MODULE

NAVAL ARCHITECTURE FOR MARINE

ENGINEERS

Partial requirements for the completion of Course Requirements of

Naval Architecture for Marine Engineers (NAVARCH)

College of Marine Engineering BS Marine Engineering

Developed by:

Dr. Omar C. Monzales MEMA Proffesor

MODULE: NAVAL ARCHITECTURE FOR MARINE ENGINEERS

Welcome to the Self-Paced Module on NAVARCH!

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This module is designed to provide comprehensive knowledge and theoretical

foundations for Naval Architecture in the lenses of Marine Engineers. NAVARCH course
introduces discussion on the different types of ships, general knowledge on
construction, working knowledge on stability and stresses as well as stress tables. It
also focuses on the application of actions to be taken in case of partial loss on
buoyancy and the fundamental of watertight integrity of the ship.
Please follow the instructions below to complete the module at your own pace.

Module Objectives

By the end of this module, you will be able to:

• Distinguish the different types of ship and their parts in reference to their design and
purpose, including ship's measurements and dimension
• Distinguish the contributing factors to be observed by shipboard management in order to
attain ship stability
• Analyze the importance of contingency plans in preserving the stability of the ship and
control of the extent of damage caused by unwanted events such as loss of intact stability,
grounding, or collision

MODULE STRUCTURE

The module is divided into nine (9) modules:

• NAVARCH Module 01: Ship Types

• NAVARCH Module 02: Ship Dimension
• NAVARCH Module 03: Ships with Specific Design and Dimensions
• NAVARCH Module 04: External Factors affecting ship stability
• NAVARCH Module 05: Internal Factors Affecting Ship Stability
• NAVARCH Module 06: Effects of cargo to ship stability
• NAVARCH Module 07: Maintaining ship stability
• NAVARCH Module 08: Contingency plans in ship stability problems

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INSTRUCTIONS FOR COMPLETION

1. SHIP TYPES
Read: Review the provided materials on the types of ships.
Watch: View the recommended videos or any related videos to the types of ships in
any reference.
Do: Complete drawing requirements.
2. SHIP DIMENSIONS
Read: Review the provided materials on the types of ships.
Watch: View the recommended videos or any related videos of ships dimensions.
Do: Complete drawing requirements.
3. SHIPS WITH SPECIFIC DESIGN AND DIMENSIONS
Read: Review the provided materials on the specific designs and dimension of ships
based on area of operation or topographical requirement.
Watch: View the recommended videos or any related videos of how ship canals work.
Do: Complete drawing requirements.
4. EXTERNAL FACTORS AFFECTING SHIP STABILITY
Read: Review the provided materials on the external factors which affects ships’ stability.
Watch: View the recommended videos or any related videos relating to external
factors affecting ship stability as reference. Do: Complete drawing requirements.
5. INTERNAL FACTORS AFFECTING SHIP STABILITY
Read: Review the provided materials on the internal factors which affects ships’ stability.
Watch: View the recommended videos or any related videos relating to internal
factors affecting ship stability as reference. Do: Complete drawing requirements.
6. EFFECTS OF CARGO TO SHIP STABILITY
Read: Review the provided materials on how different types of cargo factors which
affects ships’ stability.
Watch: View the recommended videos or related videos relating different cargo affecting
ship stability as reference.
7. MAINTAINING SHIP STABILITY
Read: Review the provided materials on how ships’ stability are maintained.
Watch: View the recommended videos or any related videos to methods of
maintaining ship stability as reference. Do: Complete drawing requirements.
8. CONTINGENCY PLANS IN SHIP STABILITY PROBLEMS
Read: Review the provided materials on the different emergencies related to ship stability
and how they are dealt with using ship contingency plan.
Watch: View the recommended videos or any related videos to the types of ships in
any reference.
Do: Watch the video as required in the Modular Activity and prepare for the essay to
be done in the classroom.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

• Access supplementary reading materials and external links for further learning.

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• Participate in the classroom discussion to ask questions and interact with other
students to discuss topics and raise clarification to things not clear in your selfpaced
learning.

COMPLETION REQUIREMENTS

Plates: Print the pages with the Plates and complete the required drawings.
Submit on or before the given schedule as per the discussion in the classroom.
The plates accounts to 50% of your Prelims Grades and accounts to 25% of your
Midterm Grades. FAILURE TO COMPLY WITH THE PLATES BEYOND THE
DEFINED DATE WILL MEAN NOT ACCEPTANCE!

GETTING STARTED

Access: Scan the QR Code provided in the classroom and download this PDF File
of NAVARCH Module.

We hope you find it informative and valuable for enhancing your knowledge and skills in
Naval Architecture. Good luck!

Dr. Omar

I. Course Description:

NAVARCH course introduces discussion on the different types of

ships, general knowledge on construction, working knowledge on stability and
stresses as well as stress tables. It also focuses on the application of actions

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to be taken in case of partial loss on buoyancy and the fundamental of

watertight integrity of the ship.
The course is in compliance with the Standards of Training,
Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW) Code 1978 as
amended by the 2010 Manila Amendments and as per the Joint CHED-
Marina Memorandum Circular (JCMMC) 01 series of 2023.

II. Knowledge Understanding Proficiency (KUP)

Knowledge : Recognize principal structural members of a ship and the proper names
for the various parts

Understanding : Discuss the fundamentals of watertight integrity, and

fundamental actions to be taken in the event of partial
loss of intact buoyancy

Proficiency : Relate and appreciate working knowledge and application of

stability, trim and stress tables, diagrams, and
stresscalculating equipment in its application to the
actions to be taken in cases of incidents involving stability

III. Course Overview

CO1. Distinguish the different types of ship and their parts in reference to their
design and purpose, including ship's measurements and dimension

LO1.1 List the different types of ships and its parts in relation to its design, and
purpose
LO1.2 List the different types of ships in relation its measurements and dimension
LO1.3 Compare the different categorization of ships based on their design,
purpose
LO1.4 Differentiate ship based on area of operation and type of cargo using
measurements and dimension

CO2. Distinguish the contributing factors to be observed by shipboard management in

order to attain ship stability

LO2.1 List the various factors affecting ship stability during different events in
ship operations

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LO2.2 List the various means of maintaining ship stability in various situations
LO2.3 Discuss the effects of various internal and external forces that affects
the stability of the ship
LO2.4 Discuss the effects of various types of cargoes to the ship stability
during loading and unloading operations

CO3. Analyze the importance of contingency plans in preserving the stability

of the ship and control of the extent of damage caused by unwanted events
such as loss of intact stability, grounding, or collision

LO3.1 Describe loss of intact stability, grounding and collision in relation

to the stability of the different types of ships
LO3.2 Distinguish the effects of loss of intact stability, grounding and collision to
the stability of the different types of ships
LO3.3 Describe the different contingency and course of actions taken
onboard ship to ensure stability and control of ship in cases of loss of
intact stability, grounding and collision
LO3.4 Relate the appropriate contingency and course of actions to be taken
on various scenario affecting ship stability
LO3.5 Analyze the impact of loss of intact stability, grounding and collision to
the stability of the different types of ships
LO3.6 Scrutinize the actions and reactions of shipboard personnel to an
actual scenario affecting ship stability

NAVARCH Module 01: Ship Types

Module Objective: Differentiate different types of ships based on its design and purpose
and ship’s measurements and dimensions

Introduction:
Naval architecture is a field of engineering that focuses on the design,
construction, and maintenance of ships and other maritime structures. At the heart of
this discipline lies the intricate art and science of ship design, where engineers and
architects collaborate to craft vessels that navigate the vast and challenging expanses
of the world's oceans. A ship, in naval architecture, is not merely a floating entity but a

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meticulously planned and executed masterpiece that combines aesthetics, functionality,

and cutting-edge technology.
The term "ship" in naval architecture refers to a vessel crafted with precision to
navigate waterways, ranging from the mighty oceans to inland water bodies. These
vessels, whether military or civilian, are meticulously engineered to fulfill specific
purposes, demanding a harmonious blend of aesthetics, hydrodynamics, and structural
integrity.
The design of a ship in naval architecture is a testament to the culmination of
centuries of maritime evolution, driven by the relentless pursuit of efficiency, safety, and
performance. From the graceful lines of a naval warship to the practical configurations
of cargo vessels, each ship is a unique manifestation of engineering prowess , shaped by
the challenges and demands of its intended operational environment.
Tupper (2019) classifies ships according to various classifications based on:
• Purposes (Military, Cargo, Passenger and Specialized)
• Design (Type of cargo, Superstructure, Deck layout and design, Hull design,
etc.)
• Propulsion systems (Steam, Diesel, Nuclear, Electric, Wind, etc.)
• Area of operation (Rivers, Lakes, Near Coastal, Sheltered Sea, Open
Ocean), and
• Dimensions (based on length, width, draft and air draft).

Understand Ship Classification:

Ships are broadly classified into categories such as military, cargo ships, passenger
ships, naval ships, and specialized vessels.

Military Cargo Passenger Specialized

• Aircraft Carrier • Bulk Carrier • Cruise Ship • Ice Breaker

• Submarine • Tanker • Fast Craft • Cable Layer
• Destroyer • Container SHip • Ferries • Research Vessel
• Patrol Boat • Car Carrier • Passenger ship • Tug Boat
• Frigate • General Cargo • Salvage Boat

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Military ships are vessels specifically designed and employed by the armed
forces for various defense and security purposes. They play a crucial role in naval
operations, providing capabilities for force projection, maritime security, and strategic
deterrence. Military ships come in diverse types and classes, each tailored to fulfill
specific roles within a naval fleet. Below are some common types of military ships and
their key characteristics:
Aircraft Carriers:
Aircraft carriers are
the largest warships and
serve as mobile airbases
at sea. They enable the
deployment of fixed-wing
aircraft, such as fighter
jets and
reconnaissance planes.
Its features
includes flight decks,
hangars, and catapults for aircraft launch and recovery.
Aircraft carriers are also equipped with a propulsion system capable of providing
speed to the ship and other defensive attachments to counter any attacks that may
befall on the ship.

Destroyers:
Destroyers are
versatile surface
combatants designed for

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anti-submarine warfare (ASW), anti-aircraft warfare (AAW), and antisurface

warfare (ASuW).
Its features includes advanced radar
systems, anti-aircraft missiles, torpedoes, and
rapid-firing naval guns.
Destroyers are equipped with a propulsion system capable of providing speed and
maneuverability to the ship.

Frigates:
Frigates are
smaller than destroyers
but still serve a variety of
roles, including escorting
larger vessels, patrolling,
and conducting
antisubmarine
operations. Its
features includes
sonar systems, anti-

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submarine warfare (ASW) helicopters, and anti-ship missiles.

Submarines:
Submarines operate
underwater and are crucial
for stealth and strategic
deterrence. They can be
nuclear-powered or
dieselelectric.
Its features
includes torpedoes, cruise
missiles, and advanced
sonar systems.
Submarines are equipped
with specialized type of propulsion system allowing it to operate underwater for an
extended amount of time and be undetected.

Cruisers:
Cruisers are
multimission warships,
offering a balance between
firepower and strategic
mobility. They often serve
as flagship vessels.
Its features includes a mix
of anti-air, anti-submarine,
and anti-surface weaponry.
Cruisers are equipped with
a propulsion system capable of providing speed and maneuverability to the
ship.

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Amphibious Assault Ships:

Amphibious assault ships
are designed to support
amphibious operations by
deploying Marines, landing craft,
and helicopters for troop transport.
Its features includes Flight
decks, well decks for launching
landing craft, and troop transport
capacity.
Amphibious assault ships are equipped with a shallow hull design and ramp for
sea to beach operations.

Patrol Boats:
Patrol boats are smaller
vessels used for coastal and
littoral defense, anti-piracy
operations, and maritime law
enforcement.
Its features includes its
speed and agility, with mounted
machine guns or autocannons.
Much of the tasks of patrol boats includes supply, transport and patrol
of island, ports and other facilities.

Auxiliary Ships:
Auxiliary ships support the
fleet by providing services such as
replenishment at sea,
cargo transport, and medical
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facilities. Its features includes refueling systems, cargo holds, and medical
facilities.

Military ships are equipped with advanced technology, including radar systems,
electronic warfare suites, and communication systems, to ensure their effectiveness in
modern naval operations. Their design and capabilities continue to evolve with
advancements in maritime technology and strategic requirements.

Cargo ships are vessels designed primarily for the transportation of goods,
commodities, and merchandise across oceans and waterways. These ships play a
crucial role in global trade and commerce, facilitating the movement of goods between
different countries and continents.
The following are some of the common types of ships based on their cargo.

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Cargo ships come in various types, each designed for specific purposes and
cargo handling requirements. Understanding the classification and characteristics of
different ship types is fundamental to the field of naval architecture.
1. General Cargo Ships: General cargo ships are versatile vessels designed to
transport a variety of goods. They typically have multiple holds for flexibility in
accommodating different types of cargo.
2. Container Ships: Container ships are specialized for carrying standardized
cargo containers. They have large deck spaces and are equipped with container
slots for efficient loading and unloading.

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3. Bulk Carriers: Bulk carriers are designed for transporting bulk cargo such as
coal, grain, or ore. They have large cargo holds and may use conveyors for
efficient loading and unloading.
4. Tankers: Tankers are designed to transport liquid cargo, including crude oil,
chemicals, and liquefied natural gas. They have specialized tanks and pumping
systems.
5. Ro-Ro Ships (Roll-on/Roll-off): Ro-Ro ships are designed for vehicles and
cargo that can be rolled on and off the vessel. They are commonly used for
transporting cars, trucks, and trailers.
6. Reefer Ships (Refrigerated Cargo Ships): Reefer ships are equipped with
refrigeration systems to transport perishable goods such as fruits, vegetables,
and pharmaceuticals.
7. Heavy-Lift Ships: Description: Heavy-lift ships are designed to transport
oversized and heavy cargo that cannot fit into standard containers. They may
have specialized cranes or lifting equipment.
8. LNG Carriers: LNG carriers are specialized tankers designed for transporting
liquefied natural gas (LNG). They have advanced containment systems and
insulation.
9. Multi-Purpose Ships: Multi-purpose ships are versatile vessels capable of
carrying different types of cargo, including containers, bulk cargo, and general
cargo.

Passenger ships come in various types, designed to cater to different purposes

and preferences.
The following are some of the common types of passenger ships. (1: Ocean Liner;
2: River Ferry; 3: Speed Boat; 4: Cruise Ship; 5: Sail Boat; 6: Fast Craft; 7: Passenger
Ship; 8: Yatch.)

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1. Ocean Liners: Historically, ocean liners were designed for long-distance travel
between continents, emphasizing comfort and luxury. They often featured
spacious cabins, dining halls, and entertainment facilities.
2. Cruise Ships: Cruise ships are designed for leisure voyages, offering a variety
of amenities such as pools, theaters, restaurants, and recreational activities.
They focus on providing an enjoyable experience for passengers during the
cruise.
3. Ferries: Ferries are passenger ships designed for short-distance transportation
across bodies of water, such as rivers or straits. They vary in size and amenities
but prioritize efficient boarding and disembarking.
4. High-Speed Craft: High-speed passenger craft are designed for rapid transit,
often used for commuter services or connecting islands. They feature lightweight
construction and advanced propulsion systems for increased speed.
5. Yachts and Luxury Cruisers: Yachts and luxury cruisers are private or
chartered vessels designed for recreational use. They come in various sizes,
from smaller private yachts to large luxury cruisers, offering high-end amenities.

