BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (PCM)

PHB-1111 Mechanics and Wave Motion

Block 1: Dynamics of System of Particles

Unit 1: Inertial and Non-Inertial Reference Frames, Newton’s Laws of Motion,
Galilean Transformations, Galilean Invariance
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Frame of Reference
1.2.1 Inertial Frame of Reference
1.2.2 Non-Inertial Frame of Reference
1.2.3 Difference Between Inertial and Non-Inertial Frame of Reference
1.3 Newton’s Laws of Motion
1.4 Galilean Transformation
1.5 Galilean Invariance
1.6 Let Us Sum Up
1.7 Glossary
1.8 Questions
1.9 Suggested Readings

1.0 Objectives
The course, titled "Mechanics and Wave Motion," aims to teach students basic knowledge of Newtonian
Mechanics and Wave Motion. In the first unit, we shall discuss Inertial reference frames serve as
benchmarks for Newton's laws of motion, defining frames where an object remains at rest or moves at a
constant velocity without any external forces acting upon it. Newton's laws elucidate the behavior of
objects within these frames, stating that an object persists in its state of motion unless acted upon by an
external force, and that force equals mass times acceleration. However, non-inertial reference frames, like
those undergoing acceleration or rotation, pose challenges to these laws, requiring additional fictitious
forces to account for the observed motion. Galilean transformations allow us to convert between inertial
frames in uniform motion, highlighting the principle of Galilean invariance, which implies that the laws of
motion remain consistent and unchanged under such transformations, as long as the frames are moving at
constant velocities relative to each other. These concepts form the foundational understanding of motion
and frames of reference, crucial in classical mechanics and shaping our comprehension of physical
phenomena.

1.1 Introduction
Newtonian mechanics deals the motion of a particle or system of particles in three-dimension space in the
limit of non-relativistic. Newton’s laws of motion are the basic pillars of the Mechanics. Unit of the
course explains dynamics of system of particles. In which frames of reference, Newton’s law, Galilean
Transformations and Galilean Invariance are to be discussed.

1.2 Frame of Reference

A frame of reference (reference frame) is an abstract coordinate system whose origin orientation and scale
are specified by a set of reference points-geometric points whose position is identified both
mathematically and physically.

1.2.1 Inertial Frame of Reference

The frame of reference is of two types, named Inertial and Non-inertial frame of reference. An inertial
frame of reference (Galilean reference frame) is a frame of reference not undergoing any acceleration. An
inertial frame is one in which Newton’s law hold.
Now, we shall check weather a frame moving with constant speed with respect to an inertial frame will
hold the Newton’s law or not.
Consider two inertial frames S and S’, frame S is stationery and Newton’s law hold good in this frame,
while frame S’ is moving with constant velocity along x direction. At 𝑡 = 0, the origins of both the frames
were coinciding, suddenly S’ starts to move with constant velocity V with respect to the inertial frame S
along 𝑥 axis direction as shown in Figure 1. Consider a point P having coordinates (𝑟, 𝑡) in the S frame,
have coordinates (𝑟′, 𝑡) in S' frame. From vector diagram ∆OO'P in Figure 1, we have,
OP = OO’+O’P (01)
As, OO’=Vt, therefore
Here, 𝒓 and 𝒓’ are the position vectors of the particle 𝑃 as observed by 𝑆 and 𝑆’observes respectively.
Or
𝒓′ = 𝒓 − 𝑽𝑡 (02)
In terms of coordinate axes, above transformation equation can be written as
𝑥′ = 𝑥 − 𝑉𝑡
𝑦′ = 𝑦
𝑧′ = 𝑧
Differentiate twice above equation with respect to 𝑡,
We get

From above expression, we see that a frame in a state of constant motion is also an inertial frame. As
Newton’s law hold on it. An example of an inertial frame of reference for individuals within is a vehicle
traveling at a constant velocity or that has no acceleration.

1.2.2 Non-inertial Frame of Reference

A non-inertial reference frame (also known as an accelerated reference frame) is a frame of reference that
undergoes acceleration with respect to an inertial frame. In other words, a frame of reference in which
Newton law does not hold is called non-inertial frame of reference. In the Figure 1, if frame S’ is
accelerated with A with respect to the inertial frame S, then vector equation becomes, from the ∆𝑂𝑂′𝑃,
𝑂𝑃 = 𝑂𝑂’ + 𝑂’𝑃,

Therefore,
Where, 𝑚 is the mass of the particle. From above equation, we see that in non-inertial reference frames
we have additional term (−𝑚𝐴) named fictitious forces (also called non-inertial forces, pseudo-force or
fictitious force) to the Newton's second law. Thus, Newton’s law loses its form, hence it does not hold in
accelerated frame of reference.
Examples of Non-inertial Reference Frames
Examples of inertial and non-inertial reference frames are a particle traveling at a constant speed and a
particle rotating at a constant speed. Reference frames that rotate around an axis or accelerate linearly are
known as non-inertial. Below are a few real-world examples of frames of reference:
a) Earth's Surface: The Earth's surface serves as our frame of reference in the majority of daily
circumstances. We are standing motionless simply means we do not experience any force relation
to the ground.
b) Elevator Ride: Consider an elevator in motion. We feel heavy as the elevator moves upward and
lighter as it descends.

