These act as sex cells (gametes). Each gamete has just one set of chromosomes, each a unique mix of the corresponding pair of parental chromosomes resulting from genetic recombination during meiosis. Scanned with CamScanner¥ Asteons & |* Coun fapakitive Sq, nb - 57 Uoame le ci ox +305 type of. Ridosome * Coubai, 0s (bes t4os _tope cf pilsyame © 1 t % Repreduct or |* Asc! Cine dissiey Conjuaatin | Sexual (meioyin” p’ uiterin’ ¥ Excuwpte. | Arehova _£_oacteria |_Protist aan ig Plats, Animale Scanned with CamScanner== = 2 mn : clatece—ln— Which "the Generic nama begins with capital Lot —— the —specés nome oil Small__leteene Dig Btanic ea ae —falewsd name (full ar_abirevioked) of the perccany) author, § Who _fixsé described be Apecies - Thin in__in Known A> aoa aad (CORRAL + SCE Noa £ ord Pate * “4 Lin >» fanthua deo (Unn-) (Gens) (Speciex) Scanned with CamScanner29 Energy and Carbon utilization Energy source { came [Cremobeerormphs] _ [Chemoautotrophs Hydrogen’, sulfur, irom, nitrogen’, and carbon monoxide - oxidizing bacteria y Fermentative : Electron transport ‘Stereptococcus, | chain : Clostridium, for example for example Light SS Phototrophs Carbon source 7 Organic compounds co, Photoheterotrophs Photoautotrophs 7 Use H,O to reduce CO, ? Green nonsulfur bacteria, purple I | nonsulfur bacteria Yes No 1 ‘ Oxygenic | [Anoxygenie photosynthesis | | photosynthetic (plants, algae, || bacteria (gree an cyanobacteria)| | purple bacteria) Figure 2.7 Nutritional types of Bacteria Scanned with CamScanneraddition to Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen all organisms require sources of ences ame ons for growth. 1, Energy sources : Phototrophs — use light as their energy source, Chemotrophs — obtain energy from the oxidation of chemical compounds (either organic or in organic) 9.2 Carbon sources : Autotrophs - CO2 sole or principal biosynthetic carbon source: Heterotrophs — reduced, preformed organic molecules from other organisms. Electron sources Lithotrophs — use reduced idorganic substances as their electron source. Organotrophs — extract electrons from organic compounds. .3 Four major nutritional classes based on their primary sources of carbon, energy and ns is known. Phtotolithotrop! autotrophs or photoautotrophs or photolithoautotrophs = Source of energy - light energy Source of electrons - Inorganic hydrogen/ electron Carbon source - CO2 Sxample: Algae, purple and green sulfur bacteria and cyanobacteria. (i) Photoorganotrophic heterotrophy or photoorganoheterotrophy = Source of energy — light energy Source of electrons — organic hydrogen/ electron Carbon source - organic carbon sources (CO2 may also be used) Example : Purple and green nonsulfur bacteria (common inhabitants of lakes and streams) (iii) Chemolithotrophic autotrophs or chemolithoautotrophy Source of energy - Chemical energy source (inorganic) Source of electrons - Inorganic hydroger/ electron donor Carbon source - CO2 Example : Sulfur-oxidizing bacteria, hydrogen bacteria, nitrifying bacteria, treo oxidizing bacteria. (iv) Chemoorganotrophic heterotrophs or chemoorganoheterotrophy = © Source of energy - Chemical energy source (organic) © Source of electrons - Inorganic hydrogen/ electron donor © Carbon source - organic carbon source © Example : Protozoan, fungi, most non-photosyathetic bacteria (iucluding mes Pathogens) Scanned with CamScanner‘The most common nutritional types are photolithoautotrophs a culate oe Bacteria Beggiatoa rely on inorganic energy sources and organic (or som . - Sources. These microbes are sometimes called Mixotrophic because they combing chemolithoautotrophic and heterotrophic metabolic processes. Lithotrophs (rock eater) : An organism that uses reduced inorganic compounds as its electron source. Many are lithotrophs and derive energy from sulfur oxidation, Electrons ar extracted from reduced inorganic substances by lithotrophs and from organic compounds by Organotrophs. Some are unicellular, whereas others are filamentous gliding bacteria 2.9.4 Requirements for nitrogen, phosphorous and sulfur : Nitrogen is needed for the synthesis of amino acids, purines, pyramidines, some carbohydrates and lipids, enzyme cofactors and other substances. Most phototrophs and many nonphotosynthetic microorganisms reduce nitrate to ammonia and incorporate the ammonia in assimilatory nitrate reduction. A variety of bacteria like many Cyanobacteria and Rhizobium can reduce and assimilate atmospheric nitrogen using the nitrogenase systems. Phosphorous is present in nucleic acids, phospholipids, ATP, seve; proteins and other cell components. All microorganisms use inorganic Phosphate as their phosphorous source and incorporate it directly. E.coli can use both Organic and inorganic phosphate. Organophosphates such as hexose 6- phosphate can be taken up directly by transport proteins. Other organophosphates are often hydrolyzed in the Periplasm by the enzyme alkaline phosphatase to produce inorganic phosphate which jg