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6. River Cruise Ships: River cruise ships are designed for navigating inland
waterways, offering a more intimate and scenic travel experience. They are
typically smaller than ocean cruise ships and focus on cultural excursions.
7. Expedition Cruise Ships: Expedition cruise ships are designed for adventurous
voyages to remote destinations, such as polar regions or exotic islands. They
often feature strengthened hulls and specialized equipment for exploration.
8. Catamarans and Trimarans: Catamarans and trimarans are multihull passenger
ships known for stability and speed. They are popular for various purposes,
including ferry services and luxury charters.
9. Sailing Cruise Ships: Sailing cruise ships combine traditional sailing with
modern amenities. They offer a unique experience, often attracting passengers
interested in a blend of adventure and comfort.

Specialized Ships are designed specific for a purpose.

1. Research Vessel: Conducting scientific research at sea, including
oceanography, marine biology, and geology. They are used as laboratories,
research equipment, specialized sampling systems, and dynamic positioning
systems.
2. Icebreaker: Designed to navigate through ice-covered waters to clear paths for
other vessels. They are designed with reinforced hull, powerful engines, and a
shape that allows the ship to ride up onto the ice and break it.
3. Tugboat: Small watercraft designed to aid ships in manoeuvring and docking
and undocking. They are
designed with powerful engines
that allows them to push and
pull on heavy cargo several
times its own weight and size.

BULK CARRIER
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Bulk carriers are categorized based on various factors, including their

size, design, and the type of cargo they are designed to transport. The
categorization helps in efficient classification, regulation,
and operation of these vessels.

Size and Deadweight Tonnage (DWT):

• Handysize: Typically, these vessels have a DWT ranging from 10,000 to 35,000
tons. They are smaller and can navigate in ports with restrictions on size.
• Handymax: These carriers have a DWT ranging from 35,000 to 60,000 tons.
They are larger than Handysize vessels but still versatile enough for a variety of
ports.
• Panamax: With a DWT ranging from 60,000 to 80,000 tons, Panamax vessels
are designed to fit through the Panama Canal, limiting their size to the canal's
dimensions.
• Capesize: These are the largest bulk carriers, with a DWT of 100,000 tons or
more. They are too large to pass through the Panama Canal and typically
transport iron ore and coal on long-haul routes.

Cargo Type:
• Ore Carriers: Specifically designed for the transportation of iron ore.
• Coal Carriers: Optimized for carrying coal.
• Grain Carriers: Designed to transport grain and other agricultural products.
• Cement Carriers: Specialized for carrying bulk cement.

Hull Type:
• Single Hull: Older vessels typically have a single hull, which is less resistant to
damage but was more common in the past.
• Double Hull: More modern vessels often have a double hull, providing an
additional layer of protection against oil spills in case of a collision or grounding.

Self-Unloaders:
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Some bulk carriers are equipped with conveyor systems and other
mechanisms to unload their cargo without relying on port facilities. These are
known as self-unloaders.

Ice Class:
Bulk carriers operating in icy waters may have ice-class certification,
indicating their ability to navigate through ice-covered seas.

OIL TANKERS
Oil tanker ships are
categorized based on various
factors, including their size,
purpose, and the type of
cargo they transport.
The categorization helps in
better management of
maritime traffic, ensuring
safety, and facilitating
efficient transportation of
oil and petroleum products.

Size and Capacity:

• Very Large Crude Carriers (VLCC): These are among the largest oil tankers,
typically with a capacity between 200,000 and 320,000 deadweight tons (DWT).
VLCCs are designed to transport large quantities of crude oil over long distances.
• Ultra Large Crude Carriers (ULCC): ULCCs are even larger than VLCCs, with a
capacity exceeding 320,000 DWT. However, these are less common due to their
immense size and associated challenges in navigation and port access.

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• Suezmax: These tankers are designed to navigate through the Suez Canal and
have a maximum capacity of around 120,000 to 200,000 DWT.
• Aframax: Aframax tankers are smaller, with a capacity ranging from 80,000 to
120,000 DWT. They are suitable for ports with size restrictions, making them
more versatile in terms of accessibility.
• Panamax and Handymax: These are smaller tankers, suitable for navigating
through the Panama Canal and ports with size limitations. Panamax tankers
typically have a capacity of 50,000 to 80,000 DWT, while Handymax tankers are
even smaller, with a capacity below 50,000 DWT.

Cargo Type:
• Crude Oil Tankers: These vessels are specifically designed for transporting
unrefined crude oil from oil-producing regions to refineries. They may be
categorized based on the type of crude oil they transport, such as light or heavy
crude.
• Product Tankers: These tankers transport refined petroleum products such as
gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel. They are often classified based on their size, with
categories like MR (Medium Range), LR1, and LR2.
• Chemical Tankers: While not exclusively for oil, chemical tankers may carry a
variety of liquid chemicals, including some types of oil-based products.

Hull Type:
• Double-Hulled Tankers: To enhance safety and minimize the risk of oil spills in
the event of a collision or grounding, many modern tankers are constructed with
a double hull. This design provides an additional layer of protection for the cargo.
• Single-Hulled Tankers: Older tankers may have a single hull, which is
considered less safe in terms of environmental impact in case of accidents.

Ice-Class Tankers:

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Tankers operating in icy waters, such as the Arctic, may have

strengthened hulls and other features to withstand ice conditions. These are
often referred to as ice-class tankers.

Combination Carriers:
Some vessels are designed to carry both crude oil and refined petroleum
products, offering flexibility in their cargo capacity and type.

Purpose-Built and Conversion Vessels:

Tankers can be purpose-built for their intended cargo, or existing vessels
may be converted to transport oil products.
Chemical Tankers
Chemical tanker ships
are specialized vessels
designed for the transportation
of various types of
liquid chemicals and
hazardous materials. The
categorization of chemical
tankers is crucial for ensuring
the safe and efficient transport
of these potentially dangerous
cargoes. The classification is based on the types of chemicals they can
carry, the construction materials used, and the safety features implemented.

IMO Classification Chemical Tankers:

• Type 1: These tankers are designed to carry the most hazardous chemicals at
temperatures below their boiling points. They typically have a fully refrigerated
cargo system and are built with a high standard of insulation.

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• Type 2: Suitable for carrying less hazardous chemicals compared to Type 1,

these tankers are designed to transport chemicals at temperatures above their
boiling points. They also have a certain level of insulation, but not as extensive
as Type 1.
• Type 3: These tankers are designed for carrying chemicals with a low risk of
pollution. They are not as well insulated as Type 1 and Type 2 tankers and are
suitable for transporting chemicals at ambient temperatures.

Chemical Types:
• Chemical tankers are further categorized based on the types of chemicals they
are authorized to carry. These categories may include flammable liquids,
corrosive liquids, toxic substances, and other hazardous materials. The
categorization ensures that the tanker is equipped with the necessary safety
features and materials compatible with the specific chemical properties.

Hull Types:
Double-hulled tankers have an extra layer of protection, reducing the risk
of a spill in case of a collision or grounding. Single-hulled tankers are older
designs and are being phased out due to safety concerns. Double-hulled tankers
are considered safer for transporting chemicals.

Specialized Tankers:
Some chemical tankers are designed for specific types of cargo, such as
liquefied natural gas (LNG) carriers or liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) carriers.
These vessels have unique design considerations and safety features tailored to
their specific cargo.

Coating Requirements:

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Depending on the cargo, tankers may require specific coatings to protect

the tank structure from corrosion or reactions with the chemicals being
transported.
The choice of coating is often dictated by the chemical compatibility of the cargo.

Special Equipment:
Chemical tankers may be equipped with specialized equipment such as
heating systems, cooling systems, and inert gas systems to ensure the safe
transportation of different types of chemicals.

LNG/LPG tankers
LNG (Liquefied
Natural Gas) and LPG
(Liquefied Petroleum Gas)
tanker ships are
categorized based
on several factors,
including their size,
capacity, design, and
purpose. These
categorizations help
ensure safety, efficiency, and compliance with
international regulations.

Size and Capacity:

• Small-Scale LNG/LPG Carriers: These are smaller vessels designed to
transport liquefied gases in smaller quantities. They are often used for regional
distribution, bunkering, or serving smaller ports.
• Medium-Scale LNG/LPG Carriers: These vessels have a larger capacity than
small-scale carriers but are not as massive as the larger LNG carriers. They are
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often used for mid-range distances and may have a more versatile role in gas
transportation.
• Large-Scale LNG/LPG Carriers: These are the largest vessels designed for
longdistance transportation of significant quantities of LNG or LPG. They are
often used for international trade and have advanced safety and containment
systems.

Type of Gas Transported:

• LNG Carriers: Specifically designed for transporting liquefied natural gas. These
vessels have specialized containment systems to keep the gas in a liquid state at
extremely low temperatures.
• LPG Carriers: Designed for transporting liquefied petroleum gas, which includes
propane and butane. LPG carriers may have different containment systems than
LNG carriers.

Containment Systems:
• Membrane Tankers: Use a membrane system to store and transport LNG. The
cargo tanks are typically covered with a flexible, insulated membrane to maintain
low temperatures.
• Moss-Type Tankers: Feature a spherical storage tank made of aluminum alloy
with a layer of insulation. These tanks are self-supporting and do not require a
separate membrane.

Specialized Types:
FSRU (Floating Storage and Regasification Unit): While not a traditional
tanker, an FSRU is a floating facility that receives LNG, stores it, and then
regasifies it for distribution. FSRUs play a role in providing flexibility in LNG
import infrastructure.

Dual-Fuel and Propulsion Systems:

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Some modern LNG carriers may feature dual-fuel engines, capable of

using both LNG and diesel as fuel. These vessels contribute to reducing
emissions and meeting environmental regulations.

Bunkering Vessels:
Some LNG carriers are specifically designed for bunkering operations,
supplying LNG as fuel for other ships.

CONTAINER SHIPS

Container ships are

categorized based on various
factors such as size, capacity,
and purpose. The
classification helps in
standardizing the industry and
facilitating efficient transport of
goods across the globe.

Size and Capacity:

Container ships are often categorized by their size, typically measured in terms
of TEUs (Twenty-Foot Equivalent Units). TEU is a standard unit used to measure a
ship's cargo-carrying capacity. Common categories include:
• Small feeder vessels: Up to 1,000 TEUs
• Feeder vessels: 1,000 to 3,000 TEUs
• Panamax vessels: 3,000 to 5,000 TEUs (constrained by the Panama Canal
dimensions)
• Post-Panamax vessels: 5,000 to 14,000 TEUs (able to navigate the expanded
Panama Canal)
• New Panamax or Neo-Panamax vessels: Over 14,000 TEUs

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Purpose:
• Feeder vessels are designed to transport containers between smaller ports and
larger hub ports.
• Panamax vessels are designed to fit through the original dimensions of the
Panama Canal.
• Post-Panamax and Neo-Panamax vessels are designed to take advantage of the
expanded dimensions of the Panama Canal and serve larger global trade routes.
Specialized Container Ships:
Some container ships are designed for specialized purposes, such as
transporting refrigerated containers (reefer ships) for perishable goods or
carrying oversized or heavy cargo (heavy-lift container ships).

Container Ship Types:

• Beyond size, container ships can be categorized by their design and functionality,
including:
• Fully cellular container ships: Designed to carry containers in cell-guides for
efficient loading and unloading.
• Roll-on/Roll-off (Ro-Ro) container ships: Equipped with ramps to allow for the
direct loading and unloading of wheeled cargo.

CAR CARRIER
Car carriers, also known
as vehicle transporters or auto
transporters, are specialized
vehicles designed for
the transportation of
automobiles from one location
to another. These carriers

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come in various types and configurations to cater to different needs and

requirements. The
categorization of car carriers is based on several factors, including their design, size,
and capacity.

Number of Vehicles Carried:

• Single Car Carriers: These carriers are designed to transport only one vehicle
at a time. They are often used for short-distance transportation or in cases where
individual cars need to be moved.
• Multi-Car Carriers: These carriers can transport multiple vehicles
simultaneously. They are more commonly used for long-distance transportation
and are more costeffective for moving several cars at once.

Type of Carrier:
• Open Car Carriers: These carriers have an open design, meaning the vehicles
are exposed to the elements during transportation. Open carriers are commonly
used for short to medium distances and are more cost-effective compared to
enclosed carriers.
• Enclosed Car Carriers: Enclosed carriers have a covered structure, providing
protection from weather conditions, road debris, and other potential hazards.
They
are often preferred for transporting high-value or classic cars, as they offer
additional security and protection.

Size and Capacity:

• Small Car Carriers: These carriers are designed for compact cars, motorcycles,
or a few small vehicles.
• Medium Car Carriers: These carriers can accommodate a range of vehicle
sizes, including sedans and SUVs.

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• Large Car Carriers: These carriers are capable of transporting a significant

number of vehicles, including larger trucks and buses.

Drive Configuration:
• Two-Level Car Carriers: Vehicles are typically loaded on two levels, with the
lower level supporting the weight of the upper level. This design is common in
many open car carriers.
• Single-Level Car Carriers: All vehicles are loaded on a single level. This design
is often found in enclosed carriers and some specialized transporters.

Specialized Carriers:
• Car Hauler Trailers: These are trailers towed by trucks and are commonly used
for short-distance transport or by individual vehicle owners.
• Rail Car Carriers: Some vehicles are transported over long distances on
specially designed rail cars, commonly used in the automotive industry for mass
transportation.

International or Domestic:
• Domestic Car Carriers: These are designed for transporting vehicles within a
specific country.
• International Car Carriers: These carriers are equipped for cross-border
transportation, adhering to international regulations and standards.
RORO
Roll-on/Roll-off
(RORO) vessels
are specialized ships
designed to transport
wheeled cargo, such
as cars, trucks,
trailers, and other vehicles.

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The categorization of
RORO vessels is based on various factors, including their size, capacity, and specific
features.

Size and Capacity:

• Small ROROs: These are smaller vessels designed for short-distance routes
and can carry a limited number of vehicles.
• Medium ROROs: These vessels are of moderate size and have a higher
capacity than smaller ROROs. They are suitable for regional transport.
• Large ROROs: These are the biggest vessels in terms of size and capacity,
capable of transporting a significant number of vehicles across long distances.

Configuration:
• Single-Deck ROROs: These vessels have only one deck for loading and
unloading vehicles.
• Double-Deck ROROs: These ships have two or more decks, allowing for
increased vehicle capacity. The decks may be open or enclosed.
• Open ROROs: Vehicles are exposed to the elements during transit. These
vessels are suitable for transporting weather-resistant cargo.
• Enclosed ROROs (RoPax): These vessels have a closed deck, providing
protection for the vehicles from the weather. Some are designed to carry
passengers as well, referred to as RoPax (Roll-on/Roll-off Passenger) ships.

Specialized ROROs:
• Pure Car Carriers (PCC): Designed exclusively for the transport of automobiles.
• Pure Car and Truck Carriers (PCTC): Capable of carrying both cars and trucks.
• ConRo (Container-RORO): Combines container and RORO capabilities,
allowing for the transport of both types of cargo.

High and Heavy (H&H) ROROs:

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• H&H ROROs: Specifically designed to transport heavy and oversized cargo,

such as construction equipment, large trucks, and industrial machinery.