1.2.3 Difference between Inertial and Non-Inertial Frame of Reference

The following are some key distinctions between an inertial and non-inertial frame of reference.
Inertial Frame Non-Inertial Frame
The inertial frame is the reference frame to which Non-inertial frames of reference are those that do
Newton’s laws of motion apply. not apply Newton’s laws of motion.
An inertial frame of reference is one that is either An accelerated frame of reference is a non-inertial
stationary or constantly moving. frame of reference.
No fictitious force is required to explain the motion To maintain the validity of the laws of mechanics, a
of objects within inertial frames of reference. fictitious (fake) force, that is, a false backward
force, must be introduced here.

1.4 Newton’s Law of Motion

Newton's laws of motion give a scientific relationship between the forces that act on a body and the
changes that occur due to this force. Sir Isaac Newton formulated the laws of motion in the year 1686 in
his book ‘Principia Mathematica Philosophiae Naturalis’.
Newton Introduced Three Laws in Conventional form, which are
1. A body remains at rest or in unform motion until unless acted upon by an external force.
2. The time rate of change of momentum is equal to the applied external force.
3. There is an equal and opposite reaction corresponds to applied external force.
The first law is meaningless if force acting on the particle, i.e., in case of zero force particle will remain in
uniform motion or in the state of rest. But this law gives the concept of force in qualitative way. Second
law suggest that the force is equal to the rate of change of quantity of motion. The law is
Thus, the First and Second Newton’s laws define the force in qualitative and quantitative way. Thus, in
other way these two laws may be considered as definitions rather than to treat as laws. The third law is
action reaction law is always directed along a line the two forces, which is one of the properties of the
central forces. Thus, third law suggests that involved force is position dependent. That is, the third law is
not applicable to the case in which force is velocity dependent e.g., fictional force, magnetic forces.
Basically, the Third law gives the definition of mass. If 𝑭1 and 𝑭𝟐 be the action and reaction force on an
isolated system, then according to the law

If one of the masses is unit mass and we know acceleration of the second particle in a reference frame,
thus we can determine the mass of the second particle. This mass is known as inertial mass as it is
determined by the action of force. The gravitational mass is obtained from the gravitational force. The two
masses are remains same with in limit of 1012 as found in the experiments. Thus, in this limit we can say
that inertial and gravitational mass satisfy the principle of equivalence.
Writing Newton’s Third Law, we have i.e., for any isolated system total linear momentum remains
constant.

The measurements of physical quantities depend on the frames in which the quantities are being
measured. Similarly, forms of physical laws remain variant in these frames. There are two types of frames,
named inertial and non-inertial frames. A frame in which Newton’s laws of motion remains hold we call it
an inertial frame, in such frame physical laws remains invariant. A frame moving with constant velocity
relative to an inertial frame is also an inertial frame. Newton’s second law 𝑭 = 𝑚𝒓̈ has the same form
in a frame which moves with constant velocity with respect to an inertial frame. Such result is called
Galilean invariance.
1.5 Galilean Transformation
Galilean transformations, conceived by Galileo Galilei, represent a set of equations that relate the
coordinates and velocities of an event observed in one inertial reference frame to another that is moving at
a constant velocity relative to the first. These transformations are fundamental in classical physics,
enabling the translation between different frames of reference in which Newton's laws of motion hold true.
They describe how positions, velocities, and times of events appear to observers in different inertial
frames, allowing for the understanding of relative motion. However, they are limited to situations
involving low velocities compared to the speed of light and do not account for the effects of special
relativity at high speeds. Nonetheless, Galilean transformations serve as a crucial stepping stone in
comprehending the principles of relative motion and form the basis upon which later, more
comprehensive theories of physics have been built. The assertion that the forms of the laws of physics are
the same in all inertial systems is known as the principle of relativity.
Consider a point P having coordinates (𝑟, 𝑡) in the S frame, have coordinates (𝑟′, 𝑡) in S' frame. From
vector diagram ∆OO'P in Figure 1, we have,
𝑂𝑃 = 𝑂𝑂’ + 𝑂’𝑃 (07)
As, OO’=Vt, therefore