then transported cl the plasma membrane. When inorganic phosphate is outside the bacterium - led acre outer membrane by the use of a porin protein channel, » it crosses the Sulfur is needed for the synthesis of substances like the amino acids Cysteine and oni some carbohydrates biotin and thiamine. Most of them use sulfate ag a source fe i imil Ifate reduction; a few require a reduceg Of sulfur ant reduce it by assimilatory su ed form of ¢ ; ulfur such as cysteine. ral cofactors, some Scanned with CamScanneree 7 ale inde animes. _‘Ihene animale ono called amniotel ic. | _The_excr2osion of ammonia __Collad _ampornoleliconn + aii, eeadia aiba uk te _ He Writs» _Onidavions » 2elsnia 52 jc. Fish ou Atholtce —ontmals, Anplikan = Y Uricoselis Sw Usic add is the chief _metabotic. Shea nos waste ‘in ju omitmal. Thine —omishals an. Calle” cryicol@ic- The 27nration, of Kwsic aud catvect, Uvicotet ism - 2g, Torrential animel 0iKe Imeck, bivde ¢ eplily ele Hae ine Ditkegen im dike fs of Uvie acid » Y Urootelic * che ea is th mo nitoae - Dows _evcsots of an Outmal: on aro alld — The _2xcwodin of urea Called _Uveadelisrn » 25.1 Som ihe Corti spins d teh —adull omplibiacs. mammals ‘octal Aruentn Y feces forma_in_the tin “een fesmodion! deamination ie ine OLie + | ~~ Scanned with CamScanner= Usm | Uric telisan. relic : 7 Grerg3 —|lenstecpeodinace | Bigh,expinaitc _relatively.omoe of cag: |-of Onangyen 204 ile = —— | =| ___-_lammyenaleni Gb __ i lon than Uritotilic PE Y\ i a a * { Feet = natal eae Ovic Acid w capaainay Don—toxi: Len Kowic_than Alaa a : fe 5 “Fate. higily Double | Invstwsie in [a aye) Sabubild 5 Sew | te Saber Leben Ya Wale « ; hat fos Pouring pits win _| thing poole oc Conseisheal 2 Acusi-Colid pelielg | Vine» # a Eroumphe- | Aguiatic invertela(e| Biards rept Les} Maaunwals, rt bony Fish , coat c}. (Urea, Snake) Cav 2 Bak POU OFA ASF pens 5 : a (frog) Turtle \ Scanned with CamScannerTable 2.4 : Characteristics of Terrestrial plants and aquatic plants Characteristics ‘Terrestrial Plant Aquatic Plant Leaf shape Variable Oval and thick or spongy Number of leaves Variable Probably 2 to 4 Color of leaves Green Green Where roots are attached At the bottom of the stem. At the bottom of each leaf Number or roots Variable One per leaf Color of roots White to cream White to cream Shape of stem Variable No stem visible How leaves are attached Attached by another short to the stem stem, the petiole Color of stem Variable but usually green NA Shape of plant Taller than broad Broader than tall So Scanned with CamScannera Table 2.5 : Character tics of Terrestrial a mals and aquatic animals Characteristics __Tetrestrialanimalsy Aquaticanimals Habitat Te eae Terrestrial animals live in the land Aquatic animal lives in water Mode of respiration Terrestrial animals respire through lungs or trachea. Aquatic animals respire through gills or their skin. Adaptation Terrestrial animals show adaptations such as legs, water proof skin, feathers, covered eggs, and kidney, Aquatic animals show several adaptations such as streamline bodies, fins, webbed feet, and air bladder. _| Skin ‘The skin of the terrestrial animals is leathery, hard or spiny. The skin of the aquatic animals is slimy, slippery, and soft. Body shape and organs Show adaptations such as legs, water proof skin, feathers, covered egg, kidney Show adaptations in streamlined bodies, fins, webbed feet and air bladder Scanned with CamScannerModel Organisms a model organism is a species that has been widely studied, usually because it is easy to maintain and breed in a laboratory setting and has particular experimental advantages. Organisms that have been widely used for research so that Xs great deal is known about their biology. These organisms have properties that made them excellent research subjects (Table 2.7). Ake characteristics of model organisms are: 1. Relatively easy to grow and maintain in a restricted space 2. Relatively short generation time (birth > reproduction > birth) 3. Relatively well understood growth and development Scanned with CamScanner. . 2 i Relatively easy to provide nece. eH Ssary nutri resemble ‘ ents for growth 5, Closely other Organisms OF systems : Different types of model Organism i mngtic model Experimental motel n ns candidates Good candidat rete analysis research in develoge eae nteseareh mental biology ae preed in large Produce robust embryos Ea: numbers. Have short that can be easily peti po eg atl eration time, hence pulated and studied, genomes or lange scale crosses Example: Frog limited number of canbe followed over Tepeats. Genome is cxveral generations. similar toa human Example: Drosophila : Example: Rat 1. Mammalian models: - Mo lus musculus, — Rat (Rattus norvegicus) x 2. Non-mammalian models - Bacterium (Escherichia coli) a - Baker's or brewer's yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) ~~ - abditis elegans) ~~ ~ Fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster ~ Zebra fish (Danio rerio) X 3. Plant model ~ Arabidopsis thaliana »7 E.coli Itisanatural mammalian gut bacteria used as model organism because of its simplicity it has been the favoured organism for studying fundamental aspects of biochemistry and molecular biology. Most of our present concepts of molecular biology— IA replication, genetic code, gene expression and Protey Synthesis come from the study of E. coli. Some reasons to make - Coli model organism are: CE. coliisa single-celled organism CUE life cycle is short. 