Service Type:
• Ferry RoRo Vessels: These are RoRo vessels primarily designed for passenger
transport in addition to carrying vehicles. They are commonly used for
shortdistance routes, such as ferrying between islands or across narrow bodies
of water.
• RoPax Vessels: These are a combination of RoRo and passenger ships,
designed to transport both vehicles and passengers. They often feature facilities
like cabins, restaurants, and amenities for travelers.

Specialized RoRo Vessels:

• Livestock Carriers: Some RoRo vessels are specifically designed for
transporting livestock, providing suitable conditions for animals during the
journey.
• High and Heavy Cargo RoRo Vessels: These vessels are equipped to handle
oversized and heavy cargo, such as construction equipment and machinery.

General Cargo
General cargo ships,
also known as multipurpose
or multi-cargo ships, are
vessels designed
to transport various types of
cargo. The categorization of
general cargo ships can be
based on several factors,

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including their size, capacity, and the nature of the cargo they are designed
to carry.

Size and Capacity:

• Small General Cargo Ships: These are typically smaller vessels with lower
cargo capacity. They may operate in coastal regions or on short-sea routes.
• Medium-sized General Cargo Ships: These vessels have moderate cargo
capacity and can operate on both short-sea and deep-sea routes.
• Large General Cargo Ships: These are larger vessels designed for deep-sea
operations, capable of carrying significant amounts of cargo over long distances.

Cargo Handling Equipment:

• Geared General Cargo Ships: Equipped with onboard cranes or derricks, these
ships can load and unload cargo without relying on shoreside facilities. Geared
ships are versatile and can handle a wide range of cargo types.
• Gearless General Cargo Ships: These vessels lack onboard cranes and
depend on shoreside equipment for cargo handling. They are simpler in design
but may require specialized infrastructure at ports.

Cargo Specialization:
• Containerized General Cargo Ships: Some general cargo ships are designed
with container-carrying capabilities, allowing them to transport standard
containers. These ships often have cellular holds and container-friendly
infrastructure.
• Bulk General Cargo Ships: Designed for bulk cargo such as grains, minerals,
and raw materials. These vessels typically have large, open cargo holds for
efficient loading and unloading of bulk commodities.

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• Breakbulk General Cargo Ships: These ships transport non-containerized,

individual pieces of cargo, often packaged or palletized. They are versatile and
can handle diverse types of cargo.

Trade Routes:
• Coastal General Cargo Ships: Operating in coastal areas and serving nearby
ports.
• Intercontinental General Cargo Ships: Designed for long-haul voyages,
connecting ports across different continents.
• Ice-Class General Cargo Ships: Some general cargo ships are strengthened to
operate in icy waters, making them suitable for routes in the Arctic or Antarctic
regions.

Specialized General Cargo Ships:

• Ro-Ro (Roll-on/Roll-off) General Cargo Ships: Equipped with ramps for
vehicles to roll on and off, facilitating the transport of wheeled cargo like cars and
trucks.
• LASH (Lighter Aboard Ship) General Cargo Ships: These vessels use lighters
(barges) loaded onto the ship for cargo transport.

LIVESTOCK SHIP
Livestock ships, also
known as livestock carriers
or livestock vessels, are
categorized based
on various factors,
including their design,
capacity, and purpose. The
classification helps in

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understanding the capabilities and

suitability of these ships for
transporting animals.

Size and Capacity:

• Small Livestock Carriers: These are relatively smaller vessels designed to
transport a limited number of animals, often within short distances.
• Medium-sized Livestock Carriers: These ships have a moderate capacity and
can transport a significant number of animals over medium distances.
• Large Livestock Carriers: These are large vessels capable of transporting a
substantial number of animals over long distances. They often have multiple
decks and compartments.

Type of Livestock:
• Cattle Carriers: Designed specifically for transporting cattle, these ships have
facilities to secure and accommodate cattle during the journey.
• Sheep and Goat Carriers: Specialized vessels equipped with features to
transport sheep and goats, considering their specific needs.
• Multi-species Carriers: These ships are designed to accommodate various
types of livestock, providing flexibility for transporting different animals.

Journey Duration:
• Short-haul Livestock Ships: Intended for transporting animals over relatively
short distances, such as within a region or neighboring countries.
• Long-haul Livestock Ships: Designed for extended journeys, these vessels
have facilities to ensure the well-being of animals during prolonged
transportation, including international voyages.

Vessel Design:
• Single Deck Livestock Carriers: Have only one level for holding livestock.

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Common for smaller vessels or those carrying specific types of animals.

• Multi-Deck Livestock Carriers: These vessels have multiple levels or decks,
allowing for the segregation of different types of animals and optimizing space.

Ventilation and Welfare:

• Ventilated Livestock Carriers: Equipped with advanced ventilation systems to
ensure a constant flow of fresh air, crucial for maintaining the health and well-
being of the animals.
• Welfare-Focused Livestock Carriers: Some ships are designed with a primary
focus on the well-being of animals during transportation, incorporating features
such as feeding systems, watering facilities, and non-slip flooring.

PASSENGER SHIP
Passenger ships are
categorized based on
various factors, including
their size, purpose, design,
and amenities. The
categorization helps in
regulating and managing
the maritime industry,
ensuring safety standards,
and providing passengers
with information about the type of experience they can expect on
board.

Ferry:
o Ferries are vessels primarily designed to transport passengers and
vehicles across short distances, often between two points separated by a
body of water.
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o They come in various sizes, from small boats to larger vessels capable of
carrying numerous vehicles and passengers.

• Cruise Ship:
o Cruise ships are designed for passenger entertainment and comfort during
extended journeys, usually with multiple stops at different destinations.
o They come in various classes, ranging from smaller luxury cruise ships to
large mega-ships that can accommodate thousands of passengers.

• Ocean Liner:
o Although less common today, ocean liners are large, luxurious ships
designed for long-distance passenger transportation across oceans. They
were historically more common before the rise of air travel.
• Yacht or Small Craft:
o Yachts and smaller vessels are often privately owned and used for
recreational purposes. They can range from small boats to large luxury
yachts, accommodating a limited number of passengers.

• Cruise Ferry:
o Cruise ferries combine elements of both ferries and cruise ships, offering
overnight accommodations and amenities for passengers on longer
routes.

• River Cruise Ship:

o River cruise ships are designed for navigating rivers and inland
waterways.
They are typically smaller and offer a more intimate travel experience.

• Expedition Cruise Ship:

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o Expedition cruise ships are designed for adventurous travel, often to

remote and less-explored regions. They may have ice-strengthened hulls
and carry specialized equipment for shore excursions.

• High-Speed Craft:
o These vessels are designed for rapid transit and are often used for
commuter services or connecting islands. High-speed catamarans and
hydrofoils fall into this category.

• Special Purpose Ships:

o Some ships are designed for specific purposes, such as educational
cruises, hospital ships, or floating hotels. These vessels may not fit neatly
into traditional categories but serve unique functions.

• Sail-Assisted Passenger Ships:

o These ships use both sails and engines for propulsion. While they may
have a historic design, they often incorporate modern technology for
passenger comfort and safety.
Fishing vessels
Fishing vessels
are categorized based on
various criteria, including their
size, purpose, gear used, and
the type of fish they target.
These categories help in
regulating and managing
fisheries, ensuring sustainable
practices, and facilitating
effective resource
management.

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Size:
• Small-scale vessels: Typically less than 12 meters in length. These are often
used in artisanal or subsistence fishing, operating close to the shore.
• Medium-scale vessels: Ranging from 12 to 24 meters, these vessels are
capable of traveling further offshore and may use more advanced fishing gear.
• Large-scale vessels: Over 24 meters in length, these vessels are often
industrial in scale and can cover large distances. They may include factory
trawlers and longliners.

Fishing Gear:
• Trawlers: Vessels that use a large net, called a trawl, to catch fish. Trawling can
be done near the surface or along the ocean floor.
• Longliners: These vessels deploy long lines with baited hooks to catch fish.
They are often used for species like tuna and swordfish.
• Purse seiners: Equipped with a large net that can be closed like a purse to
encircle a school of fish, primarily used for pelagic species like tuna.
Fishing Method:
• Drifters: Vessels that drift along with ocean currents, often using nets or other
gear to catch fish passively.
• Pole and Line vessels: Fishing is done using a pole and baited hooks, a
method commonly used for tuna fishing.
• Gillnetters: These vessels use vertical panels of netting to catch fish, allowing
them to swim into the net but preventing them from escaping.

Targeted Species:
• Shrimp Trawlers: Specialized vessels designed for catching shrimp using trawl
nets.

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• Tuna Purse Seiners: Vessels specifically designed to target tuna using purse
seining techniques.
• Bottom Trawlers: Fishing vessels that target species living on or near the ocean
floor.

Location of Operation:
• Inshore vessels: Operate close to the shore and are often involved in small-
scale, artisanal fishing.
• Offshore vessels: Venture further from the shore and may be involved in
largerscale industrial fishing operations.

Processing Capability:
• Factory trawlers: Equipped with onboard processing facilities, enabling them to
process and freeze fish at sea.
• Non-factory vessels: Return to port with their catch for processing onshore.

SHIP PARTS

The construction of a ship is a complex undertaking that involves assembling

various parts and components to create a functional and seaworthy vessel.
Understanding the major ship parts is crucial for anyone involved in naval architecture,
marine engineering, or maritime operations. Here are some of the key components that
make up a ship:
1. Hull: The hull is the main body or shell of the ship, providing buoyancy and
support. It is designed to move efficiently through water.
2. Deck: The deck is the horizontal surface that covers the top of the hull. It
serves as a platform for crew activities and supports various structures.
3. Superstructure: The superstructure is the part of the ship above the main
deck, including cabins, navigation bridge, and other compartments for
accommodation and operations.

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4. Keel: The keel is the longitudinal structure along the bottom of the ship that
provides strength and stability. It runs from the bow to the stern.
5. Bulkhead: Bulkheads are vertical partitions or walls inside the ship that
separate different compartments. They enhance structural integrity and help
with compartmentalization.
6. Rudder: The rudder is a movable device located at the stern of the ship, used
for steering and controlling the ship's direction.
7. Propeller: The propeller is a rotating device beneath the ship's hull that
propels the vessel forward or backward by generating thrust in the water.
8. Main Engine: The main engine is the primary source of propulsion for the
ship, converting fuel into mechanical energy to turn the propeller.
9. Auxiliary Engines: Auxiliary engines are additional engines on board that
generate power for various ship systems, such as electricity and auxiliary
machinery.
10. Funnel: The funnel is a vertical structure that houses the ship's exhaust
system, allowing gases from the engine to escape safely.
11. Mast: The mast is a vertical structure rising above the superstructure used to
support antennas, communication equipment, and navigation lights.
12. Bridge: The bridge is the command center of the ship, where navigation,
communication, and control of the vessel are conducted.
13. Lifeboats and Davits: Lifeboats are emergency vessels used for evacuation.
Davits are devices that lower and hoist lifeboats.
14. Anchor and Anchor Windlass: The anchor is a heavy device used to secure
the ship to the seabed. The anchor windlass is a machine used to raise and
lower the anchor.
15. Cargo Holds or Tanks: Cargo holds or tanks are spaces within the ship used
to store cargo or liquids.

-End of Discussion-

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MODULAR ACTIVITY 1
1. Draw any 5 types of ship and identify the following major parts and
components:
a. Accommodation
b. Bridge
c. Hull
d. Keel
e. Cargo hold (space)
f. Crane (as necessary)
g. Lifeboat and Lifeboat crane
h. Rudder and propeller

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https://vt.tiktok.com/ZSYcRe39H/

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NAVARCH Module 02: Ship Dimension

Module Objective: Recognize different types of ships based on its measurements and
dimensions

Introduction:
Ships come in various shapes and sizes, each designed to fulfill specific
functions and navigate different types of waters. The dimensions of a ship are crucial
aspects that determine its stability, carrying capacity, and ability to navigate various
environments.
Ship’s dimensions play a pivotal role in determining a vessel's stability,
performance, and overall seaworthiness. The study of ship dimensions encompasses
various parameters that define the size and shape of a ship, influencing its design,
construction, and operational capabilities.
Here are some key dimensions commonly used to describe ships:
1. Length Overall (LOA): The total length of the ship from the foremost point to
the aftmost point, typically measured along the waterline.
2. Length Between Perpendiculars (LBP): The length of the ship between the
perpendiculars, which are vertical lines drawn through the forward and after
ends of the waterline.
3. Beam (B): The width of the ship at its widest point, measured perpendicular
to the length.
4. Draft (D): The vertical distance from the waterline to the deepest part of the
ship's hull. Draft is essential for determining the ship's immersion in the water.
5. Freeboard: The vertical distance from the waterline to the main deck level.
Freeboard is crucial for ship stability and safety, as it helps prevent water from
entering the ship.
6. Gross Tonnage (GT) and Net Tonnage (NT): Tonnage measurements are
indicators of a ship's size. Gross tonnage is a measure of the entire internal

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volume of a ship, while net tonnage accounts for the volume available for
cargo and passengers.
7. Air Draft: The vertical distance from the waterline to the highest point on the
ship, including antennas or other protruding structures. Air draft is critical for
ships navigating areas with low bridges or overhead obstructions.
8. Displacement: The weight of the water displaced by the ship's hull. It is an
indicator of the ship's mass and is often expressed in terms of long tons or
metric tons.
9. Speed and Power: Ship measurements also include parameters related to
propulsion, such as engine power, speed, and fuel efficiency.
10. Cargo Capacity: This includes measurements related to the volume, weight,
and specific types of cargo a ship can carry. It may involve considerations like
TEU (Twenty-foot Equivalent Unit) for container ships.

These dimensions provide a comprehensive understanding of a ship's physical

characteristics and capabilities. Ship designers carefully consider these parameters to
ensure that a vessel meets specific requirements, such as stability, load capacity, and
navigational limitations. It's important to note that ship dimensions can vary significantly

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depending on the type of vessel, whether it is a cargo ship, passenger ship, naval
vessel, or specialized craft.

Ships based on measurements

The length of a ship is a crucial factor in its design, classification, and
functionality. Ship length is typically measured from the forwardmost point of the bow to
the aftermost point of the stern, excluding any projections. Here are some key aspects
to consider when discussing ships based on their length:
Ships are often categorized based on their length. Common classifications
include small boats, medium-sized vessels, and large ships.
Small boats are generally less than 20 feet (6 meters) in length, while
mediumsized vessels may range from 20 to 100 feet (6 to 30 meters). Large ships can
exceed 100 feet and may include various types like cargo ships, cruise liners, and
military vessels.
The dimensions of a ship are of paramount importance in naval architecture and
maritime engineering, influencing various aspects of a vessel's design, performance,
safety, and functionality. Understanding and optimizing ship dimensions are critical for
achieving efficiency, stability, and overall effectiveness in maritime operations.