Here, 𝒓 and 𝒓’ are the position vectors of the particle 𝑃 as observed by 𝑆 and 𝑆’observes
respectively and these contain three axes in it as 𝑟 = 𝑟(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧), similarly 𝑟′ = 𝑟′(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
or
𝒓′ = 𝒓 – 𝑽𝑡 (08)
In terms of coordinate axes, above transformation equation can be written as
 𝑥′ = 𝑥 − 𝑉𝑡
𝑦′ = 𝑦
𝑧′ = 𝑧
The above relations are called Galilean transformation is used to convert the coordinates of tworeference
frames that differ solely in constant relative motion. While the relations are called Inverse Galilean
transformation.
𝑥 = 𝑥′ + 𝑉𝑡
𝑦 = 𝑦′
𝑧 = 𝑧′

1.5.1 Galilean Invariance

Galilean invariance stands as a cornerstone principle in classical mechanics, asserting that the fundamental
laws of motion remain unchanged and consistent across different inertial reference frames moving at
constant velocities relative to each other. According to this principle, observers in different inertial frames
will perceive the same laws of physics, including Newton's laws of motion, irrespective of their relative
velocities. This concept implies that measurements of mechanical phenomena, such as the behavior of
objects under the influence of forces, will yield identical results in different inertial frames. However,
while Galilean invariance holds true for low velocities compared to the speed of light, it doesn't
encompass the effects of special relativity at relativistic speeds. Nonetheless, this principle forms the
bedrock of classical mechanics, facilitating the understanding of motion and providing a foundation for
more sophisticated theories in physics.

1.6 Let Us Sum Up

This unit focuses on understanding Newton's laws of motion, frames of reference, fictitious force,
Galilean transformations, and Inverse Galilean transformations. The unit of the course aims to keep
students with the knowledge to explain the inertial and non-inertial frames, Newton’s Laws of motion and
Galilean transformations.

1.7 Glossary
Inertia: A tendency not to move or change.
Frame of reference: A frame of reference is a set of coordinates that can be used to determine positions
and velocities of objects in that frame; different frames of reference move relative to one another.
Acceleration: The rate of change of velocity.
Rectilinear motion: When an object moves along a straight line its motion is called rectilinear motion
Contact force: A contact force is any force that occurs as a result of two objects making contact with
each other.
1.8 Questions
Question 1: How many types of frames of reference are there?
Solution- The frame of reference is mainly of two types: inertial frame of reference and non-inertial frame
of reference.
Question 2: What is the Inertial Frame of Reference?
Solution- An inertial frame of reference is the type of frame where Newtonian laws are true. This implies
that if no outside force is exerted on an object, it will continue to stay in uniform motion or state of rest.
Question 3: What is the Non-Inertial Frame of Reference?
Solution- A non-inertial frame of reference can be defined as a frame that is in the state of acceleration
relative to the considered inertial reference frame. Newtonian laws are irrelevant in these reference
frames.
Question 4: Give one example of a Frame of Reference?
Solution- For example, when you see a ball roll down a street, you can tell the ball is moving because the
frame of reference is the streets, whatever may be on the side of the roads, or the Earth. All of these are
frames of reference. All measurements of motion will be compared to a frame of reference.
Question 5: An average force of 12.5 N is applied by moving air to a bicycle and its rider, of total mass
80 kg, while it is windy that day. The force is applied throughout a time interval of 0.8 s as the gust of
wind is very brief. The wind blows from directly behind the bicycle.
What is the total momentum change?
Solution- Let us take the direction of the wind as the positive direction. The wind blows from directly
behind the bicycle, so the motion of the bicycle is also in the positive direction. The relationship between
a force and the time that it acts in to change the momentum of an object is given by the formula 𝐹Δ𝑡 = Δ𝑝,
Where is the force that acts, Δ𝑡 is the time for which the force acts, and Δ𝑝 is the change in momentum.
Substituting the values of the force and the time for which the force acts, we see that the momentum
change of the bicycle is given by
Δ𝑝=𝐹Δ𝑡=12.5×0.8=10 kg.m/s
It is worth noting that the value of the mass of the bicycle is not required to determine the momentum
change of the bicycle.
Question 6: If the mass of a moving object is 40 kg, what force will be required to speed up the object at a
rate of 2ms–2?
Solution- According to the question;
Acceleration (a) = 2ms–2 and Mass (m) = 40 kg, therefore, Force (F) =?
We know that, F = m x a
= 40 kg x 2m/s2
= 80 kg m/s2
Therefore, required Force = 80 m/s2 or 80 N

1.9 Suggested Readings

1. J.C. Upadhyay: ‘Mechanics’. Ram Prasad Publications, Agra.
2. D.S, Mathur “Mechanics”. S Chand Publication, New Delhi.
3. D. Kleppner and R. Kolenkow, An Introduction to Mechanics, TMH

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