50 it is simple to study. Scanned with CamScanner5 Mas 3 jient medium. easily grow on nutrien sae anipulated. of 4, It can be easily genetically m med 2Z& sacod 30 TWIS backs ast albu ndar ast olor QIC Mouse (Mus Musculus) ¢ he mouse has developed into the premier mammnaliar mode} I se has 2)Scienti r ide ran: ic research:)Scientists from a wi ge of system for genetic research.) ‘ hom ical fields have gravitated, othe mouse because of its Peer ay a physiological Sil {larities to humans, as wel] se genetic an y seman aes ease with which its genome can be manipulated and analyzed. Some of the reasons to make mouse as the mode] organism are: ; 1. These are small, maintained easily and have a short life span. ; 2. All new drugs, treatments are tried on mice. 3. Their genetics, biological characters resemble humans. Fruit Fly (Drosophila melanogaster) The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is a versatile model organism that has been used in biomedical research for over a century to study a broad range of phenomena. There are many _ technical advantages of using Drosophila over vertebrate: 1. ee between humans genes and fruit fly genes is lose. 2. Seventy-five percent of genes that cause human diseases _ are found in fruit fly. 3. They have a short life span—(8-14) days, 4. These are inexpensive to maintain. 5. These have a sim some proteins, Scanned with CamScanner i ple diet needing some carbohydrates and — jBaker's or budding yeast | . na C organism for basic biological renin mesh Pe ogee ‘arch because of the following 1. It is easy to manipulate in the lab, 2, Yeast can cope with a variety of environmental conditions 3, Yeast shows cell division in a similar way to our cells. In 1996, it was the first eukaryotic organism to h ‘it genome sequenced, oe” 4, Twenty percent of genes causing diseases are found in yeast. 5 Many drugs are tested on yeast which have functional equivalent of mutated human genes to reverse the disease. Nematode (Caenorhabditis Elegans) At approximately 1 mm in length and transparent, the nematode worm might seem an unusual choice of animal to study in such detail. But this peculiar soil-dwelling roundworm has proved itself to be vital research tool. In fact, itis arguably the single most described animal in scientific literature because of the following reasons: 1. Itcan easily grow in labs on nutrient medium. 2, It produces over thousand eggs each day. 3. Worm is transparent so its cells can be easily studied. 4. Its development (molecular signals) is found in complex organisms like humans, so it is easy to study nervous system of higher organisms. 5. Its genes can be easily mutated. 6. Many genes have functional counterparts in humans so diseases can be easily studied. A. thaliana (Arabidopsis thaliana) A. thaliana is a small flowering plant that is widely used as a model organism in plant biology. Arabidopsis is a member of the mustard (Brassicaceae) family, which includes cultivated Species such as cabbage and radish. Arabidopsis is not of major agronomic significance, but it offers important advantages for Scanned with CamScannerbasic research in genetics and ae poi tis used as i 5 the follow! 5: del organism because of ae a small genome aide Mb/125 Mb total) has been ; i 2000. sequenced in the year ; 2. Ithas a short life span of about six weeks, i ivated. 3. It can be easily cultivate ei 4, Mutations can be easily produced in this plant. I key points * Nomenclature: It is the process of giving scientific names (not vernacular or local names) to the organisms. * Classification: It is the process of grouping animals and plants into convenient categories on the basis of certain observable traits. * Identification: It is determination of correct position of an organism in the classification. * Taxonomy: It is the study of the process of classification. * Systematic: This includes the identification, nomenclature and classification of organisms based on various para- meters, * Hippocrates: He classified animals into various groups like insects, fishes and birds, etc, * Aristotle: Know ‘ wate Firs mina 706 oogy. He bad : ioe Known as father of botany 'y—(1686): A British botanist, * Carrolus Linnaeus: A Swedish Species which is defined a animals and plants, whos themselves, * The seven basic categ 1. Kingdom 2. Phylum (in an imals)/division (in plants) 'S Btoup of natural population of ‘© members can interbreed among Ories of taxonomic hierar chy are: Scanned with CamScanner