1. Stability and Buoyancy:

The dimensions, particularly the beam and draft, directly impact a ship's
stability and buoyancy. A well-balanced design ensures that the ship remains
upright and buoyant in various sea conditions.
2. Maneuverability:
Ship dimensions, especially length and breadth, affect a vessel's
maneuverability. Longer ships may have a larger turning radius, while wider
beams can impact agility. Naval architects must strike a balance to meet the
vessel's intended purpose and navigational requirements.
3. Cargo Capacity and Payload:

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The dimensions of cargo holds, combined with the overall dimensions of

the ship, determine its cargo capacity. Efficient use of space and load distribution
is crucial for optimizing the transportation of goods.
4. Navigation and Performance:
Ship dimensions influence navigation characteristics, determining how a
vessel responds to waves and rough seas. The length and shape of the hull
impact the ship's ability to navigate through different sea conditions efficiently.
5. Draft and Navigational Limits:
Draft is a key dimension that defines how deep a ship extends into the
water. This is crucial for navigating specific waterways, channels, and ports with
varying depth restrictions.
6. Safety and Stability in Design:
Proper consideration of ship dimensions is essential for ensuring the
safety and stability of a vessel. A well-designed ship with appropriate dimensions
enhances its ability to handle adverse weather conditions and emergencies.
7. Regulatory Compliance:
International maritime regulations, such as those set by the International
Maritime Organization (IMO), often prescribe maximum dimensions for ships to
ensure safety and prevent navigational hazards. Compliance with these
regulations is essential for the global maritime industry.
8. Economic Efficiency:
Optimal ship dimensions contribute to economic efficiency in terms of fuel
consumption and operational costs. A well-designed vessel minimizes resistance,
making it more fuel-efficient and cost-effective over its operational life.
9. Infrastructure Compatibility:
Ship dimensions must align with port infrastructure, including the size of
docks, cranes, and navigational channels. Ensuring compatibility with existing
infrastructure is vital for smooth and efficient port operations.

-End of Discussion-
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MODULAR ACTIVITY 2
1. Draw any types of ship and identify the following measurement and dimension:
a. Length Overall
b. Length Between Perpendicular
c. Draft
d. Beam
e. Centerline

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NAVARCH Module 03: Ships with Specific Design and Dimensions

Module Objective: Differentiate ships based on its design and dimensions

Introduction:
Naval architecture encompasses the design and construction of various types of
ships, each tailored to specific purposes and operational requirements. Ships are
sometimes designed specific for transit to chokepoints in the world maritime shipping
routes and sea trades like canals and straits.

SHIP CANALS are artificial waterways constructed to facilitate navigation and

transportation of ships between bodies of water that may not be naturally connected.
These canals play a crucial role in global trade, connecting different regions and
providing shortcuts for maritime traffic.
1. Suez Canal (Egypt): A vital shortcut for ships traveling between Europe and
Asia, significantly reducing the travel distance around the southern tip of Africa.
Location: Connects the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea.

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2. Panama Canal (Panama): Shortens the maritime route for ships traveling
between the east and west coasts of the Americas. Location: Connects the
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
3. Kiel Canal (Germany): Facilitates shipping between the Baltic Sea and the rest
of the world, avoiding the longer route around the northern tip of Denmark.
Location: Connects the North Sea to the Baltic Sea.
4. Welland Canal (Canada): Facilitates the movement of ships in the Great Lakes
region, overcoming the natural obstacle of Niagara Falls.
Location: Connects Lake Ontario to Lake Erie, bypassing Niagara Falls.
5. Erie Canal (United States): Played a crucial role in the economic development
of the United States by providing a water route from the interior to the Atlantic
Ocean.
Location: Connects the Great Lakes to the Hudson River.
6. Manchester Ship Canal (United Kingdom): Originally designed to give
Manchester direct access to the sea, it remains an important navigation route.
Location: Connects Manchester to the Irish Sea.
7. Saint Lawrence Seaway (Canada and United States): Facilitates maritime
traffic in the Great Lakes region, allowing ocean-going vessels to reach ports in
the interior of North America.
Location: Connects the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean via the Saint Lawrence
River.

These ship canals have had a profound impact on global trade, transportation,
and economic development by providing efficient water routes for ships to navigate
between different bodies of water.

STRAITS are narrow passage of water waterways used in navigation by ships

between seas or other large areas of water. Straits are the main and quickest shipping
channel between Oceans or other large bodies of waters, making it one of the most
important arterial shipping lanes.
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1. Strait of Hormuz: Critical for the transportation of oil, as a significant portion of

the world's oil shipments passes through this narrow waterway.
Location: Connects the Persian Gulf to the Gulf of Oman and the Arabian Sea.
2. Bosporus Strait: Vital for the maritime trade of goods between the Black Sea
and the Mediterranean, as well as for the cultural and historical importance of
Istanbul. Location: Connects the Black Sea to the Sea of Marmara, dividing the
city of Istanbul, Turkey.
3. Strait of Malacca: One of the busiest and most strategic waterways in the world,
facilitating a significant portion of global trade.
Location: Connects the Pacific Ocean to the Indian Ocean, linking the South
China Sea with the Andaman Sea.
4. Dover Strait (Strait of Dover): One of the busiest maritime routes in the world,
crucial for ferry transportation, shipping, and naval activities.
Location: Separates southeastern England from northern France, connecting the
English Channel to the North Sea.
5. Taiwan Strait: A politically sensitive and strategically important waterway, with
ongoing geopolitical implications.
Location: Separates Taiwan from the southeastern coast of China, connecting the
East China Sea to the South China Sea.
6. Davis Strait: An important gateway for Arctic shipping, connecting the Atlantic
Ocean to the Arctic Ocean.
Location: Separates Baffin Island in Canada from Greenland.
7. Strait of Gibraltar: A key waterway for maritime traffic between the
Mediterranean and the Atlantic, with historical and strategic importance.
Location: Connects the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean, separating
Spain in Europe from Morocco in Africa.
8. Torres Strait: Provides passage from the Coral Sea to the Arafura Sea, playing
a role in regional maritime navigation.
Location: Lies between the northern tip of Australia and the island of New
Guinea.
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-END OF DISCUSSION-
MODULAR ACTIVITY 3
1. Draw a Tanker/Container ship with a define specific ship dimension (LOA,
Beam, Bottom Draft and Air Draft as necessary) for the following canals and
straits:
a. Panamax Ship with Dimensions
b. SuezMax Ship with Dimensions
c. ChinaMax/ValeMax Ship with Dimensions
d. CapeMax Ship with Dimensions
e. SumpraMax Ship with Dimensions
f. Lakers ship With Dimensions
g. Seawaymax ship With Dimensions
h. QMax ship With Dimensions
i. Magellan Strait ship dimensions requirements
j. Malacca Strait ship dimensions requirements
k. Hormuz Strait ship dimensions requirements
l. Bosporus Strait ship dimensions requirements
m. Stad Ship Tunnel ship dimensions requirements

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NAVARCH Module 04: External Factors affecting ship stability

CO2. Distinguish the contributing factors to be observed by shipboard management in

order to attain ship stability
LO2.1 List the various factors affecting ship stability during different events in
ship operations
LO2.2 List the various means of maintaining ship stability in various situations
LO2.3 Discuss the effects of various internal and external forces that affects the
stability of the ship
LO2.4 Discuss the effects of various types of cargoes to the ship stability during
loading and unloading operations

Module Objective: Recognize the various external factors that affect ship stability

Introduction:
Stability in naval architecture is a fundamental concept that ensures a ship's
ability to maintain an upright position and resist capsizing under various conditions. It is
a critical consideration in the design and operation of vessels, addressing their ability to
resist capsizing or listing under the influence of external forces. Stability is achieved by
careful distribution of weight, both in the ship's structure and the placement of cargo, to
maintain a balanced and upright position in various sea conditions. Furthermore, it is a
critical aspect of vessel design, encompassing both static and dynamic stability
considerations.
Static stability deals with the equilibrium of a ship at rest, ensuring that its center
of gravity (CG) is below the metacenter (M) and metacentric height (GM) is within
acceptable limits. Dynamic stability involves a ship's behavior in response to external
forces, such as waves and wind, ensuring that it returns to an upright position after
being inclined. Achieving and maintaining proper stability is essential for the safety and

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seaworthiness of vessels, influencing factors like hull shape, weight distribution, and
ballasting.
Naval architects meticulously calculate stability parameters, including
metacentric height and righting arm, to assess a ship's response to external forces like
waves, wind, and cargo shifts and employ sophisticated calculations and simulations to
optimize stability characteristics, ensuring ships can navigate safely and efficiently
across a range of operating conditions. Ultimately, a stable ship design is essential for
the safety, performance, and efficiency of maritime operations.

WINDS

Winds play a crucial role in influencing the behavior of ships at sea. The types of
winds that affect ships can be broadly categorized into the following:
Trade Winds:

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Location: Trade winds are reliable and steady winds that blow towards the
equator from the subtropical high-pressure belts at about 30 degrees latitude.
Effect on Ships: Traditionally, these winds were essential for sailing vessels
engaged in trade routes, providing consistent and favorable conditions for
longdistance travel.
Westerlies:
Location: Westerlies are prevailing winds that blow from the west to the east in
the middle latitudes (between 30 and 60 degrees latitude).
Effect on Ships: Ships traveling from one hemisphere to another may encounter
westerlies. These winds can affect the course and speed of a vessel.
Easterlies:
Location: Easterlies are winds that blow from the east towards the west in the
polar regions, particularly near the poles.
Effect on Ships: Ships operating in high latitudes may encounter easterlies, and
these winds can influence navigation and vessel stability.
Monsoons:
Location: Monsoons are seasonal winds that result from the differential heating of
land and sea. They are prominent in regions such as South Asia.
Effect on Ships: Monsoons can bring strong, variable winds and heavy rainfall
during specific times of the year, affecting navigation and requiring careful route
planning.
Sea Breezes:
Location: Sea breezes occur in coastal areas and are caused by temperature
differences between the land and sea.
Effect on Ships: Sea breezes can create local wind patterns near the coast,
influencing the navigation of vessels. They typically blow from the sea towards
the land during the day and reverse at night.
Katabatic Winds:

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Location: Katabatic winds are downslope winds that occur when cold, dense air
flows from higher elevations to lower elevations, often in polar or mountainous
regions.
Effect on Ships: Near coastal areas or fjords, katabatic winds can affect the
navigation of ships, creating sudden changes in wind direction and intensity.
Tropical Cyclones and Hurricanes:
Location: Tropical cyclones and hurricanes are intense low-pressure systems
characterized by strong winds and heavy rainfall. They form over warm ocean
waters near the equator.
Effect on Ships: These storms pose significant risks to ships, with high winds,
rough seas, and the potential for structural damage or capsizing. Ship captains
need to carefully navigate around or avoid these systems.

Wind scales are numerical systems used to quantify and communicate the speed
and intensity of wind. They provide a standardized way for meteorologists, sailors,
aviators, and the general public to describe and understand wind conditions. Two
commonly used wind scales are the Beaufort Scale and the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane
Wind Scale.

Beaufort Scale: The Beaufort Scale, created by Sir Francis Beaufort in the early 19th
century, classifies wind speed based on its observable effects on land or at sea. It
ranges from 0 (calm) to 12 (hurricane). Each number corresponds to a range of wind
speeds and
associated conditions. 5: Fresh breeze (17-21
knots)

0: Calm (0-1 knots) 6: Strong breeze (22-27

knots)
1: Light air (1-3 knots)
2: Light breeze (4-6 knots) 7: Near gale (28-33 knots)
3: Gentle breeze (7-10 knots) 8: Gale (34-40 knots)
4: Moderate breeze (11-16 knots) 9: Strong gale (41-47 knots)
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10: Storm (48-55 knots) 11: Violent storm (56-63 knots)

12: Hurricane (64 knots and
above)
The scale primarily considers the state of the sea, the appearance of waves, and
the impact on land-based objects like trees and structures.

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Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale: The Saffir-Simpson Scale is specifically

designed for hurricanes and tropical cyclones. It categorizes storms into five levels

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based on sustained wind speeds. The scale is often used by meteorologists to convey
the potential damage associated with a particular hurricane category. The categories
are:
• Category 1: 74-95 mph (64-82 knots)
• Category 2: 96-110 mph (83-95 knots)
• Category 3: 111-129 mph (96-112 knots)
• Category 4: 130-156 mph (113-136 knots)
• Category 5: 157 mph or higher (137 knots or higher)

The scale focuses specifically on the destructive potential of hurricanes, with

categories 3, 4, and 5 considered major hurricanes capable of causing significant
damage.
In the Philippines,
these wind scales are
employed by the
Philippine Atmospheric,
Geophysical, and
Astronomical Services
Administration (PAGASA),
the country's
weather bureau. PAGASA
provides regular
updates and
warnings to the public,
using these scales to
communicate the intensity
of approaching typhoons
and their potential impact
on different regions.

WAVES

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Waves are a significant environmental factor that affects

ships at sea. They can impact a vessel's stability, speed, and overall
performance. Several types of waves can affect ships, and understanding
their characteristics is crucial for safe navigation.

• Ocean Waves are called wind-generated waves. The most common type of
waves encountered at sea. Wind transfers energy to the water surface, creating
ripples that develop into waves. These waves vary in size and can become
significant in stormy conditions, affecting a ship's stability and motion.
• Swells are long-period waves that have traveled out of their area of origin. Unlike
wind-generated waves, swells are more regular and can travel vast distances
across Open Ocean. They can impact a ship's stability and comfort, especially if
the swell direction is different from the current wind direction.
• Cross Waves are types of wave when two wave systems with different origins
intersect, cross seas can occur. This phenomenon can create confused seas with
waves coming from different directions, making navigation challenging and
affecting a ship's stability.
• Freak Waves or rogue waves are unusually large and unexpected waves that
can pose a significant threat to ships. While their exact cause is not fully
understood, they can result from a combination of constructive wave interference
and other factors. Rogue waves are a concern for maritime safety due to their
potential to cause damage to vessels.
• Tidal Currents are caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and the sun,
create tidal waves and currents. These can influence a ship's speed and
heading, particularly in coastal areas with strong tidal flows.
• Seiche are oscillations or standing waves that can occur in enclosed or partially
enclosed bodies of water, such as bays or harbors. Seiches can lead to changes
in water level, affecting ships moored or navigating in affected areas.
• Wave Reflection occurs when waves encounter a coastline or a structure, they
can be reflected, leading to complex wave patterns in harbors and coastal areas.
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Reflected waves can create areas of increased turbulence and pose challenges
to navigation.
• Shoaling Waves are waves in shallow waters. As waves approach shallower
waters, their speed decreases, causing the wave height to increase. This
phenomenon is known as wave shoaling and can lead to more challenging sea
conditions in coastal areas.

Movement of the ship

The movements of a ship at sea are influenced by various external forces,
including wind, waves, currents, and the ship's own propulsion and steering systems.

• Roll is the side-to-side motion of a ship about its longitudinal axis (the imaginary
line running from the bow to the stern). The primary cause of roll is waves, wind,
and the ship's own movements. It can be influenced by the ship's design and
stability characteristics.
• Pitch is the up-and-down motion of a ship about its transverse axis (the
imaginary line running from port to starboard). The primary cause of pitch is
influenced by waves, wind, and the ship's propulsion and steering. In heavy
seas, a ship may pitch as it moves through waves.
• Yaw is the side-to-side motion of a ship about its vertical axis (the imaginary line
running from top to bottom, through the center of the ship). The primary cause of
yaw can result from wind, waves, and uneven propeller forces. It may also occur
during steering maneuvers.
• Surge is the linear, forward-and-backward motion of a ship along its longitudinal
axis. Surge is influenced by the ship's propulsion and can be affected by changes
in engine speed or thrust.
• Sway is the lateral motion of a ship along its transverse axis. Sway can result
from external forces like wind, waves, and currents. It may also occur during
docking or mooring maneuvers.

