CBSE Class-11 Biology

CHAPTER-17
BREATHING AND EXCHANGE OF GASES

The process of exchange of O from the atmosphere with CO produced by

2 2

the cell is called breathing. It occurs in two stages of inspiration and

expiration. During inspiration air enters the lungs from atmosphere and
during expiration air leaves the lungs.

Breathing Respiration
a. It is simply an intake of fresh air a. It is the oxidation of food to form
and removal of foul air. carbon dioxide, water and energy.

b. It is a physical process. b. It is a biochemical process.

c. No energy is released. c. Energy is released in form of ATP.

d. It is an extracellular process. d. It is an intracellular process.

Respiratory Organs – Mechanism of breathing varies in different organism

according to their body structure and habitat.

Respiratory Organs Organisms

Entire Body surface Sponges, coelenterate, flatworms.
Skin Earthworm.
Tracheal system Insects
Gills Pisces, aquatic arthropods.
Lungs Amphibians, mammals.

Human Respiratory System

 Human respiratory system consists of a pair of nostrils, pharynx,

larynx, bronchi and bronchioles that finally terminates into alveoli.
 Nasal chamber open into pharynx that leads to larynx. Larynx
contains voice box (sound box) that help in sound production.
 The trachea, primary, secondary and tertiary bronchi and initial
bronchioles are supported by incomplete cartilaginous rings to
prevent collapsing in absence of air.
 Each bronchiole terminates into an irregular walled, vascularized bag
like structure called alveoli.
  The branching network of bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli collectively
form the lungs.

 Two lungs are covered with double layered pleura having pleural
fluid between them to reduce the friction on lung surface.

 Conducting parts include nostrils, pharynx, larynx and trachea.

Main functions include-

1. Transport of atmospheric air to alveoli.

2. Removing foreign particles from air, humidifying it and bringing it to
body temperature.

 The exchange parts are alveoli. It is the site of actual diffusion

of O2 and CO2 between blood and atmospheric air.

Steps of Respiration

1. Breathing in which Oxygen rich atmospheric air is diffused in and

CO2 rich alveolar air is diffused out.
2. Diffusion of gases across alveolar membrane.
3. Transport of gases by blood.
 4. Diffusion of O2 and CO2 between blood and tissues.
5. Utilization of O2 by cells to obtain energy and release of
CO2 (cellular respiration).

Mechanism of Breathing

 Breathing involves inspiration and expiration. During inspiration

atmospheric air is drawn in and during expiration, alveolar air is
released out.
 Movement of air in and out takes place due to difference in pressure
gradient.
 Inspiration occurs when pressure inside the lung is less and
expiration occurs when pressure is more in lungs than outside.
 The diaphragm and external and internal intercostal
muscles between the ribs help in developing pressure gradient due
to change in volume.

 The contraction of intercostal muscles lifts the ribs and sternum

causing an increase in volume of thoracic cavity that results
in decrease in pressure than the atmospheric pressure. This causes
inspiration.
 Relaxation of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles reduce the
thoracic volume and increase the pressure causing expiration.

 The volume of air involved in breathing movements is estimated by

using spirometer for clinical assessment of pulmonary functions.
Respiratory Volume and Capacities

Tidal volume (TV) - volume of air inspired or expired during a normal

respiration. It is about 500mL in healthy man.

Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) – additional volume of air a person can

inspire by forceful inspiration. It is about 2500 mL to 3000mL.

Expiatory Reserve Volume (ERV) – additional volume of air a person can

expire by forceful expiration. It is about 1000 mL to 1100mL.

Residual Volume (RV) - volume of air remaining in lungs even after a

forcible expiration. It is about 1100mL to 1200mL.