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• Heave is the vertical, up-and-down motion of a ship. Heave is primarily

influenced by waves and can be significant in rough seas.

Heat and Cold

Heat and cold can have
significant effects on a ship's
stability, primarily by influencing
the density and weight distribution
of the fluids (such as water and
fuel) on and within the vessel.
Understanding these effects is
crucial for ship operators and
designers to ensure the safety
and stability of the ship.

Density Changes:
Warm Water vs. Cold Water: Water density decreases as its temperature
increases. Warmer water is less dense than colder water. Therefore, if a ship
moves from warmer to colder waters or vice versa, the change in water density
can affect the buoyancy and draft of the vessel. This change may impact stability
calculations, especially for ships navigating in regions with significant
temperature variations.
• Heat: Increased water temperature can affect the ship's buoyancy.
Warmer water is less dense than colder water, potentially altering the
ship's draft and buoyancy. This is particularly relevant in regions with
significant temperature variations.
• Cold: Cold water is denser than warm water, leading to an increase in
buoyancy. This change in buoyancy can impact the ship's draft, affecting
stability.

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Fuel and Cargo Effects:

Temperature-Dependent Cargo: Certain cargoes, such as liquids, may
expand or contract with temperature changes. For example, oil or liquefied
natural gas (LNG) cargoes may change volume based on temperature variations.
These changes can affect the ship's weight distribution and stability.
• Heat: Increased fuel and cargo temperature can cause increase in volume
thru expansion. Expanding cargoes, especially those which very small
allowance for expansion can cause buckling to ship’s structural members,
like the bulkheads and hatch covers. This is particularly relevant in regions
with significant temperature variations.
• Cold: Cold weather causes contraction to fuel and some cargo. This
change in volume may cause additional problem when warmer
temperature expands the fuel or cargo back to its volume or increase them
more. As such can affect tanks, pipes, holds and/or hatch covers.

Thermal Expansion:
Metal Expansion: Changes in ambient temperature can cause the
expansion or contraction of metal structures on the ship. This includes the hull,
superstructure, and other components. Differential expansion or contraction can
lead to stresses within the ship's structure, potentially impacting stability.
• Heat: Prolonged exposure to high temperatures can affect the structural
integrity of materials, especially those made of metal. Heat can lead to
metal fatigue, deformation, or other forms of deterioration, potentially
compromising the ship's overall strength.
• Cold: Extremely low temperatures can make materials more brittle,
increasing the risk of structural damage. Ice accumulation on the ship's
surfaces, if not managed properly, can also impact structural integrity.

Free Surface Effect:

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Free Surface in Tanks: The free surface effect refers to the movement of
liquids within partially filled tanks. Temperature changes can cause expansion or
contraction of the liquid, leading to a shift in the vessel's center of gravity. This
effect can be particularly pronounced if the liquid in a partially filled tank
experiences temperature variations.
• Heat: In warm temperatures, liquids on board, such as oil, fuel, or water,
can expand, leading to a free surface effect. This effect occurs when
liquids in partially filled tanks shift due to the vessel's motion, potentially
reducing stability.
• Cold: Cold temperatures can cause the contraction of liquids, reducing the
free surface effect. However, the freezing of water in exposed areas can
increase weight and affect stability.

Ice Accumulation:
Ice Accumulation on Deck: Cold temperatures can lead to the
accumulation of ice on the ship's deck, superstructure, and rigging. Ice buildup
increases the ship's weight above the waterline, affecting stability. Additionally,
ice accretion on a vessel can alter wind resistance and influence dynamic
stability.
• Cold: Cold temperatures can lead to the formation of ice on the ship's
surfaces, including windows and navigational equipment. This ice
accumulation can hinder visibility and navigation. Further accumulation of
ice on deck increases weight on deck and would affect Metacentric height
and Center of Gravity.
Thermal Stress:
Rapid temperature changes, especially in extreme cold conditions, can
induce thermal stress on materials. This stress can affect the structural integrity
of the ship and its components, potentially compromising stability.
• Heat: When a ship is exposed to high temperatures, the materials,
especially metals, can expand. This expansion can affect the ship's weight
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distribution, potentially leading to changes in the center of gravity. For

example, cargo, fuel, and ballast may expand or contract, altering the
overall weight distribution.
• Cold: Conversely, in cold temperatures, materials contract. This can lead
to a decrease in the ship's weight, affecting the center of gravity. Frozen
water, which might accumulate on the deck or within compartments, can
add weight and impact stability.

WATER DENSITY
Water density plays a crucial role in
ship stability, affecting buoyancy and
the behavior of a vessel in various sea
conditions. Density is defined as the
mass of a substance per unit volume,
and in the context of ship stability, it
primarily refers to the density of water.
The density of seawater is influenced
by factors such as
salinity, temperature, and pressure.

Buoyancy:
Archimedes' principle states that an object submerged in a fluid is buoyed
up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces. In the case of a ship,
buoyancy is the force that supports the vessel and prevents it from sinking. The
buoyant force is directly proportional to the density of the water.

Draft and Freeboard:

The draft of a ship is the vertical distance between the waterline and the
lowest point of the ship's hull. As water density changes, the draft of the ship may
also vary. Higher water density results in greater buoyancy, reducing the draft.

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Conversely, lower water density reduces buoyancy, increasing the draft. The
freeboard, which is the distance between the waterline and the main deck, is also
influenced by water density.

Stability and Metacentric Height:

Ship stability is closely related to the metacentric height (GM), which is the
vertical distance between the center of gravity (G) and the metacenter (M). The
metacenter is the point where the buoyant force acts when the ship is tilted.
Changes in water density can affect the distribution of weight and buoyancy,
altering the metacentric height and, consequently, the stability of the ship.

Loading Conditions:
Loading conditions, including the distribution of cargo and ballast, are
crucial for maintaining stability. Water density affects the buoyant force, which is
a key factor in determining the ship's loading conditions. Proper consideration of
water density is essential when calculating the ship's stability characteristics in
different operational scenarios.

Submergence and Trim:

Water density influences the submergence of a ship, which is how much of
the hull is submerged in water. It also affects the trim, which is the longitudinal
balance of a ship. Changes in water density can lead to variations in
submergence and trim, requiring adjustments to maintain optimal stability.
Navigational Considerations:
Mariners need to consider water density variations in different geographic
locations, such as moving from saltwater to freshwater regions. Density changes
can affect the ship's performance, maneuverability, and response to helm
commands.

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Ship stability is a critical aspect of maritime safety, and it is influenced by the

density of the water in which a ship operates. The stability of a ship can be affected by
the differences between fresh water and seawater, primarily due to variations in water
density. Here's how ship stability is influenced in both fresh water and seawater:
Seawater:
• Higher Density:
Seawater has a higher density compared to fresh water. The increased
density provides more buoyancy to the ship, contributing to its stability.
• Draft and Freeboard:
A ship will float higher in seawater than in fresh water for the same load.
This results in a difference in draft (the depth of the ship's hull below the
waterline) and freeboard (the distance between the waterline and the deck).
• Stability Characteristics:
Ships are generally designed and optimized for operation in seawater. The
added buoyancy from seawater contributes to the ship's overall stability, making it
more resistant to capsizing.

Fresh Water:
• Lower Density:
Fresh water has a lower density than seawater. This means that a ship will
experience less buoyancy in fresh water, affecting its stability.
• Reduced Buoyancy:
Due to the lower density, a ship will sink deeper into fresh water for a
given load. This results in reduced buoyancy, potentially affecting stability and
making the ship more susceptible to heeling.
• Effects on Stability Criteria:
Stability criteria, such as the metacentric height (GM), are influenced by
the density of the water. In fresh water, the metacentric height may be reduced,
impacting the ship's ability to return to an upright position after heeling.
• Load Markings and Plimsoll Line:

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Ships have load markings and a Plimsoll line indicating the maximum
permissible load for different types of water, including fresh water. These
markings help ensure that the ship maintains adequate stability under varying
conditions.

• Load Line Disc is a 300mm diameter and 25mm thick round-shaped disc. A
horizontal line intersects it. The upper edge of the horizontal line marks the
‘Summer saltwater line’, also known as the ‘Plimsol Line”. Letters may also
appear to the sides of the mark indicating the classification society that has
surveyed the vessel's load line. The initials used include AB for the American
Bureau of Shipping, BV for Bureau Veritas, VL for DNV GL, IR for the Indian
Register of Shipping, LR for Lloyd's Register, NK for Nippon Kaiji Kyokai and RI
for the Registro Italiano Navale.
• S – Summer:- It is the primary freeboard line at the same level as the Plimsoll
Line.
Other load lines are marked based on this Summer freeboard line.
• T – Tropical:- It is 1/48th of the summer draft marked above the Summer load line.
• W – Winter:- It is 1/48th of the summer draft marked below the Summer load line.
• WNA – Winter North Atlantic:- It is marked 50mm below the Winter load line. It
applies to voyages in North Atlantic ( above 36 degrees of latitude) during the
winter months.
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• F – Fresh Water:- It is the summer freshwater load line. The distance between S
and F is the Fresh Water Allowance (FWA).
• TF – Tropical Fresh Water is the freshwater load line in Tropical. It is marked
above the T at an amount equal to FWA.

-End of Discussion-

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MODULAR ACTIVITY 4
1. Draw any types of ship and identify the following movements of the ship: a.
Rolling
b. Heaving
c. Yawing
d. Swaying
e. Surging
f. Pitching

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NAVARCH Module 05: Internal Factors Affecting Ship Stability

Module Objective: Recognize the various external factors that affect ship stability

Introduction:
Ship stability is a crucial aspect of maritime safety, and it depends on various
factors that influence a vessel's ability to maintain an upright position in different sea
conditions. Several factors contribute to ship stability, and understanding them is
essential for ship design, navigation, and overall safety.
• Metacentric Height (GM):
The metacentric height is a
fundamental parameter that determines
a ship's initial stability. It is the vertical
distance between the center of gravity
(G) and the metacenter (M), a point
where the buoyant force acts when the
ship is tilted. A larger GM generally
indicates better initial stability.

• Weight Distribution:
The distribution of weight across
a ship, including cargo, ballast, fuel,
and equipment, is critical for stability.
Proper weight distribution helps
maintain the ship's center of gravity
within acceptable limits.

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
Free Surface Effect:
The free surface effect
occurs when liquids in partially
filled tanks shift with the ship's
movement. This movement
can significantly affect stability
by altering the center of
gravity. Minimizing free surface
effects is crucial for
maintaining stability.

• Metacentric Radius (BM):

The metacentric radius
(BM) is the horizontal distance
between the center
of buoyancy (B) and
the metacenter (M). It
influences the ship's
transverse stability and is
related to the
metacentric height.

• Beam (B) and Draft (T):

The ship's width (beam)
and the depth of the hull below
the waterline (draft) affect
stability. A wider
beam generally

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
provides more initial stability, while a deeper draft can affect dynamic
stability.

Ship Form:
The shape of a
ship's hull, including its
form stability and the
location of the center of
buoyancy, plays a crucial
role in overall stability.
Different hull designs
exhibit varying levels of
stability.

• Heeling Moments:
Heeling
moments arise from
external factors such as
wind pressure, uneven
loading, or dynamic effects
during maneuvers.
Assessing and managing
these moments is essential
for preventing excessive
tilting.
Dynamic Stability:
Dynamic stability considers a ship's behavior in response
to external forces, such as

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
waves and wind. A ship should have sufficient dynamic stability to
return to an upright position after heeling.

• Operational Considerations:
The way a ship is operated, including maneuvers,
navigation, ballasting and loading/unloading procedures,
can affect stability. Adhering to operational guidelines and
stability criteria is crucial.

Types of cargo affecting ship stability

The type of cargo carried on a ship has a significant impact on its stability.
Different types of cargo have varying weights, shapes, and characteristics, which can
affect the ship's center of gravity, metacentric height, and overall stability. Here are
some common types of cargo and how they influence ship stability:

• General Cargo: General cargo includes a wide variety of goods packaged in boxes,
barrels, crates, or pallets. The distribution of this type of cargo throughout the ship's
cargo holds can impact stability. Proper stowage and securing are crucial to
maintaining stability.

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o
Examples: Boxes, barrels, crates, or pallets.
o Small cargoes can shift during transportation, leading to changes in the
ship's stability when improperly stowed or secured. Proper securing of
small cargoes are essential to maintain stability, especially if these items
are numerous and in upper deck.

• Bulk Cargo: Bulk cargo consists of loose, unpackaged goods such as grain, ore,
or coal. When loading or unloading bulk cargo, the ship's stability can be affected
due to the shifting of the cargo's center of mass. Proper trimming and ballasting
are essential to ensure even weight distribution. o Examples: Coal, iron ore,
grains, minerals.
o Solid bulk cargoes can shift during transportation, leading to changes in
the ship's stability. Proper trimming and securing of bulk cargoes are
essential to maintain stability.

• Liquid Cargo: Liquid cargo is carried in tanks and includes substances like oil,
chemicals, and liquefied natural gas (LNG). The free surface effect, caused by
the movement of liquids within partially filled tanks, can significantly impact
stability. Adequate ballasting and anti-rolling measures are employed to minimize
this effect.
o Examples: Crude oil, chemicals, liquefied natural gas (LNG).
o Liquid cargoes can cause free surface effects, affecting stability. Ships
designed to carry liquid bulk often have segmented tanks and anti-rolling
devices to minimize the impact on stability.

• Containerized Cargo: Containerized cargo is transported in standardized

containers. The stacking and arrangement of containers on deck and in the holds

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o
can affect the ship's stability. Incorrect loading can lead to a high center of
gravity, potentially compromising stability.
o Examples: Consumer goods, machinery, electronics.
Containers are stacked on the ship, affecting the center of gravity. Proper
container stowage is crucial to maintaining stability, and ships must follow
stability criteria when loading and unloading containers.

• Roll-on/Roll-off (Ro-Ro) Cargo: Ro-Ro cargo includes vehicles, trucks, and

other wheeled equipment that can be driven onto and off the ship. The
distribution of weight and the stability of vehicles during loading and unloading
impact the ship's stability. Proper securing measures are crucial to prevent shifts
in weight during transit.
o Examples: Vehicles, trailers, heavy equipment.
o Ro-Ro vessels allow vehicles and cargo to be driven on and off. The
movement of vehicles within the ship can impact stability, and proper
lashing and securing are critical.

• Heavy Lift Cargo: Heavy lift cargo consists of oversized or extremely heavy
items that require special handling. The loading and securing of such cargo need
careful consideration to prevent an adverse effect on the ship's stability. Cranes
and lifting gear must be appropriately positioned.
o Examples: Oversized or heavy machinery, construction equipment.
o Project cargo often consists of non-standard items that can have irregular
shapes and weights. Special attention is required to ensure proper
stowage and stability.

• Livestock: Ships that transport livestock, such as cattle or sheep, must account
for the dynamic movement of the animals during the voyage. The shifting weight

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o
and motion of livestock can impact stability. Adequate ventilation and drainage
are also important considerations.
o Examples: Livestock, animals.
Livestock carriers must consider the movement and weight distribution of
animals, as it can impact stability. Adequate facilities and care are
necessary to ensure the well-being of the animals and the ship's stability.

• Project Cargo: Project cargo involves the transportation of large and often
irregularly shaped items, such as machinery or infrastructure components. The
placement and securing of project cargo require careful planning to maintain
stability and prevent any adverse effects on the ship's trim and list.
o Examples: Logs, lumber.
o Timber cargo can have irregular shapes and weights. Proper securing and
distribution are essential to prevent shifting and ensure stability.

• Temperature-Sensitive Cargo: Certain types of cargo, such as perishable

goods or temperature-sensitive products, may be carried in refrigerated
containers. The operation of refrigeration systems and the proper distribution of
these containers must be considered to avoid affecting stability.
o Examples: Perishable goods, fruits, vegetables.
o Reefer containers may have specific temperature requirements, and their
distribution on the ship can affect stability. Ventilation and temperature
control systems must be considered.

-End of Discussion-

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MODULAR ACTIVITY 5
1. Draw any types of ship and illustrate following distortion of the ship:
a. Sagging
b. Hogging
c. Panting
d. Torsion
e. Racking
f. Pounding

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NAVARCH Module 06: Effects of cargo to ship stability

Module Objective: Relate types of cargoes to stability problems

Introduction:
Generally, different cargo affects different types of ship similarly. Considering that
the stability of a ship is crucial for its safe operation and is significantly influenced by
how cargo is loaded and distributed, the importance of understanding its impact is
importance in safety.
The way cargo is loaded and distributed on a ship has a profound effect on its
stability. Proper loading practices, adherence to stability guidelines, and the use of
modern technology to monitor and manage cargo can help ensure that ships remain
stable and safe during their voyages.

General impact of cargo to ship stability

Center of Gravity
Low Center of Gravity: Loading cargo low in the ship lowers the center of
gravity, improving stability.
High Center of Gravity: Loading cargo high in the ship raises the center of
gravity, making the ship less stable and more prone to capsizing.

Distribution of Cargo
Even Distribution: Evenly distributed cargo helps maintain a balanced ship,
reducing the risk of tilting or listing.
Uneven Distribution: Unevenly distributed cargo can cause the ship to list to
one side, which can be dangerous in rough seas.

Metacentric Height (GM)

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Positive GM: Indicates good stability; the ship returns to an upright position after
tilting.
Negative GM: Indicates poor stability; the ship may continue to tilt further,
increasing the risk of capsizing.

Free Surface Effect

Liquid Cargo: Partially filled tanks can cause a free surface effect, where the
movement of liquid can destabilize the ship.
Fixed Cargo: Solid cargo that is properly secured does not have this effect.

Ballast and Trim

Ballast: Ballast water is used to adjust the ship's balance and stability. Proper
ballast management is crucial.
Trim: The ship's trim, or the difference in depth between the bow and stern,
affects stability and performance. Properly distributed cargo helps maintain an
optimal trim.

Ship Design and Loading Plans

Ship Design: Modern ships are designed with stability in mind, including
considerations for cargo distribution.
Loading Plans: Proper loading plans are essential to ensure that cargo is
distributed in a way that maintains stability. These plans take into account the
type of cargo, its weight, and its placement.

Calm Seas: In calm conditions, stability issues might be less noticeable. Rough
Seas: In rough seas, the ship's stability is put to the test. Properly loaded cargo
can make the difference between a safe voyage and a disaster.

CARGO TYPES AFFECTING STABILITY

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The stability of a ship is significantly affected by the type of cargo it carries. As

above, cargoes are divided into different categories as break bulk cargo, neo bulk cargo,
containerized cargo, liquid bulk cargo and dry bulk cargo.

Bulk Cargo (Grain, Coal, Ore)

Dry bulk cargoes
have distinct
characteristics that is
usually uniform in size
and dimension that it
can occupy more space
in the cargo hold.
These cargoes are not
contained in any means
and thus allowed to
move or shift as per the design of the cargo hold and the movement of the ship.

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Bulk cargoes affect ship stability in terms of its innate weight and even during
movements.
Free Surface Effect: Bulk cargoes, such as grain, can shift during transit,
leading to the free surface effect, which reduces stability. This is because the
shifting cargo can cause a sudden change in the ship's center of gravity.
Stowage: Proper stowage and trimming are essential to ensure that bulk
cargoes are evenly distributed, minimizing the risk of cargo shift and maintaining
stability.

Liquid Cargo (Oil, Chemicals)

Liquid
cargoes are
characterized as
special cargo that
must be contained
in specific container
suited for the needs
of the cargo. Some
cargoes require
temperature,
pressure and even
leak control as it may affect the characteristics of the cargo. Even more, some
cargo reacts to specific materials thus requiring additional set of requirements to
prevent spoilage of cargo, degradation, chemical/physical reaction, etc. Liquid
cargo also tends to move freely in relation to ship movements thus requiring
special attention.
Free Surface Effect: Liquid cargoes in partially filled tanks can move
freely within the tank, causing the free surface effect and reducing stability. This
effect is particularly pronounced in larger tanks.

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Tank Design: Compartmentalization and the use of baffles within tanks

can help mitigate the free surface effect by limiting the movement of the liquid.
Weight Distribution: The weight distribution of liquid cargoes must be
carefully managed to maintain an appropriate center of gravity.

Container Cargo
Containerized
cargo are characterized
by weather-proof
stackable box of specific
dimension loaded on top
and under the cargo hold
of a ship. This type of
cargo does not conform
to any restriction of types
of cargo as shipping
containers are being
designed to
accommodate such
specific cargoes. As
such, container ships are
sometimes loaded with
varying types of cargoes,
with varying weight class and varying loading and stacking characteristics making
them specifically difficult to load and stabilize thus the importance of weight
distribution and securing.
Weight Distribution: The stacking and weight distribution of containers
are critical. Improper stacking can lead to a high center of gravity, reducing
stability.

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Securing: Containers must be adequately secured to prevent shifting

during transit, which can affect the ship's balance and stability.
Windage: Containers on deck can increase wind resistance, affecting
stability, especially in rough seas.

Breakbulk Cargo (Pallets, Crates, Barrels)

Breakbulk cargoes
are similar to
containerized cargo
where cargoes are loaded
to the ship in their own
container. However,
unlike containerized
cargoes, breakbulk
cargoes does not have
specific dimension or
packing requirements or
weather protection thus requiring each type of packaging different loading
arrangements and stacking arrangements.
Securing and
Lashing: Breakbulk
cargo must be properly
secured and lashed to
prevent movement.
Shifting cargo can
significantly affect
stability.
Weight
Distribution:
Ensuring even

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distribution of breakbulk cargo is vital for maintaining a low and

stable center of gravity.

Neo Bulk Cargoes

Neo bulk
cargoes are special
type of cargo that
are similar
with
breakbulk
cargoes that
are loaded
onboard ships
however, not
in packaged
form. These
types of
cargoes usually are
loaded in
larger
capacity than
breakbulk
cargoes or
in
different
means. A
good example of a new bulk
cargoes are cars, logs, steel, etc. which
are irregular in dimension and requires
special securing arrangements.

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Securing: Vehicles and machinery must be properly secured to prevent

movement during transit. Shifting loads can destabilize the ship.
Weight Distribution: Ensuring an even distribution of weight is crucial for
maintaining stability.
Free Surface Effect: In ships designed to carry liquid-filled vehicles (e.g.,
fuel tanks), the free surface effect can come into play.
-End of Discussion-
NAVARCH Module 07: Maintaining ship stability

Module Objective: Recognize the various methods in maintaining ship stability

Introduction:
Maintaining ship stability is crucial for the safety of maritime operations. Stability
refers to a ship's ability to return to an upright position after being tilted by external
forces, such as waves, wind, or cargo shifting. Proper stability management involves a
combination of design considerations, operational practices, and adherence to safety
regulations.
There are a few means to which stability are maintained onboard ship. And such
are ship design, proper loading and unloading procedure, ballasting and deballasting
procedure and operational procedures for navigation and seamanship.

SHIP DESIGN:
Ship design plays a crucial role in maintaining ship stability, ensuring the vessel
remains upright and resistant to capsizing under various conditions. The design process
considers several factors that influence stability, including the ship's shape, weight
distribution, center of gravity, and metacentric height.
Designers consider the ship's initial stability, which is influenced by factors such
as the shape of the hull, the center of gravity (G), and the metacenter (M). A low center
of gravity and a high metacenter contribute to better initial stability. Maintaining an

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appropriate GM ensures that the ship has a sufficient righting arm to resist heeling
forces.
• Hull Form: The hull shape itself contributes to form stability. A wider beam and a
flared hull form provide greater initial stability, making it more resistant to heeling.
• Bilge Keels: Bilge keels, which are longitudinal projections along the hull, can
enhance lateral stability by dampening rolling motions.
• Weight Distribution (Longitudinal and Transverse Stability): Proper weight
distribution along the length and width of the ship is essential. Balancing cargo,
fuel, ballast, and other loads helps maintain both longitudinal and transverse
stability.
• Vertical Center of Gravity (VCG): A lower VCG enhances stability. Design
considerations include placing heavy components lower in the ship and
optimizing the arrangement of cargo and equipment.
• Freeboard: The distance from the waterline to the deck is known as freeboard.
Adequate freeboard is essential to prevent water from coming on board and
affecting stability.
• Deck Structures: The design and arrangement of superstructures and deck
structures impact windage and the ship's vulnerability to heeling forces.
• Adjustability of Ballasting Systems: Ships are equipped with ballasting
systems that allow for the adjustment of weight distribution. This is crucial for
compensating changes in cargo load, fuel consumption, or different water
densities.
• Intact Stability: Ensuring the ship remains stable in its undamaged condition,
taking into account factors like wind, waves, and weight distribution.
• Damage Stability: Design considerations for maintaining stability after damage,
such as compartmentalization and watertight integrity.
• Anti-heeling Systems: Some ships are equipped with anti-heeling systems that
automatically pump water between ballast tanks to counteract heeling moments
and maintain stability.

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Ships are
also designed
to have
specific
mechanism
to prevent
movement of
cargo.

LOADING AND UNLOADING:

Cargo loading and
unloading play a crucial role in
maintaining ship stability. The
proper distribution of cargo, both
in terms of weight and
placement within the
ship's holds, significantly
impacts the vessel's stability
and overall seaworthiness.

Loading Operations:
• Stowage Plan: Before loading, a stowage plan is prepared, taking into account
the type, weight, and volume of the cargo. The plan ensures that the ship's
stability criteria are met, and stress on the hull is within acceptable limits.
• Weight Distribution: Cargo should be distributed evenly across the ship to avoid
excessive stresses on one side. Maintaining a proper balance helps prevent
listing (tilting to one side) and ensures the ship remains upright.

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• Metacentric Height (GM): The metacentric height is a key parameter for stability.
It's the vertical distance between the center of gravity (G) and the metacenter (M).
Ensuring an adequate metacentric height helps the ship return to an upright
position after heeling.
• Heel and List Limits: Ships have maximum allowable heel and list limits
specified by regulations or ship-specific stability criteria. The loading plan must
ensure that these limits are not exceeded under normal operating conditions.
• Dynamic Stability: Consideration must be given to the dynamic stability of the
ship during loading, especially in adverse weather conditions. Rapid or improper
loading can induce dynamic effects that impact stability.

Unloading Operations:
• Sequential Unloading: Cargo should be unloaded in a planned sequence to
maintain stability. Sequential unloading helps in maintaining a balanced weight
distribution throughout the operation.
• Trim Adjustment: Trim refers to the longitudinal inclination of the ship. As cargo
is unloaded, the ship's trim may change. Adjustments may be made by
redistributing ballast or changing the loading pattern of remaining cargo.
• Free Surface Effect: When liquids are carried, such as in tanks, the free surface
effect can impact stability. Minimizing the free surface effect during unloading is
essential to prevent excessive rolling.
• Monitoring Stability Parameters: Throughout the loading and unloading
process, stability parameters such as draft, trim, and metacentric height should
be monitored. Modern ships often use stability software to calculate and display
realtime stability data.
• Load Distribution: Proper distribution of cargo and ballast is essential. Uneven
loading can lead to a shift in the center of gravity, affecting stability. Loading plans
consider weight distribution across the ship.

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• Plimsoll Markings: Ships have Plimsoll markings indicating the maximum

allowable load for different water densities. These markings help prevent
overloading, ensuring stability within specified limits.

BALLASTING PROCEDURES
Ballasting is a
crucial aspect of maintaining ship
stability. The process involves
adjusting the distribution of weight
(ballast) within a ship to achieve
the desired draft, trim, and
stability. Proper ballasting is
essential to ensure the ship's
safety, performance, and
seaworthiness.

Key Objectives of Ballasting:

• Maintaining Desired Draft: Ships are designed to operate within a specified
range of draft, which is the depth of the ship's hull below the waterline. Ballasting
helps achieve and maintain the desired draft, ensuring the ship operates
efficiently and meets regulatory requirements.
• Ensuring Trim: Trim refers to the longitudinal balance of the ship, ensuring it
remains level from bow to stern. Ballasting helps adjust the distribution of weight
to achieve the desired trim, preventing the ship from being either "down by the
head" (bow-heavy) or "down by the stern" (stern-heavy).
• Optimizing Stability: Ballasting contributes to the ship's stability by adjusting the
metacentric height (GM). The metacentric height is the vertical distance between
the center of gravity (G) and the metacenter (M), a point where the buoyant force
acts. A positive GM enhances stability, making the ship more resistant to heeling.

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• Compensating for Changes in Load: As a ship loads or unloads cargo, its

weight distribution changes. Ballasting compensates for these variations, helping
the ship maintain stability and preventing excessive heel or list.

Types of Ballast:
• Solid Ballast: Solid materials such as sand, rocks or concrete can be used as
fixed ballast. These are placed in specific locations within the ship's structure to
provide a permanent and stable weight distribution.
• Liquid Ballast: Seawater or other liquids are commonly used as ballast. Ballast
tanks, located throughout the ship, can be filled or emptied as needed. The use of
liquid ballast allows for more flexibility in adjusting the ship's weight distribution.
• Dedicated Ballast Tanks: Many modern ships have dedicated ballast tanks
designed for the sole purpose of carrying ballast water. These tanks can be filled
or emptied using pumps, enabling precise control over the ship's stability.

Types of Ballasting:
Adjusting ballast, either by pumping water in or out of dedicated ballast tanks,
allows for compensating changes in cargo weight or variations in water density.
• Pre-Departure Ballast: Before a voyage, ship operators must ensure that the
ship is correctly ballasted for the intended journey. This includes verifying that the
ship complies with regulatory stability criteria.
• In-Transit Adjustments: During a voyage, ballasting may be adjusted based on
factors such as changing weather conditions, cargo operations, or fuel
consumption. Continuous monitoring is crucial to maintaining stability.
• Emergency Ballasting: In emergency situations, such as flooding or equipment
failure, ballasting can be used as a stability control measure. Rapid adjustments
may be necessary to counteract the effects of unexpected events.

OPERATIONAL PRACTICES:

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Seamanship plays a
crucial role in maintaining ship
stability and preventing
accidents at sea. Ship stability
refers to the ability of a vessel
to return to an upright position
after being tilted by external
forces such as waves, wind, or
cargo shifting. Proper
seamanship practices are
essential for ensuring the safety of the ship, crew, and cargo. Skilled seamanship
involves proactive measures to anticipate and respond to changing sea conditions. This
includes adjusting course and speed to minimize the impact of waves and wind.