Inspiratory Capacity (IC) - TV + IRV

Expiratory Capacity (EC) – TV + ERV

Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) - ERV + RV

Vital Capacity (VC) - maximum volume of air a person can breathe in after
a forceful expiration. ERV+ TV+ IRV

Total Lung Capacity (TLC) - total volume of air accommodated in lung at

the end of forced inspiration. RV+ ERV+ TV+ IRV or Vital capacity +
Residual Volume.
Exchange of Gases

 Exchange of gases takes place at two sites

1. Alveoli to blood
2. Between blood and tissues.

 Exchanges of gases occur by simple diffusion due to pressure/

concentration gradient, solubility of the gases and thickness of
membrane.
 Pressure contributed by individual gas in a mixture of gas is called
partial pressure represented by pCO2 and pO2 .
 Partial pressure of Oxygen and carbon dioxide at different part
involved in diffusion varies from one part to another and moves from
higher partial pressure to lower partial pressure.
 Solubility of CO2 is 20-25 times more than solubility of O2 , so
CO2 diffuse much faster through membrane.
 Diffusion membrane is three layered thick, that is alveolar squamous
epithelium, endothelium of alveolar capillaries and basement
substance between them.
Transport of Gases

 Blood is the medium of transport for CO2 and O2 . Most of oxygen

(97%) is transported through RBC and remaining 3% by blood
plasma.
 20-25% of CO2 is transported by RBC, 70% as bicarbonate and rest
7% in dissolved state by blood plasma.

Transport of Oxygen

 Haemoglobin in RBC combines with O2 to form Oxyhaemoglobin.

Each haemoglobin combine with four oxygen molecules.
 Binding of O2 is related with partial pressure of O2 and CO2,
hydrogen ion concentration and temperature.
 Percentage saturation of haemoglobin and partial pressure of oxygen
forms sigmoid curve (oxygen dissociation curve).
 In the alveoli, pO2 is more and pCO2 is less, less H+ ions
concentration and lower temperature favour the binding of O2 with
hemoglobin. Where opposite condition in tissues favour the
dissociation of Oxyhaemoglobin.

Transport of Carbon dioxide

 Carbon dioxide is transported by haemoglobin as carbamino-

haemoglobin. In tissues pCO2 is high and pO2 is less that favour
the binding of carbon dioxide with haemoglobin. Opposite condition
help in dissociation of carbamino- haemoglobin in alveoli.
 Enzyme carbonic anhydrase help in formation of carbonate ions to
transport carbon dioxide.

Regulation of Respiration

 Human beings have ability to maintain and moderate the rate of

respiration to fulfill the demand of body tissues by neural system.
  Respiratory rhythm centre is located in medulla region of hind
brain. Pneumotaxic centre in pons moderate the function of
respiratory rhythm centre.
 Chemo-sensitive area near rhythm centre is highly sensitive to
CO2 and H+ ions that ultimately control the respiratory rate. Oxygen
do not play major role in controlling rate of respiration.

Functions of Respiration-

1. Energy production
2. Maintenance of acid-base balance.
3. Maintenance of temperature
4. Return of blood and lymph.

Mountain Sickness is the condition characterised by the ill effect of

hypoxia (shortage of oxygen) in the tissues at high altitude commonly to
person going to high altitude for the first time.

Symptoms-

 Loss of appetite, nausea, and vomiting occurs due to expansion of

gases in digestive system.
 Breathlessness occurs because of pulmonary oedema.
 Headache, depression, disorientation, lack of sleep, weakness and
fatigue.

Disorder of Respiratory System

1. Asthma- it is due to allergic reaction to foreign particles that affect

the respiratory tract. The symptoms include coughing, wheezing and
difficulty in breathing. This is due to excess of mucus in wall of
respiratory tract.
2. Emphysema- is the inflation or abnormal distension of the
bronchioles or alveolar sacs of lungs. This occurs due to destroying
of septa between alveoli because of smoking and inhalation of other
smokes. The exhalation becomes difficult and lung remains inflated.
3. Occupational Respiratory Disorders- occurs due to occupation of
individual. This is caused by inhalation of gas, fumes or dust present
in surrounding of work place. This includes Silicosis, Asbestoses due
to exposer of silica and asbestos. The symptom includes proliferation
of fibrous connective tissue of upper part of lung causing
inflammation.
4. Pneumonia- it is acute infection or inflammation of the alveoli of the
lungs due to bacterium streptococcus pneumoniae. Alveoli become
acutely inflamed and most of air space of the alveoli is filled with fluid
and dead white blood corpuscles limiting gaseous exchange.