Loading and Discharging Cargo:

Proper loading and discharging of cargo are critical for maintaining ship
stability. Cargo should be stowed according to the ship's stability criteria, and the
loading plan must be followed meticulously.
Cargo should be evenly distributed across the ship to avoid excessive list
or trim, and the ship's stability booklet or software should be consulted to ensure
compliance with stability limits.

Ballasting:
Ballasting involves adjusting the distribution of water within the ship's
ballast tanks to maintain stability. Proper ballasting is essential during loading,
unloading, and when facing adverse weather conditions.
The Chief Officer or designated personnel must monitor the ship's stability
condition and make necessary adjustments to ballast to maintain a safe and
stable configuration.
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Securing Deck Cargo:

If the ship is carrying deck cargo, it must be properly secured to prevent
movement during adverse weather conditions. Unsecured or improperly secured
deck cargo can contribute to a loss of stability.

Navigational Practices:
Proper navigation and route planning are fundamental to seamanship.
Avoiding areas with adverse weather, rough seas, or strong currents helps
minimize the risk of the ship encountering conditions that could affect stability.
Navigational decisions, such as altering course to avoid heavy weather or
choosing the right time to pass through a particular area, can significantly impact
ship stability.

Weather Routing:
Seamanship involves effective use of weather information for routing
decisions. Avoiding severe weather conditions, such as storms or heavy seas,
helps maintain ship stability and minimizes the risk of encountering dangerous
situations.

Ship Handling:
Skilled ship handling is crucial for maintaining stability during various
maneuvers, such as turning, changing speed, and navigating in confined spaces.
A well-trained crew and experienced officers contribute to safe ship handling.

Emergency Response:
In emergency situations, such as grounding or collision, proper
seamanship practices are critical. Immediate actions to control stability issues,

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such as shifting ballast or taking emergency measures, can prevent further

deterioration of the situation.

Regular Stability Checks:

Continuous monitoring of stability conditions, including periodic stability
calculations and checks, is essential. Crew members responsible for stability
should be well-trained and follow established procedures to ensure the ship
remains within safe stability limits.

Cargo Securing: Properly

securing cargo to prevent
shifting during transit is
crucial. Adequate lashings
and securing
arrangements help
maintain stability
by preventing sudden
shifts in weight.
Cargo
securing mechanisms are crucial for ensuring the safe transportation of goods by
preventing cargo from shifting, falling, or otherwise becoming a hazard during
transportation. Various types of cargo securing mechanisms are employed based
on the nature of the cargo, the mode of transportation, and the type of transport
equipment used.
• Dunnage: Dunnage refers to materials, such as wood, airbags, or other padding,
placed between cargo items or between cargo and the walls of a container to
prevent movement and provide stability.
• Strapping and Banding: Straps or bands made of materials like steel, polyester,
or composite are used to secure cargo by encircling it and connecting to anchor
points on the transport equipment.

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• Lashing: Lashing involves using ropes, wires, or chains to secure cargo to

anchor points on the transport vehicle. It is commonly used in maritime shipping
to secure heavy or irregularly shaped cargo.
• Twistlocks: Twistlocks are locking devices used in container shipping. They
secure containers to each other or to the ship's deck, preventing movement
during transit.
• Chocks and Wedges: Chocks and wedges are used to immobilize cargo by
placing them against the sides of cargo items or within void spaces to prevent
shifting.
• Cargo Nets: Cargo nets are web-like structures made of straps or ropes and are
used to contain and secure loose or irregularly shaped cargo. They are often
used in conjunction with other securing methods.
• Airbags: Inflatable airbags can be placed between cargo items to fill void spaces
and provide additional stability. They are commonly used in containers or trucks.
• Load Binders: Load binders, also known as chain binders or ratchet binders, are
used to tighten chains around cargo, securing it in place. They are often used for
heavy and bulky items.
• Anti-Slip Mats: Mats with anti-slip properties can be placed on the floor of
transport vehicles or containers to prevent cargo from sliding during transit.
• Tie-Down Straps: Tie-down straps with ratchets or tensioning devices are used
to secure cargo to anchor points on trucks, trailers, or other transport vehicles.
• Wire Rope: Wire ropes are used for heavy-duty lashing applications. They
provide strength and durability, making them suitable for securing heavy or
irregularly shaped cargo.
• Container Twistlocks: Container twistlocks are specifically designed devices
used to secure containers to the ship's deck or to each other in a stack.

WEATHER ROUTING

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Utilizing weather
routing services helps ships
avoid adverse weather
conditions, reducing
the likelihood of
encountering severe waves
and winds that could
compromise stability.
Weather routing in the
context of ship
stability involves optimizing
the ship's course and speed based on the current and forecasted weather
conditions to ensure the vessel's safety and stability. Ship stability is a critical
aspect of maritime operations, and adverse weather conditions can
significantly impact a ship's stability.
Wave and Sea State: Weather routing takes into account wave height,
period, and direction. Large waves and adverse sea conditions can affect a ship's
stability. By selecting a route that minimizes exposure to rough seas, ship stability
can be enhanced. This involves avoiding areas with high wave heights or aligning
the ship's heading with the wave direction to reduce rolling.
Dynamic Stability: Ship stability refers to the ability of a vessel to return to
an upright position after it is tilted by external forces, such as waves or wind. In
adverse weather conditions, the dynamic stability of a ship can be affected by
factors like wave height, wave direction, and wind force.
Weather Routing Optimization: Weather routing involves analyzing
meteorological and oceanographic data to determine the most efficient and safe
route for a vessel. By considering factors like wave patterns, wind speed and
direction, and sea currents, weather routing algorithms aim to minimize the
impact of adverse weather on the ship's stability.

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Avoidance of Extreme Conditions: Weather routing helps in avoiding

areas with extreme weather conditions, such as heavy storms or high waves,
which could pose a threat to the stability of the ship. By adjusting the ship's route
to navigate around adverse weather, the captain can reduce the risk of
encountering conditions that might compromise stability.
Optimal Speed and Course: Weather routing algorithms take into account
the ship's characteristics, including stability criteria, to recommend an optimal
speed and course. Maintaining an appropriate speed and course helps in
minimizing the rolling, pitching, and heaving motions of the ship, contributing to
better stability.

IMBALANCE LOADING
Localized loading on a ship refers to the concentration of external forces or loads
at specific points or areas of the vessel's structure. This can have significant implications
for the ship's stability, both in terms of intact stability (before any damage occurs) and
damaged stability (after damage has occurred).
Some cases, due to lack of cargo, ships depart with some parts with more cargo
than the others thus causing localized stress in the loading arrangement. In some cases,
the movement of cargo during loading and unloading causes undue stress to the ship’s
hull and its stability.

Intact Stability:
Localized loading, such as cargo loading or crane operations, can lead to
changes in the ship's center of gravity (G) and metacentric height (GM), affecting
intact stability.
The addition of heavy cargo at a particular location can lower the ship's
metacentric height, potentially reducing stability. Conversely, loading at the ship's
ends can increase stability by raising the metacentric height.

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Free Surface Effect:

Localized loading can also introduce a free surface effect, especially if the
load is liquid. The sloshing or movement of liquid within a tank due to a localized
load can have a destabilizing effect on the ship.
The free surface effect reduces the metacentric height and can lead to
increased rolling, affecting the ship's stability.

Structural Considerations:
The structural integrity of the ship is crucial when dealing with localized
loading. Concentrated loads can induce high stresses on the ship's structure,
potentially leading to structural damage or deformation.
The structural strength and design of the ship's hull and supporting
elements must be able to withstand the localized loads without compromising
overall stability.

Dynamic Stability:
Localized loading can affect the ship's dynamic stability, particularly in
terms of roll response. The introduction of heavy loads on one side can increase
the ship's susceptibility to rolling motions.
Rapid or excessive rolling can compromise the ship's stability and pose
risks to crew safety, cargo integrity, and overall vessel performance.

Damage Stability:
In the event of damage, localized loading becomes even more critical. The
location and extent of damage, combined with existing localized loads, can
significantly impact the ship's ability to maintain stability.
Regulatory standards require ships to meet specific criteria for damaged
stability, ensuring that even in the presence of damage, the vessel remains stable
and afloat.

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Structural Integrity:
Localized loading can induce high stresses in the ship's structure,
especially in the region where the load is applied. This stress may lead to
deformation, bending, or even damage to the ship's hull or superstructure.
The structural integrity of the ship is critical for maintaining stability, and
excessive localized loading can compromise the overall strength and
performance of the vessel.

Stability Impact:
The distribution of external loads influences the ship's stability. Localized
loading can alter the center of gravity (CG) or center of buoyancy (CB) in the
affected region, affecting the metacentric height (GM) and overall stability.
If the localized loading results in a shift of the CG beyond the limits defined
by stability criteria, it can lead to an increased risk of capsizing or other
stabilityrelated incidents.

Dynamic Stability:
Dynamic stability, which refers to a ship's ability to recover from a heeling
or rolling motion, can be affected by localized loading. Excessive stress on one
side of the ship can lead to asymmetrical loading, impacting the ship's dynamic
stability and making it more vulnerable to rolling.

Loading Conditions:
Localized loading can occur due to uneven loading of cargo, improper
ballasting, or external forces such as wind, waves, or ice. It is important to
consider the distribution of loads to maintain a balanced and stable ship.
Proper load distribution is crucial for preventing a list or trim that could
adversely affect stability.

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Hull Girder Strength:

Localized loading can impact the hull girder strength, which is essential for
maintaining the overall structural integrity of the ship. Excessive stress on specific
sections of the hull may lead to structural failure and compromise the vessel's
safety.

Hull Types
Ship stability is a crucial aspect of naval architecture and marine engineering, and
the hull type plays a significant role in determining a ship's stability. Different ship types
have distinct hull designs. For example, container ships typically have a wide, flat deck
for cargo containers, while oil tankers have a hull designed for stability and storage.

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Displacement Hulls
Displacement hulls are designed to displace water equal to their weight.
They are commonly found in larger ships such as cargo ships, tankers, and cruise
ships. These hulls provide good stability, especially in rough seas, due to their
deep draft and wide beam.
Advantages:
• High stability in rough seas
• Efficient for carrying heavy loads
• Smooth ride Disadvantages:
• Slower speeds
• Higher fuel consumption at high speeds

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Planing Hulls
Planing hulls are designed to rise up and glide on top of the water at high
speeds. They are commonly used in smaller, faster boats such as speedboats
and some types of fishing boats.
Advantages:
• High speeds
• Good maneuverability Disadvantages:
• Less stable in rough seas
• Requires more power to maintain speed
• Less fuel-efficient at low speeds

Semi-Displacement (or Semi-Planing) Hulls

Semi-displacement hulls combine features of both displacement and
planing hulls. They can displace water at lower speeds and partially plane at
higher speeds. This type of hull is often found in trawlers and motor yachts.
Advantages:
• Versatile speed range
• Better fuel efficiency at moderate speeds compared to
planing hulls  Good stability Disadvantages:
• Not as fast as pure planing hulls
• More complex design

Catamaran Hulls (Multi-Hulls)

Catamarans have two parallel hulls of equal size. This design provides
high stability and is used in a variety of vessels, from small sailing boats to large
ferries and luxury yachts.
Advantages:
• High stability due to wide beam
• Shallow draft
• More deck space Disadvantages:

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• More complicated docking and mooring

• Potentially higher costs for maintenance

Trimaran Hulls
Trimarans have three hulls: a main central hull and two smaller outrigger
hulls. This design provides even greater stability and speed potential than
catamarans, often used in high-speed ferries and racing sailboats.
Advantages:
• Exceptional stability
• High speeds
• Large deck area Disadvantages:
• Complex construction and maintenance
• Limited docking facilities

Monohulls
Monohulls have a single hull and are the most common type of hull. They
come in various shapes and designs, optimized for different types of stability and
performance.
Advantages:
• Simpler design and construction
• Good directional stability Disadvantages:
• Less initial stability compared to multi-hulls
• Potentially deeper draft, limiting shallow water operation

Superstructure and Deck Layout

The ship's superstructure and deck layout significantly impact its stability. Careful
design, weight management, and operational practices are essential to maintaining a
stable and safe vessel. Passenger ships may have prominent superstructures for cabins
and amenities, while military vessels often have a streamlined design with weapon
systems.

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Ship Superstructure
The superstructure
includes all parts of the
ship above the main
deck, such as the
bridge, cabins, and
any additional decks.
The impact
of superstructure
on ship stability
are generally on the
ship’s center of gravity
and its reaction with wind.
The higher the ship’s
superstructure
means higher wind coverage and created higher GM.

Center of Gravity:
The height and weight of the superstructure affect the ship's center
of gravity (CG). A higher CG can decrease stability, making the ship more
prone to capsizing.
A well-designed superstructure ensures that the CG remains as low
as possible, enhancing stability.

Wind Resistance:
The superstructure's height and shape can increase wind
resistance, potentially affecting stability in strong winds. A large, tall
superstructure can act like a sail, causing the ship to heel or even capsize
more than a smaller ships.

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Streamlined designs can reduce wind resistance and improve

stability and maneuverability during rough weather or strong winds.

Weight Distribution:
The distribution of weight in the superstructure must be carefully
balanced. Uneven weight distribution can lead to listing (tilting to one side),
which compromises stability.
Proper weight management, including the placement of heavy
equipment and materials, helps maintain balance.

Buoyancy and Reserve Buoyancy:

The superstructure can contribute to reserve buoyancy, the
additional buoyant force available to the ship above the waterline.
An adequately designed superstructure with watertight integrity
enhances reserve buoyancy, contributing to overall stability.

Deck Layout
The deck layout
includes the arrangement of
various elements on the
ship's decks, such as cargo
holds, machinery, lifeboats,
and other equipment.
Cargo ship have
different design for deck and
have different uses of deck
as compared to cruise ships.
Cargo ships usually reserve

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the deck (for cargo in container ships and RORO ships) and
ship equipment (like crane, lifeboats, hatch covers, etc) while in cruise
ship, deck is used for entertainment and passenger uses
(swimming pool, bar, sun deck, etc.).

Cargo Distribution:
Proper cargo stowage and securing are crucial for maintaining stability.
Cargo should be evenly distributed to avoid a high center of gravity and excessive
listing.
Using ballast tanks to counterbalance the weight distribution can help
maintain stability.

Deck Machinery and Equipment:

Heavy equipment on the decks should be placed as low as possible and
secured to prevent shifting during rough seas.
Proper placement and securing of deck machinery minimize the risk of
weight shifts that can affect stability.

Free Surface Effect:

Liquids in partially filled tanks or compartments can shift and create a free
surface effect, reducing stability.
Designing tanks with baffles and managing liquid levels can mitigate this
effect.

Open Decks and Hatches:

Open decks and hatches can allow water ingress, affecting stability by
increasing weight and lowering buoyancy.
Ensuring that hatches and openings are watertight and properly secured
during voyages helps maintain stability.

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Passenger and Crew Movement:

On passenger ships, the movement of people can affect stability.
Managing passenger distribution and movement patterns helps maintain balance.
Crew training and procedures for managing passenger behavior in
emergencies are essential for maintaining stability.

PROPULSION AND STEERING SYSTEMS

The ship propeller and rudder are critical components of a vessel's propulsion
and steering systems, and they also play significant roles in influencing ship stability.
Naval architects select specific types of propeller and rudders to accommodate specific
requirement (like ice navigation) and criteria (like size and weight of ship). Each type of
rudder and propeller impacts ship stability in one way or another.

Ship Propeller
The propeller is
responsible for
generating thrust to
propel the ship forward
or backward. Its design
and operation can
impact ship
stability in several ways
like in its
performance and
maneuverability.

Thrust and Torque

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Thrust Forces: The thrust generated by the propeller can affect the trim
(the longitudinal balance) of the ship. Uneven distribution of thrust can cause the
ship's bow or stern to rise or sink, affecting stability.
Torque Reaction: When a propeller turns, it creates a reactive torque on
the ship’s hull. For single-screw ships, this can cause a heeling effect, where the
ship may tilt slightly to one side. This effect must be countered by design
adjustments or operational practices.

Cavitation
Cavitation occurs when the pressure on the propeller blades drops below
the vapor pressure of water, causing bubbles to form and collapse. This can lead
to vibrations and potential structural damage, which can compromise the stability
and integrity of the ship.

Propeller Wake
The flow of water behind the propeller, known as the propeller wake, can
affect the flow around the rudder and the hull. Turbulence in the wake can impact
the ship’s steering effectiveness and stability.

Propeller Location
The position of the propeller (stern, side, or azimuth thruster) can influence
how thrust forces are distributed and how the ship reacts to them. Azimuth
thrusters, which can rotate 360 degrees, provide better maneuverability and can
enhance stability during complex maneuvers.

Ship Rudder

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The rudder is used to steer the ship by redirecting the flow of water
generated by the propeller. Its design and operation also have implications for
ship stability in several ways.

Steering Forces
When the rudder is turned, it creates a force that changes the ship’s
direction. This force can also create a moment that affects the ship’s heel (lateral
tilt). Rapid or extreme rudder movements can induce significant heeling,
impacting stability.

Rudder Size and Placement

The size and placement of the rudder affect its efficiency and the ship’s
turning radius. A larger rudder provides more control but can also create larger
heeling forces. The rudder’s position relative to the propeller (e.g., directly behind
or offset) can influence how effectively it can redirect the propeller wash for
steering without compromising stability.

Rudder Angle
The angle at which the rudder is set relative to the ship’s keel (centerline)
impacts the effectiveness of steering and the stability. Large rudder angles can

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generate strong turning forces but also significant heeling moments. Careful
control of rudder angles is essential for maintaining stability during maneuvers.

Steering Gear
The mechanical or hydraulic systems used to move the rudder (steering
gear) must provide precise and reliable control to maintain stability. Malfunctions
or delays in the steering system can lead to unintended course changes and
stability issues.

Combined Effects
The interaction
between the propeller and
rudder is crucial
for effective and
stable ship handling.
The propeller
provides the thrust needed
for movement, while the
rudder directs this thrust to
steer the ship. Together,
they influence this stability while proper design, alignment, and
operation of both the propeller and rudder systems are essential for
ensuring the overall stability and safe navigation of the ship.

• Directional Stability: The ship's ability to maintain a set course without

excessive deviation.
• Maneuverability: The ship's ability to change course quickly and
efficiently.
• Heel and Trim Stability: The ship’s ability to maintain an even keel and
proper trim, minimizing excessive tilt or pitch during operations.

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-End of Discussion-

MODULAR ACTIVITY 6
1. Draw cargo hold design of the following types of ship to illustrate means to
secure or minimize movement of cargoes:
a. Bulk carrier
b. Oil Tanker
c. LPG/LNG Carrier
d. Container Ship
e. RORO/Car Carrier

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NAVARCH Module 08: Contingency plans in ship stability problems

Module Objective: Recognize various ship stability problems and specific contingency
plans

Introduction:
Contingency plans are essential for ensuring ship stability and safety in case of
emergencies or unexpected situations. In various situations, from loading, unloading and
while en route and most specifically during adverse weather condition, ship stability are
affected thus contingency plans are necessary to respond to such. These plans are
designed to address potential stability threats and ensure that the ship remains
seaworthy.
Implementing these contingency plans ensures that a ship remains stable and
seaworthy during emergencies, enhancing the safety of the vessel, its cargo, and its
crew. Regular reviews and updates of these plans are essential to adapt to new
challenges and technologies.

Flooding and Water

Ingress
Flooding and water
ingress occurs when
unwanted water enters a
ship in an unconventional
way like rain entering an
open hatchway, damaged
equipment causing
flooding, etc. and causes
stability issues. These events causes stability problem like free surface effects
and shifting of GM and in some cases causes damage to equipment, machineries
and even endanger ships personnel and guests.

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There are various ways for flooding and water ingress are tackled
depending on the ship design and equipment installed onboard.

Damage Control and Watertight Integrity

Ships are designed and equipped with means to control any
damage or ingress of water. This includes:
• Watertight Doors and Hatches: This equipment is design to restrict
the movement of
water and
confine them in
a specific
location.
However, for this
to work,
personnel must
ensure all
watertight doors
and hatches are closed during operations, especially in rough seas.
• Damage Control Teams:
This contingency plan is used
to appoint teams to respond
to water ingress and ensure
that they are trained and
properly equipped to remedy
if not correct such
emergency.
Training these teams includes
how to identify and seal leaks
using patches, pumps, and
other equipment.
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• Pumping
Systems:
These
equipment is
designed to
remove water
from one
compartment or
prevent the
accumulation of water. Bilge and ballast pumps are designed to remove
water from flooded compartments and with sufficient power and
capacity to slow the ingress of water, if not to totally remove them.

Stability Assessments
Ship personnel (damage control teams) are required to be trained
and equipped to respond to emergency situations. As such, ships utilizes
the following:
• Flooding Simulations: Drill and training exercises are used to practice
corrective actions in case of flooding and ingress of water. This is
conduct in simulations to predict the impact of flooding on stability and
identify critical compartments and practice corrective actions.
• Onboard Stability Software: Ships are equipped with stability
software to assist in monitoring and calculating ship stability in normal
and abnormal conditions. These software are used to assess stability in
realtime and make informed decisions.

Cargo Shift

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Shifting of cargoes
occur on in various reasons
due to adverse weather
condition, effectiveness of
cargo securing, equipment
malfunction, etc. which causes
cargo to move from their
original position to another
location/position. The shifting
of cargoes usually affect
stability as the weight of the
cargo is no longer as was planned and can cause adverse reaction.
There are limited ways for shifted cargo to be corrected in most cargo
ships as some cargoes require equipment however, some can be corrected thru
specific procedure onboard.

Cargo Securing and

Stowage Securing
Cargo: different types of
cargo requires
different securing
mechanisms.
These includes, lashing
bars, ropes,
cables, shackles,
etc. to ensure all
cargo is
properly secured to
prevent

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shifting during rough weather or sharp maneuvers. Although some cargo,

like liquid cargoes, tend to be secured differently, the purpose remains the
same.
Regular
Inspections:
Daily actions of
deck personnel is
to conduct regular
inspections of cargo
lashings and
securing devices. This
ensures cargo remain
secured as they were and monitor any movement and possibly correct
them before any irreversible condition. Inspection also are done when
adverse weather condition are expected aside from additional holding
down mechanisms, as necessary.

Cargo Management Plan

Deck personnel are in charge of planning the loading and unloading
arrangement of cargo to ensure that stability of the ship. This includes:
Even Distribution: Cargo planning are used to properly distribute
cargo to maintain an optimal center of gravity. This includes planning which
and how much cargo are located in specific location of the ship in order to
maintain positive stability and prevent undue stress on the ship.
Monitoring Systems: Deck personnel uses monitoring systems to
detect any movement of cargo. This monitoring system usually involves
daily rounds and visual inspection of equipment, flooding sensors, overflow
monitors, etc. to ensure cargo remains in their position.

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Cargo movement: In some ships, like car carrier and RORO, cargo
can shift easily as they are wheeled. As such, they can also be returned to
their assigned position.

Weather Conditions
Ships are subjected to
varying weather patterns
regularly. As such, adverse
weather conditions causes undue
stress to ships structural
members, cargo and even to the
whole ship.
In some extreme cases,
weather condition places ships in
danger, an unlike other causes of
stability problems, weather
cannot be controlled and
removed completely that is
why prevention is the primary
actions in cases of weather conditions.
There are some actions that can be done in cases of adverse weather
conditions depending of the ship’s equipment and ship’s protocols.

Weather Routing and Monitoring

Weather Forecasting:
Forecasting the weather is
the primary preventive action
of the ship to prevent
unwanted reaction to the
weather. Ships utilize

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and subscribes to
various weather forecasting
services to avoid severe weather
conditions. These provide regular,
updated and accurate forecast
from satellites, coast weather
stations and, in some cases, other
ships.
Adjusting Course and Speed: Alteration of course and speed to
minimize the impact of rough seas on stability is another way to respond to
weather conditions and emergency. In most cases, ships are advised to
alter their course or speed to avoid weather problems like storms and
typhoons and in some cases, take shelter in ports, bodies of land or
anchor if they cannot avoid the weather.

Seaworthiness Checks
Pre-Storm Checks: In cases storms are unavoidable, a ship may
only hold fast until the storm passes. During which, personnel secures all
hatches, portholes, and loose items on deck before encountering rough
weather.
Ballasting Operations: During rough weather, another means of
increasing stability is to increase ballast to improve stability in response to
changing weather conditions. The act of lowering the ship’s center of
gravity increases the stability thus prevents capsizing or any other stability
problems.

Grounding, Stranding
and Collision
Damage to the

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ship’s hull and structural members are the primary concern in

events of grounding, stranding and collision.
Grounding and stranding occurs when a ship comes in contact with the
seabed (sand, rocks, reefs, etc.). Grounding and stranding occurs similarly but
only in cases of stranding that the ship remains in contact with the seabed.
Collision on the other hand is when the ship crashes with another ship or
structure. In similar case, the result is the damage to the ship’s hull and
subsequently results to breaking, sinking or capsizing.

Emergency Procedures
Immediate Response: In the event of stranding, grounding or
collision, the common procedure is to assess and mitigate the impact of
grounding on the hull and stability. Survey of the compartments, monitoring
of the tank levels and sounding of tanks are done to assert whether there
is ingress of water as result of the event.
Subsequent Response:
Subsequent to the monitoring of
the tanks and compartment,
immediate actions in case of
ingress is to control flooding and
maintain stability
following a grounding,
stranding or collision.
As such, bilge pumps
and emergency pumps are
used to pup out water while any
damage to the ship’s hull
are remedied by
patching, welding or any other means.

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Stability Management
Ballasting and Deballasting: Adjusting of the ballast to counteract
the effects of grounding, stranding or collision-induced flooding is another
step in response to such emergency. Ballast adjustment is done in order to
elevate damaged compartment from water level preventing ingress of
water, refloat the ship in case of stranding, cancel out imbalance in the
ship due to ingress of water and protect ship equipment and machineries.
Weight Management: Another response to grounding, stranding or
collision is to shift weights to balance the ship and maintain stability or
reduce the weight. This includes ballasting and deballasting as the primary
action while other means is to reduce the weight of the ship thru reduction
of cargo (jettisoning).

Fire and Explosions

Fire and explosion
causes undue stress and
changes in ship’s structural
integrity as well as side effects
to corrective actions. These
effects causes changes in
stability and undue problems
to the seaworthiness
of the ship.
Fires cause undue
changes structure of the ship as metals changes physical and mechanical
properties when subjected to heat and in extreme cases, breaks the metal.
Similarly, explosion cause physical damage to ship’s structure. In both cases, the
soundness of the ship’s structure are subjected to changes and such causes
stability problem thru structural failure.

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Emergency procedures
Fire Suppression Systems: The primary action in case of fire is to
extinguish the fire before it causes damage to the ship, its cargo or people.
Ships’ are equipped with fire suppression systems, which are required to
be functional and regularly tested, to ensure usability during emergency.
Firefighting Teams: All personnel are trained in firefighting
techniques and emergency response to combat fire. Aside from combating
and extinguishing fire, procedures and protocols are laid out in order to
ensure no undue and unwanted consequences occurs during the
firefighting operations, like free surface effect as a result of accumulation of
firefighting water used.

Emergency Evacuation Plans

Lifeboats and Life Rafts: In cases of uncontrollable fires or
explosion, the rational action is to evacuate to safety. Onboard ship, this is
only possible with the use of lifeboats and life rafts. As such, it is the task
of the ship’s personnel to ensure all life-saving equipment is ready for
immediate use.
Safe Muster Points: Ships allocate muster points for evacuation
during emergency. Part of the protocol in response to emergency, like fire
is to proceed to a designated station for mustering prior to evacuation and
communicate safe muster
points away from potential
fire hazards.

Hull Breach or Structural

Failure

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In extreme cases, a ship will succumb to total damage to its

structural members after an emergency. This can be a breach in the
hull as a result of grounding, stranding or collision or structural failure
as a results of grounding, stranding, collision, fire, flooding or
weather. In such cases, the structural damage results in breaking,
sinking or capsizing.
In the event of structural failure, depending on the emergency, there are
several procedures onboard.

Emergency Repairs
Hull Patches and
Plugs: Patching the
damaged hull is the
primary action in case of
emergency situation.
Ships are equipped with
materials and tools for
emergency hull repairs.
Reinforcement
Procedures: in limited
scenario, a ship with minimal damage can perform reinforcement of
compromised structures to prevent further damage.

Stability Assessment
Real-Time Monitoring: During structural damage or structural
failure, sensors and software are used to monitor hull integrity and stability
in real-time. In some cases, this are used to measure if the ship can be
salvaged, refloated or saved.

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Ballast Adjustments: Similar to other emergency, adjustment of

ballast is used to counteract the effects of structural damage on stability.

-End of Discussion-

MODULAR ACTIVITY 7

This activity will be done in two (2) Phases. First is the viewing of the videos and the
second is the writing analysis.

1. Scan the following QR Code to link to specific Youtube Video.

2. Watch the video in your own time.

3. Take note of the following guide questions while you are watching the videos.
• What is the name of the ship?
• Where was the ship coming from and where is it heading?
• When did the accident occur?
• What was/were the unwanted event or design failure caused stability problem
encountered by the ship?
• What was/were the corrective actions taken by the crew to save the ship?

During Classroom Learning

1. Prepare a yellow pad paper and answer the following guide questions:
• Discuss unwanted event or design failure caused stability problem
encountered by the ship?
• Discuss the corrective actions was taken by the crew to save the ship?

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2. During the classroom learning, you will be given 45 Minutes to write your answer
without checking the internet or your notes.

Grades for the Situational Analysis

1. There is only 2 needed situational analysis
2. Select any of the four (4) prescribed video to watch and submit only 2 written
situational analysis
3. Take note that situational analysis writing can only be done on the classroom.
ADDITIONAL SOURCE OF INFORMATION

Instructions: Scan the following QR Code and watch the video to additional information
on the topics.

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ADDITIONAL DOWNLOADABLE BOOKS AND REFERENCE

Instructions: Scan the following QR Code and read the PDF file to additional
information on the topics.

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 NAV ARCH
Naval Architecture for Marine Engineers
Module

END OF MODULE

Reference

International Maritime Organization (IMO). (https://www.imo.org/)

Maritime Knowledge Centre. (https://maritime.org/)
Naval Technology. (https://www.naval-technology.com/)
Marine Insight. (https://www.marineinsight.com/)
Tupper, E. C. (2019). Introduction to Naval Architecture. Butterworth-Heinemann.

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